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Handbook of Software Quality Assurance 4th ed Edition
G. Gordon Schulmeyer Digital Instant Download
Author(s): G. Gordon Schulmeyer
ISBN(s): 9781596931862, 1596931868
Edition: 4th ed
File Details: PDF, 1.88 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english

Handbook of Software Quality Assurance
Fourth Edition

For a listing of recent related Artech House titles,
turn to the back of this book.

Handbook of Software Quality Assurance
Fourth Edition
G. Gordon Schulmeyer
Editor
artechhouse.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the U.S. Library of Congress.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN-13: 978-1-59693-186-2
Cover design by Igor Valdman
© 2008 ARTECH HOUSE, INC.
685 Canton Street
Norwood, MA 02062
All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America. No part of this book
may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includ-
ing photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have
been appropriately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the accuracy of this informa-
tion. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trade-
mark or service mark.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

For my grandchildren,
Jimmy, Gabrielle, Chandler, Mallory, Neve, and Julian
In memory of James H. Heil,
prior contributor to former editions
of this handbook

The following copyrights, trademarks, and service marks appear in the book and are the property of their
owners:
Capability Maturity Model®
, Capability Maturity Modeling®
, CMM®
, CMMI®
are registered in the U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office by Carnegie Mellon University.
CMM®
Integration, TSP, PSP, IDEAL, SCAMPI, SCAMPI Lead Assessor, and SCAMPI Lead Appraiser
are service marks of Carnegie Mellon University.
CobiT is registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office by Information Systems Audit and Control
Association.
Excel, MS, Word for Windows are trademarks of Microsoft Corporation.
Gold Practice is a Trademark of the Data and Analysis Center for Software.
IBM is a registered trademark of IBM Corporation.
IEEE Std 730TM
-2002 is a trademark of the IEEE Computer Society.
IEEE Standard for Software Reviews, IEEE Std 1028-1997 reprinted with permission from IEEE Std.
1028-1997, IEEE Standard for Software Reviews, Copyright © 1997, by IEEE.
Standard for Software Safety Plans, IEEE Std. 1228-1994 reprinted with permission from IEEE Std.
1228-1994 for Software Safety Plans, Copyright © 1994, by IEEE.
The IEEE disclaims any responsibility or liability resulting from the placement and use in the described
manner.
ISACA is registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office by Information Systems Audit and Control
Association.
ITIL is a Registered Trade Mark, and a Registered Community Trade Mark of the Office of Government
Commerce, and is registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
IT Infrastructure Library is a Registered Trade Mark of the Office of Government Commerce.
Microsoft, MS-WORD, and Windows are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation.
Trusted Pipe is registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office by Don O’Neill.
The excerpts from:
1. “Comments on Software Quality” by W. S. Humphrey;
2. “The Team Software ProcessSM
(TSPSM
)” by W. Humphrey;
3. “Mapping TSPSM
to CMMI®
” by J. McHale and D. S. Wall;
4. “SCAMPISM
Upgrade Team, Standard CMMI®
Appraisal Method for Process Improvement
(SCAMPISM
) A, Version 1.2: Method Definition Document,” Handbook CMU/SEI-2006-HB-002;
5. “Applications of the Indicator Template for Measurement and Analysis,” Technical Note CMU/SEI-
2004-TN-024;
6. “CMMI®
for Development (CMMI-DEV), Version 1.2,” Technical Report CMU/SEI-2006-TR- 008,
Copyright 2006 Carnegie Mellon University;
7. “The Measurement and Analysis Process Area in CMMI®
,” Copyright 2001 Carnegie Mellon University;
8. “Relationships Between CMMI®
and Six Sigma,” Technical Note CMU/SEI-2005-TN-005,
Copyright 2005 Carnegie Mellon University;
9. “Engineering Safety-related Requirements for Software-Intensive Systems,” Carnegie Mellon University;
10. “Safety-Critical Software: Status Report and Annotated Bibliography,” Technical Report CMU/SEI-
93-TR-5, Copyright 1993 Carnegie Mellon University;
11. “Software Inspections Tutorial” by D. O’Neill and A. L. Ingram as contained in the Software Engineer-
ing Institute Technical Review 1988; from Carnegie Mellon University and Software Engineering Institute are
furnished on an “as is” basis. Carnegie Mellon University makes no warranties of any kind, either expressed or
implied, as to any matter including, but not limited to, warranty of fitness for purpose or merchantability,
exclusivity, or results obtained from use of the material. Carnegie Mellon University does not make any war-
ranty of any kind with respect to freedom from patent, trademark, or copyright infringement.
The SEI and CMU do not directly or indirectly endorse the Handbook of Software Quality Assurance,
Fourth Edition.

Contents
Preface xvii
CHAPTER 1
Organizing for Quality Management 1
1.1 The Quality Management Framework 1
1.1.1 Object (Entity) 2
1.1.2 Product 3
1.1.3 Process 3
1.1.4 Requirement 3
1.1.5 User 4
1.1.6 Evaluation 5
1.1.7 Measure and Measurement 5
1.1.8 Quality 6
1.2 Quality Program Concepts 8
1.2.1 Elements of a Quality Program 8
1.2.2 Considerations 15
1.3 Organizational Aspects of the Quality Program 17
1.4 Quality Program Organizational Relationships 17
1.4.1 Establish Requirements and Control Changes 18
1.4.2 Establish and Implement Methods 20
1.4.3 Evaluate Process and Product Quality 21
1.5 Mapping Quality Program Functions to Project Organizational Entities 22
1.5.1 Planning 23
1.5.2 Establish Requirements and Control Changes 24
1.5.3 Establish and Implement Methods 25
1.5.4 Evaluate Process and Product Quality 27
1.6 Example Organizational Implementations of a Quality Program 27
1.6.1 Project Engineering Process Group 28
1.6.2 Quality Program Structures in Large Projects 28
1.6.3 Quality Program Structures for Small Projects in Large
Organizations 31
1.6.4 Quality Program Structures in Small Organizations with
Small Projects 31
1.7 Summary 33
References 33
vii

CHAPTER 2
Software Quality Lessons Learned from the Quality Experts 35
2.1 Introduction 35
2.2 Kaoru Ishikawa 37
2.3 Joseph M. Juran 39
2.4 Yoji Akao 43
2.5 W. Edwards Deming 44
2.6 Genichi Taguchi 49
2.7 Shigeo Shingo 51
2.8 Philip Crosby 52
2.9 Watts S. Humphrey 56
2.10 Conclusion 60
References 60
CHAPTER 3
Commercial and Governmental Standards for Use in Software Quality
Assurance 63
3.1 SQA in ISO Standards 63
3.1.1 ISO 9000:2005 and ISO 9001:2000 64
3.1.2 ISO/IEC 90003 64
3.1.3 ISO/IEC 2500n—ISO/IEC 2504n (SQuaRE) 65
3.1.4 ISO/IEC 14598 and ISO/IEC 15504 66
3.1.5 ISO/IEC 9126 67
3.1.6 The Special Role of ISO/IEC 12207 68
3.2 SQA in IEEE Standards 69
3.2.1 IEEE Std 730-2002 69
3.2.2 IEEE Std 829-1998 70
3.2.3 IEEE Std 1028-1997 70
3.2.4 The Special Role of IEEE/EIA 12207 71
3.3 SQA in COBIT®
72
3.4 SQA in ITIL
®
74
3.4.1 ISO/IEC 20000 76
3.5 SQA and Other Standards 77
3.5.1 ANSI/EIA-748-A-1998 77
3.5.2 RTCA/DO-178B 79
3.6 Whatever Happened to U.S. Department of Defense Standards? 80
3.6.1 Influential Past Standards 80
3.6.2 SQA in Active DoD Standards 82
3.7 Reminders About Conformance and Certification 83
3.7.1 Conformance 83
3.7.2 Conformance to an Inactive Standard 83
3.7.3 Certification 83
3.8 Future Trends 84
3.8.1 Demand for Personal Credentials Will Increase 84
3.8.2 Systems Engineering and Software Engineering Standards
Will Converge 85
References 85
viii Contents

CHAPTER 4
Personnel Requirements to Make Software Quality Assurance Work 89
4.1 Introduction 89
4.2 Facing the Challenge 90
4.3 Organization Structure 92
4.4 Identifying Software Quality Assurance Personnel Needs 94
4.5 Characteristics of a Good SQA Engineer 97
4.6 Training the Hardware QA Engineer 99
4.7 Training the Software Engineer 99
4.8 Rotating Software Engineers 101
4.9 New College Graduates 102
4.10 SQA Employment Requisitions 103
4.11 What to Expect from Your SQA Engineering Staff 104
4.12 Developing Career Paths 106
4.13 Recommendations 106
References 107
Selected Bibliography 107
Appendix 4A Typical Software Quality–Related Job Descriptions 107
Software Quality Assurance Manager 107
Engineer Software Quality Assurance 108
Software Reliability Engineer 108
Software Configuration Management Specialist 108
Software Safety Engineer 109
Software Librarian Aide 109
Senior Software Librarian 109
Software Quality Assurance Engineering Assistant 110
Software Quality Engineering Assistant 110
Software Quality Assurance Aide 110
CHAPTER 5
Training for Quality Management 111
5.1 Introduction 111
5.2 Context for a Quality Evaluation Training Program 111
5.2.1 Quality Evaluation to Quality Assurance 111
5.2.2 Audience for Quality Evaluation Training 112
5.2.3 Organizational Training Program 112
5.2.4 Needed Skills and Knowledge 113
5.3 Two Examples 116
5.3.1 Evaluation of Adherence to Process (PPQA) 116
5.3.2 Evaluation of Product Quality 118
5.4 Summary 119
Reference 119
CHAPTER 6
The Pareto Principle Applied to Software Quality Assurance 121
6.2 WWMCCS—Classic Example 1 123
Contents ix

6.2.1 Manpower 123
6.2.2 Cost of Contracts 123
6.2.3 By Release 125
6.2.4 By Function 125
6.3 Federal Reserve Bank—Classic Example 2 127
6.4 Defect Identification 132
6.4.1 Rubey’s Defect Data 133
6.4.2 TRW Defect Data 135
6.4.3 Xerox Defect Data 138
6.5 Inspection 140
6.6 Pareto Charts Comparison 143
6.7 Conclusions 145
References 146
CHAPTER 7
Inspection as an Up-Front Quality Technique 149
7.1 Origin and Evolution 149
7.2 Context of Use 150
7.3 Scope 150
7.3.1 Software Inspections and Walkthroughs Distinguished 151
7.4 Elements 152
7.4.1 Structured Review Process 153
7.4.2 System of Checklists 156
7.4.3 Rules of Construction 161
7.4.4 Multiple Views 162
7.4.5 Defined Roles of Participants 162
7.4.6 Forms and Reports 164
7.5 Preparation for Expert Use 167
7.6 Measurements 168
7.6.1 National Software Quality Experiment 168
7.6.2 Common Problems Revealed 168
7.6.3 Inspection Lab Operations 169
7.6.4 Defect Type Ranking 169
7.6.5 Return on Investment 170
7.7 Transition from Cost to Quality 171
7.8 Software Inspections Roll Out 173
7.9 Future Directions 175
7.10 Conclusion 177
References 177
CHAPTER 8
Software Audit Methods 179
8.2 Types of Software Audits 181
8.2.1 Software Piracy Audit 181
8.2.2 Security Audit 183
8.2.3 Information Systems Audit 185
x Contents

8.2.4 ISO 9001:2000 Software Audit 187
8.2.5 CMMI
®
-DEV Appraisal 190
8.2.6 Project Audits (Internal CMMI®
-DEV/ISO 9001:2000 Audits) 193
8.2.7 Automated Audits 195
8.3 Preparation for a Software Audit 197
8.4 Performing the Audit 201
8.5 Results and Ramifications 204
8.6 Conclusions 207
References 208
CHAPTER 9
Software Safety and Its Relation to Software Quality Assurance 211
9.2 Software-Caused Accidents 212
9.3 The Confusing World of Software Safety 212
9.4 Standards, Guidelines, and Certifications 213
9.5 What Does It Take to Develop a Software Safety Assurance Program? 215
9.6 Requirements Drive Safety 217
9.7 Design of a System Safety Program 221
9.8 Hazard Avoidance and Mitigation Technique 223
9.9 Recommendations 223
References 225
CHAPTER 10
American Society for Quality’s Software Quality Engineer Certification
Program 227
10.1 ASQ Background 227
10.2 ASQ Certification Program 228
10.2.1 What Is Certification? 228
10.2.2 Why Become Certified? 230
10.2.3 What Is a Certified Software Quality Engineer (CSQE)? 230
10.2.4 What Qualifications Are Necessary to Become a CSQE? 231
10.2.5 How Many People Have Earned Their CSQE? And Who
Are They? 231
10.2.6 Is There Value in the CSQE Certification? 232
10.3 How Is a Certification Exam Developed? 232
10.3.1 Proposal for New Certification 232
10.3.2 Job Analysis 234
10.3.3 Certification Approval 235
10.3.4 Creating the Examination 235
10.3.5 Cut Score Study 236
10.3.6 Examination Administration 236
10.3.7 Sustaining the Examination 237
10.4 How Should You Prepare for the Exam? 237
10.4.1 Apply for the Examination Early 238
10.4.2 What Reference Materials Can Be Used During the Exam? 238
10.4.3 In What Languages Is the Exam Offered? 238
Contents xi

10.5 What Is in the Body of Knowledge? 238
10.5.1 Six Levels of Cognition Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) 250
10.5.2 Sample Questions 250
10.6 Recertification 253
Acknowledgments 253
References 254
CHAPTER 11
CMMI
®
PPQA Relationship to SQA 257
11.1 Software Quality Engineering/Management 257
11.1.1 Software Quality Engineering/Management Functions 257
11.2 Software Engineering Institute’s CMMI®
259
11.3 PPQA in the CMMI
®
262
11.3.1 Process and Product Quality Assurance Purpose Statement 263
11.3.2 Quality Control 263
11.3.3 Quality Assurance 264
11.3.4 Project Quality Plan 264
11.3.5 PPQA as Defined by the CMMI®
Specific Goals and Specific
Practices 265
11.3.6 Institutionalization 269
11.3.7 Quality Assurance Representatives 270
11.3.8 What Is the Relationship Between PPQA as Defined in the
CMMI®
and SQA? 273
11.4 Approach to Meeting PPQA Requirements 274
11.5 Quality Management and Quality Assurance Infrastructure 274
11.6 Using Criticality and Configuration Management Status Accounting
to Govern Quality 275
11.7 Quality Auditing 277
11.8 Quality Reporting 279
11.9 Proactive Support of Projects 281
11.10 SQA Support Levels 282
11.11 Software Configuration Management 284
11.12 Traps in SQA Implementation of PPQA 286
11.13 Summary 288
References 288
CHAPTER 12
SQA for Small Projects 291
12.2 Definitions 292
12.2.1 Small Organization 293
12.2.2 Small Project 293
12.3 Staff Considerations 293
12.3.1 Qualifications 294
12.4 Training Considerations 295
xii Contents

12.4.1 Quality Engineers 295
12.4.2 Mentoring the Project Personnel 295
12.5 What Makes Sense for Your Organization/Project(s)? 296
12.5.1 Tactical 296
12.5.2 Strategic 297
12.6 Success Without Stress and Undue Expense 298
12.6.1 Use a Generic SQA Plan and Schedule 298
12.6.2 Efficiently Audit Work Products 299
12.6.3 Efficiently Review Processes 301
12.6.4 Develop a Quality Engineer’s Guide 302
12.6.5 Provide Senior Management Insight into the Project 302
12.6.6 Act as a “Gatekeeper” for Deliverables 303
12.6.7 Add Engineering Experience 303
12.6.8 Keep an Eye on Configuration Management 303
12.6.9 Walk the Halls 305
12.6.10 Colocate Quality Engineers 305
12.6.11 Share Information 305
12.6.12 Facilitate Process Improvement 306
12.6.13 Institutionalize Processes 306
12.7 Objective Evidence for the Auditor/Appraiser 307
12.8 Compliance with ISO and CMMI®
307
12.8.1 ISO/CMMI®
Internal Audits 308
12.8.2 ISO/CMMI
®
External Audits 308
12.8.3 Document Control 309
12.9 Summary 309
References 310
CHAPTER 13
Development Quality Assurance 311
13.2 Software QA Versus Traditional QA 312
13.3 Development Quality Assurance 313
13.4 Systems and Software Quality Assurance: An Integrated Approach 314
13.4.1 Process Evaluations 314
13.4.2 Work Product Evaluations 319
13.4.3 Formulating the SSQA Implementation Plan 319
13.4.4 Keeping the SSQA Implementation Plan Current 320
13.4.5 SSQA Tools and Techniques 321
13.4.6 IPT Participation 321
13.4.7 Review of Deliverable Products 322
13.4.8 Participative Activities 322
13.4.9 Results of Evaluations 323
13.5 Systems Quality Assurance 324
13.6 Hardware Design Quality Assurance 324
13.7 Overcoming Cultural Resistance 327
13.8 Conclusion 329
References 330
Contents xiii

CHAPTER 14
Quality Management in IT 331
14.2 Key IT Processes 332
14.2.1 ITSM Processes 332
14.3 IT Best Practices 333
14.3.1 ITIL®
333
14.3.2 SEI CMMI
®
-SVC 336
14.4 ITSM Standards 337
14.4.1 ISO 20000 337
14.4.2 ISO 20000-1 Content 338
14.4.3 CobiT®
342
14.5 Selecting a Process Improvement Model 347
14.5.1 IT Service Management Self-Assessment 349
14.5.2 Implementing an IT Service Management System 350
14.6 Customer Requirements 352
14.6.1 Service Level Agreements 352
14.6.2 QoS 357
14.7 Monitoring and Measuring ITSM Performance 358
14.7.1 Why Variance Is Difficult to Measure 359
14.8 Procurement Quality—Outstanding 362
14.9 IT Quality Professional 364
14.9.1 Body of Knowledge 365
14.9.2 IT Quality Analyst 365
14.10 Conclusion 368
References 368
CHAPTER 15
Costs of Software Quality 371
15.2 The Concept of Cost of Software Quality 372
15.2.1 The Concept 372
15.2.2 Objectives of Cost of Software Quality Metrics 373
15.3 Costs of Control 374
15.3.1 Prevention Costs 374
15.3.2 Appraisal Costs 375
15.4 Failure of Control Costs 375
15.4.1 Internal Failure Costs 375
15.4.2 External Failure Costs 376
15.5 Implementation of a Cost of Software Quality System 377
15.5.1 Definition of Cost Items for the CoSQ Model 377
15.5.2 Definition of the Cost Data Collection Method 378
15.5.3 Implementation of a CoSQ System 379
15.6 The Contribution of a CoSQ System to the Organization 379
15.7 Difficulties in the Implementation 380
15.8 Limitations of the Classic CoSQ Model 380
xiv Contents

15.9 Extreme Cases of Costs of Software Quality 381
15.10 Conclusion 382
References 383
Appendix 15A An Extended Model for Cost of Software Quality 384
15A.1 Concept of the Extended CoSQ Model 384
15A.2 Managerial Appraisal and Control Costs 385
15A.3 Managerial Failure Costs 386
15A.4 Difficulties in the Implementation of the Extended
CoSQ Model 387
CHAPTER 16
Software Quality Assurance Metrics 393
16.2 Software Quality Indicators 395
16.3 Practical Software and Systems Measurement (PSM) 396
16.4 CMMI®
Measurement and Analysis 403
16.5 CMMI
®
Higher Maturity Measurements 405
16.6 Practical Implementations 407
16.6.1 Hewlett Packard 407
16.6.2 Quantitative SQA 409
16.6.3 Pragmatic Quality Metrics 409
16.6.4 Effectiveness Measure 410
16.6.5 Team Software Process (TSP®
) and Personal Software
Process (PSP
®
) 411
16.6.6 Software Quality Fault Prediction 412
16.6.7 Measuring Process Improvement Using Stoplight Charts 414
16.6.8 Six Sigma 415
16.6.9 Project Managers Control Panel 415
16.6.10 Predicting Software Quality 419
16.7 Conclusion 421
References 421
CHAPTER 17
More Reliable Software Faster and Cheaper: An Overview of Software
Reliability Engineering 425
17.2 Software Reliability Engineering 425
17.2.1 What it Is and Why it Works 425
17.2.2 A Proven, Standard, Widespread Best Practice 426
17.3 SRE Process and Fone Follower Example 428
17.3.1 Define the Product 430
17.3.2 Implement Operational Profiles 430
17.3.3 Define “Just Right” Reliability 432
17.3.4 Prepare for Test 432
17.3.5 Execute Test 433
17.3.6 Guide Test 433
Contents xv

17.3.7 Collect Field Data 435
17.4 Conclusion 435
17.5 To Explore Further 435
References 437
List of Acronyms 439
About the Authors 447
Index 457
xvi Contents

Preface
The software industry is witnessing a dramatic rise in the impact and effectiveness
of software quality assurance (SQA). From its day of infancy, when a handful of
software pioneers explored the first applications of quality assurance to the devel-
opment of software, SQA has become integrated into all phases of software devel-
opment. Most significant is the acceptance by software developers and managers of
SQA personnel. There is a recognition that besides their primary function of audit-
ing the software process and work products, the SQA personnel are real contribu-
tors to the success of the project. This is due to the closer integration and
participation of SQA personnel in software-related project activities, including par-
ticipation in team meetings, configuration control board meetings, peer reviews,
and the like.
Another important transition taking place is that software quality assurance is
being expanded to other aspects of development, such as systems and hardware
development. Now, many organizations have expanded their software QA to
include systems and hardware QA, implemented as development quality assurance
(DQA). A significant force in bringing about this shift to DQA is the Capability
Maturity Model Integration®
for Development, version 1.2 (CMMI
®
-DEV, v1.2)
provided by the Software Engineering Institute. This model flowed from the
CMMI
®
for Systems Engineering and Software Engineering, version 1.1 that one
can see from the title expanded beyond software to include systems engineering/
development. Also with CMMI
®
-DEV, v1.2, hardware amplification was added to
relevant practices to expand the practice coverage to include hardware engineering
principles.
The practice of SQA/DQA is often thought of either as an auditing function or a
“validation” (testing) function. (Validation is not to be confused here with verifica-
tion and validation (V&V), which encompasses comprehensive technical activities
to assure a product’s conformance to requirements.) The SQA/DQA auditing func-
tion focuses on assuring that the processes are being followed and the work prod-
ucts are complete and consistent. The primary thrust of this book is on SQA/DQA
as an auditing function, although I prefer the term “evaluation.”
The SQA/DQA validation function focuses on testing—ensuring that you built
the right thing. QA as a validation (testing) function has been the traditional func-
tion of the quality organization in software, but with the advent of the quality stan-
dards such as ISO and Capability Maturity Model®
(CMM
®
)/CMMI
®
, the role of
SQA (note the addition of the “S”) assumed an auditing function.
Handbook of Software Quality Assurance, Fourth Edition, capitalizes on the
talents and skills of the experts who deal with the implementation of software and
development quality assurance on a daily basis. To have their accumulated knowl-
xvii

edge at hand makes this book a valuable resource. Each author, because of his or her
special skills, talents, foresight, and interests, has contributed to the maturing pro-
cess occurring in the field of software and development quality today.
What this book brings to the reader, then, is a collection of experiences and
expectations of some of the best people in the field of software and development
quality assurance. Because of their early involvement in software and development
quality and because of their continued pursuit to discover improved methods for
achieving better on-the-job quality assurance, each author provides an insightful
presentation of his personal involvement in quality assurance.
The structure of this book is relatively straightforward. There are 17 chapters
covering many key areas of software and development quality assurance.
A brief summary of each chapter highlighting its main thrust is provided here for
the reader to decide which topic is of immediate interest. If information is required
from another chapter for additional insight, adequate cross-referencing has been
provided within each chapter.
Chapter 1 presents a picture of how to organize for quality management. This
chapter includes a discussion of the quality management framework and related
quality program concepts. Then, organizational aspects of the quality program are
discussed in terms of the organizational relationships for the quality program and
the mapping of the quality program functions to project organizational entities,
resulting in some example organizational implementations of a quality program.
The role of assessing and measuring product quality during development and the
controversy over the independence of QA versus being part of the development
organization are discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 2 is an overview of the contributions made and the roles played by the
dominant figures in the quality field. The individual contributions of the dominant
quality experts—Kaoru Ishikawa, Joseph M. Juran, Yoji Akao, W. Edwards
Deming, Genichi Taguchi, Shigeo Shingo, Philip Crosby, and Watts
Humphrey—are related. The latest addition to this list of experts is Watts
Humphrey, who provided so much to software development and quality assurance
that he received the 2003 National Medal of Technology from the President of the
United States.
Chapter 3 discusses the commercial standards and the impact that they have on
quality assurance, with a special emphasis on software quality. This is a comprehen-
sive chapter on SQA-related standards from ISO, IEEE, CobiT®
, ITIL
®
, and others,
and what they mean to you as a practitioner. This chapter concludes with some
reminders about conformance and certification, as well as improtant future trends.
Chapter 4 discusses the personnel requirements for a good software quality
engineer and how a software quality organization should deal with personnel issues
such as training, roles for software quality engineers, paraprofessional possibilities,
and career paths. The impact of the American Society for Quality (ASQ) software
quality engineer certification program is covered.
Chapter 5 discusses the methods and techniques that will help one to determine
how to train software and development quality engineers. The authors have exten-
sive experience in performing this training and they provide much practical informa-
tion on how to do it well.
xviii Preface

Chapter 6 applies the well-known Pareto principle (80/20 rule) to the concerns
and issues of software and development quality assurance. The impact and advan-
tage of performing a Pareto analysis is supported by two classic examples: one deals
with the World Wide Military Command and Control System (WWMCCS), and
the other with the Federal Reserve Bank. How Pareto analysis is applied to defect
prevention, its use in analysis of inspection data, and a unique aspect of how to
compare Pareto charts are covered in this chapter.
Chapter 7 deals with the widely acclaimed use and application of inspections as
a highly beneficial peer review method. The impact and benefits of conducting
inspections during the software development cycle are covered in some detail. The
inspection process is described and numerous results of inspections are provided to
give the reader a firsthand picture of what to look for when evaluating inspection
data. Emphasis is given to documentation inspections, inspection metrics, and even
the national software quality experiment, which captures inspection results across
the country.
Chapter 8 discusses the audit methods useful to software and development
quality personnel. What makes up a comprehensive audit is covered, and there are
many examples provided of each of those audit parts. Types of audits such as soft-
ware piracy audits, security audit, information systems audit, ISO 9001:2000 soft-
ware audit, CMMI®
-DEV appraisal, internal project audits, and audit automation.
The results of audits are discussed with concomitant ramifications to the audited
organization being covered.
Chapter 9 deals with that aspect of quality assurance concerned with software
safety. The various requirements related to software safety and hazard avoidance
and mitigation techniques are covered. What it takes to develop a software safety
assurance program is a key aspect of this important chapter.
Chapter 10 lays out the requirements for the software quality engineer certifica-
tion program established by the ASQ. More specifically, the chapter deals with how
one should prepare for the exam and what is in the body of software quality knowl-
edge needed to pass the exam, and it includes a recommended bibliography that
aides in preparation.
Chapter 11 provides an in-depth analysis of the relationship of process and
product quality assurance (PPQA) to SQA. It focuses on the requirements for these
process areas as they flow from the CMM®
for software to the CMMI
®
for develop-
ment (CMMI
®
-DEV). It provides an analysis of the PPQA process area in the
CMMI
®
-DEV and provides various approaches to meeting the intent of PPQA.
Chapter 12 provides guidance on how to handle quality assurance on small pro-
jects. It starts with staff and training considerations, followed by tactical and strate-
gic guidance for your projects. There are many recommendations provided on how
to reduce cost and pressure for thorough quality assurance coverage on a small
project.
Chapter 13 on development quality assurance shows the transition that quality
assurance organizations/personnel need to make to be compliant with the latest
standards, especially with the CMMI®
-DEV. That transition addresses first the sys-
tems development process and then the hardware development process. Potential
stumbling blocks and related suggestions on how to overcome them are provided.
Preface xix

Chapter 14 examines quality management in information technology (IT). The
principles and concepts that apply to IT examined in this chapter include:
• Identifying key IT processes, their sequence, and interaction;
• Planning for defect prevention versus detection by applying IT best practices;
• Using and implementing standards to achieve internationally recognized regis-
tration or demonstrate appropriate levels of IT governance;
• Resolving the IT equivalent to software bugs, defects, and errors;
• Determining and documenting customer requirements;
• Monitoring and measuring service performance to assure customer require-
ments are met and continual improvement occurs;
• Assuring procurement quality when outsourcing key IT processes;
• Parallels in the bodies of knowledge between software and IT quality
professionals.
Chapter 15 deals with the assessment of the total cost of software quality and
examines what input is required, the value added, and the expected output. The
chapter describes what a Cost of Software Quality (CoSQ) system is. How to imple-
ment that CoSQ system is covered as well, and the related difficulties in implementa-
tion are addressed. Also discussed are the price of nonconformance and the effect of
budgetary constraints on the implementation of SQA. The chapter concludes with a
recommended extended model for the cost of software quality.
Chapter 16 provides a survey of metrics proposed and currently used to deter-
mine the quality of the software development effort. Software quality metrics meth-
odology, software quality indicators, and some practical software and systems
measurements, CMMI®
Measurement and Analysis, CMMI
®
Higher Maturity Mea-
surements, and practical implementations are covered in this chapter.
Chapter 17 is an overview of software reliability. There is an outline of the soft-
ware reliability engineering process to give you a feel for the practice, using a single
consistent example throughout. The example provides information on preparation,
execution, and guidance of testing from a software reliability engineering perspec-
tive. The chapter concludes with a list of some key resources.
Appendix A is a list of the acronyms used throughout the book.
I thank each and all of the contributors for their time, energy, and foresight for
their contributions to this book.
I also appreciate the patience and help of Wayne Yuhasz, executive acquistions
editor, Barbara Lovenvirth, developmental editor, and Rebecca Allendorf, senior
production editor, at Artech House, without whose assistance and support this book
would not have been accomplished.
G. Gordon Schulmeyer
Editor
Lothian, Maryland
September 2007
xx Preface

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at Yurimaguas but a few bunches of plantains and some salt fish out
of a passing boat.
An island divides the river three-fourths of a mile above
Yurimaguas. The southern branch is the channel; the northern one is
closed at its lower end by a sand-bank opposite the village.
We left Yurimaguas after breakfasting. Half a mile below the
village is the mouth of the Cachiyacu. This river is the general route
between Moyobamba and the ports of the Amazon. It is navigable
for large canoes, when full, (which is from January to June,) as far
as Balza Puerto, a considerable village, five days' journey from
Moyobamba. It takes nine days for a loaded canoe to ascend as far
as Balza Puerto. Lieutenant Maw descended this river in 1827.
Communication is also had by the Cachiyacu with many villages
situated in the fine country between the Marañon and Huallaga
rivers: so that Yurimaguas, situated at the mouth of this river, and
having open communication with the Atlantic, may be considered as
occupying an important position in any scheme for navigation and
trade.
We met several canoes going up the river for salt; canoes
passing each other on the river speak at a great distance apart. The
Indians use a sing-song tone, that is heard and understood very far,
without seeming to call for much exertion of the voice. Every year at
this season the Indians of the Marañon and Ucayali make a voyage
up the Huallaga for their supply of salt. They travel slowly, and
support themselves by hunting, fishing, and robbing plantain
patches on their way.
About eight miles below Yurimaguas, an island with extensive
sand-flats occupies nearly the whole of the middle of the river. We
passed to the right, and I found but a scant six feet of water. The
popero said there was less on the other side; but Antonio, the
Portuguese, passed there, and said there was more. He did not
sound, however. We tried an experiment to ascertain the speed of
the canoe at full oar, and I was surprised to find that six men could

not paddle it faster than two miles the hour; ours is, however, a very
heavy and clumsy canoe. We have had frequent races with Antonio
and the Fiscales, and were always beaten. It was a pretty sight to
see the boat of the latter, though laden with salt to the water's edge,
dance by us; and, although beaten, we could not sometimes refrain
(as their puntero, a tall, painted Indian, would toss his paddle in the
air with a triumphant gesture as he passed) from giving a hurrah for
the servants of the church.
August 29.—We met a canoe of Conibos Indians, one man and
two women, from the Ucayali, going up for salt. We bought (with
beads) some turtle-eggs, and proposed to buy a monkey they had;
but one of the women clasped the little beast in her arms, and set
up a great outcry lest the man should sell it. The man wore a long,
brown, cotton gown, with a hole in the neck for the head to go
through, and short, wide sleeves. He had on his arm a bracelet of
monkey's teeth; and the women had white beads hanging from the
septum of the nose. Their dress was a cotton petticoat tied round
the waist; and all were filthy.
We are now getting into the lake country; and hence to the
mouth of the Amazon, lakes of various sizes, and at irregular
distances, border the rivers. They all communicate with the rivers by
channels, which are commonly dry in the dry season. They are the
resort of immense numbers of water-fowl, particularly cranes and
cormorants; and the Indians, at the proper season, take many fish
and turtles from them.
Many of these lakes are, according to the traditions of the
Indians, guarded by an immense serpent, which is able to raise such
a tempest in the lake as to swamp their canoes, when it immediately
swallows the people. It is called in the "Lengua Inga" "Yacu Mama,"
or mother of the waters; and the Indians never enter a lake with
which they are not familiar that they do not set up an obstreperous
clamor with their horns, which the snake is said to answer; thus
giving them warning of its presence.

I never saw the animal myself, but will give a description of it
written by Father Manuel Castrucci de Vernazza, in an account of his
mission to the Givaros and Zaparos of the river Pastaza, made in
1845:
"The wonderful nature of this animal—its figure, its size, and
other circumstances—enchains attention, and causes man to reflect
upon the majestic and infinite power and wisdom of the Supreme
Creator. The sight alone of this monster confounds, intimidates, and
infuses respect into the heart of the boldest man. He never seeks or
follows the victims upon which he feeds; but, so great is the force of
his inspiration, that he draws in with his breath whatever quadruped
or bird may pass him, within from twenty to fifty yards of distance,
according to its size. That which I killed from my canoe upon the
Pastaza (with five shots of a fowling-piece) had two yards of
thickness and fifteen yards of length; but the Indians of this region
have assured me that there are animals of this kind here of three or
four yards diameter, and from thirty to forty long. These swallow
entire hogs, stags, tigers, and men, with the greatest facility; but, by
the mercy of Providence, it moves and turns itself very slowly, on
account of its extreme weight. When moving, it appears a thick log
of wood covered with scales, and dragged slowly along the ground,
leaving a track so large that men may see it at a distance and avoid
its dangerous ambush."
The good father says that he observed "that the blood of this
animal flowed in jets, (salia á chorros,) and in enormous abundance.
The prejudice of the Indians in respect to this species of great
snakes (believing it to be the devil in figure of a serpent) deprived
me of the acquisition of the dried skin, though I offered a large
gratification for it."
It is almost impossible to doubt a story told with this minuteness
of detail. Doubtless the padre met with, and killed the boa-
constrictor; but two yards of thickness is scarcely credible. He writes
it dos varas de grosor. (Grosor is thickness.) I thought the father
might have meant two yards in circumference, but he afterwards

says that the Indians reported them of three and four yards in
diameter, (de diametro.)
We had a fresh squall of wind and rain from the northward and
eastward. The Portuguese, who is a careful and timid navigator, and
whose motions we follow because he is a capital caterer, and has a
wife along to cook for us, pulled in for the beach, and we camped
for the night. The beach where we pitched belongs to an island, or
rather what is an island when the river is full, though the right-hand
channel is now dry; the left-hand channel runs close to the shore,
and I could find but five feet water in it, though there was probably
more very close to the shore, which was bold. The obstruction is
narrow, and could be readily cleared away.
Seventy miles below Yurimaguas is Sta. Cruz. This is an Indian
village of a tribe called Aguanos, containing three hundred and fifty
inhabitants. The lieutenant governor is the only white man in it. The
women go naked down to their hips, and the children entirely so. I
was quite an object of curiosity and fear to them; and they seemed
never tired of examining my spectacles. The pueblo is situated on an
eminence, as most of the villages of this country are, to avoid
inundation. It has a small stream running by it, which empties into
the river at the port, and is navigable in the rainy season for loaded
canoes. The convento is the most respectable-looking house on the
river. It is divided into apartments; has ceilings; and is plastered,
inside and out, with a white clay. There was a portico in the rear,
and it looked altogether as if it had been designed and built by a
person who had some taste and some idea of personal comfort.
I obtained at this place the sap of a large tree called catao,
which is said to be very poisonous. It appears to be acrid, and acts
like a powerful caustic. The man who chopped the bark, to let the
sap run, always turned away his face as he struck, for fear of its
getting into his eyes. The Indians employ it for the purpose of curing
old dull sores. The tree is generally very large; has a smooth bark,
but with knots on it bearing short thorns. The leaf is nearly circular;
it is called in Brazil assacu, and is there thought to be a remedy for

leprosy. We gathered also some leaves and root of a running plant
called guaco, which, steeped in spirits, and applied internally and
externally, is said to be an antidote to the bite of a snake. I think it
probable that this may be a fancy of the Indians, originating from
the fact that the leaf has something the appearance and color of a
snake-skin. There is a great abundance of it all over the Montaña.
We found difficulty in getting canoes at this place. The only one
that would accommodate ourselves and baggage belonged to the
church, and, like its mistress in Peru, it was in rather a dilapidated
condition. We bargained for it with the curaca, (chief of the Indians,
and second in authority to the lieutenant governor;) but when the
lieutenant returned from his chacra, where he had been setting out
plantains, he refused to let us have it, on the ground that it wanted
repairs. We were, therefore, obliged to take two small ones that
would barely carry the trunks and boxes, and embark ourselves in
the canoe of the Portuguese.
We have found this man, Don Antonio da Costa Viana, and his
family, quite a treasure to us on the road. He is a stout, active little
fellow, about fifty years of age, with piercing black eyes, long black
curls, a face burned almost to negro blackness by the sun, deeply
pitted with the small-pox, and with a nose that, as Ijurra tells him,
would make a cut-water for a frigate. He is called paraguá, (a
species of parrot,) from his incessant talk; and he brags that he is
"as well known on the river as a dog." He has a chacra of sugar-
cane and tobacco, with a trapiche, at Tarapoto. He sells the spirits
that he makes for tocuyo, and carries the tocuyo, tobacco, and
chancaca to Nauta, selling or rather exchanging as he goes. His
canoe is fifty feet long and three broad, and carries a cargo which he
values at five hundred dollars; that is, five hundred in efectos—two
hundred and fifty in money. It is well fitted with armayari and
pamacari, and carries six peons—Antonio, himself, his wife, and his
adopted daughter, a child of ten years; besides affording room for
the calls of hospitality. My friend is perfect master of all around him;
(a little tyrannical, perhaps, to his family;) knows all the reaches and

beaches of the river, and every tree and shrub that grows upon its
banks. He is intelligent, active, and obliging; always busy: now
twisting fishing-lines of the fibres of a palm called chambira; now
hunting turtle-eggs, robbing plantain-fields, or making me cigars of
tobacco-leaves given me by the priest of Chasuta. Every beach is a
house for him; his peons build his rancho and spread his musquito
curtain; his wife and child cook his supper. His mess of salt fish,
turtle-eggs, and plantains is a feast for him; and his gourd of coffee,
and pipe afterwards, a luxury that a king might envy. He is always
well and happy. I imagine he has picked up and hoarded away, to
keep him in his old age, or to leave his wife when he dies, some few
of the dollars that are floating about here; and, in short, I don't
know a more enviable person. It is true Doña Antonio gets drunk
occasionally; but he licks her if she is troublesome, and it seems to
give him very little concern.
I sometimes twit him with the immorality of robbing the poor
Indians of their plantains; but he defends himself by saying, "That to
take plantains is not to steal; to take a knife, or a hatchet, or an
article of clothing, is; but plantains, not. Every body on the river
does it. It is necessary to have them, and he is perfectly willing to
pay for them, if he could find the owners and they would sell them."
The old rascal is very religious too; he has, hanging under the
parmacari of his boat, a silver Crucifix and a wooden St. Anthony. He
thinks a priest next of kin to a saint, and a saint perfection. He said
to me, as his wife was combing her hair in the canoe, "A bald
woman, Don Luis, must be a very ugly thing: not so a bald man,
because St. Peter, you know, was bald;" and I verily believe that,
although he is very vain of his black curls, were he to lose them, he
would find consolation in the reflection that he had made an
approach, in appearance at least, towards his great exemplar.
We shoved off from Sta. Cruz at sunset, and camped on the
beach a mile lower down. It is very well to do this, for the canoe-
men are taken away from the temptation of the villages, and are
sober and ready for an early start next morning.

August 31.—Started at 6 a. m.; camped on the beach at a
quarter-past 5 p. m.
September 1.—Heavy clouds and rains both to the northward
and eastward and southward and westward, with an occasional spit
at us; but we set the rain at defiance under the palm-thatched roof
of Antonio. At half-past 3 p. m. we arrived at Laguna. This town, the
principal one of the district and the residence of the governor, is one
and a half mile from the port. The walk is a pleasant one through
the forest at this season, but is probably mud to the knees in the
rains. It contains one thousand and forty-four inhabitants; and the
productions of the neighborhood are wax, sarsaparilla, copal,
copaiba, and salt fish. I have seen all these in the hands of the
Indians, but in small quantities; there being so little demand for
them.
The Cocamillas, who form the largest part of the population of
Laguna, are lazy and drunken. They are capital boatmen, however,
when they have no liquor; and I had more comfort with them than
with any other Indians except those of Tingo Maria.
September 2.—Waiting for boats and boatmen. There are no
large canoes, and we are again compelled to take two. I was
surprised at this as I was led to believe—and I thought it probable—
that the nearer we got to the Marañon the larger we should find the
boats, and the means of navigation more complete. But I have met
with nothing but misstatements in my whole course. The impression
I received in Lima of the Montaña was, that it was a country
abounding not only with the necessaries, but with the luxuries of
life, so far as eating was concerned. Yet I am now satisfied that if
one hundred men were to start without provisions, on the route I
have travelled, the half must inevitably perish for want of food. Of
meat there is almost none; and even salt fish, yuccas, and plantains
are scarce, and often not to be had; game is shy; and the fish, of
which there are a great number, do not readily take the hook; of
fruit I have seen literally none edible since leaving Huanuco.

At Chasuta I was assured that I should find at Yurimaguas every
facility for the prosecution of my journey; yet I could get neither a
boat nor a man, and had to persuade my Chasuta boatmen to carry
me on to Sta. Cruz, where the Yurimaguas people said there would
be no further difficulty. At Sta. Cruz I could get but two small and
rotten canoes, with three men to each, for Laguna, which, being the
great port of the river, could in the estimation of the people at Sta.
Cruz, furnish me with the means of crossing the Atlantic if necessary.
I had been always assured that I could get at Laguna one hundred
Cocamillas, if I wanted them, as a force to enter among the savages
of the Ucayali; but here, too, I could with difficulty get six men and
two small canoes to pass me on to Nauta, which I expected to find,
from the description of the people above, a small New York. Had it
not been that Senhor Cauper, at that place, had just then a boat
unemployed, which he was willing to sell, I should have had to
abandon my expedition up the Ucayali, and build me a raft to float
down the Marañon.
We found at the port of Laguna two travelling merchants, a
Portuguese and a Brazilian. They had four large boats of about eight
tons each, and two or three canoes. Their cargo consisted of iron,
steel, iron implements, crockery-ware, wine, brandy, copper kettles,
coarse, short swords, (a very common implement of the Indians,)
guns, ammunition, salt fish, &c., which they expected to exchange in
Moyobamba and Chachapoyas for straw-hats, tocuyo, sugar, coffee,
and money. They were also buying up all the sarsaparilla they could
find, and despatching it back in canoes. They gave for the arroba, of
twenty-five pounds, three dollars and fifty cents in goods, which
probably cost in Pará one dollar. They estimated the value of their
cargoes at five thousand dollars. I have no doubt that two thousand
dollars in money would have bought the whole concern, boats and
all; and that with this the traders would have drifted joyfully down
the river, well satisfied with their year's work. They invited us to
breakfast off roast pig; and I thought that I never tasted anything
better than the farinha, which I saw for the first time.

Farinha is a general substitute for bread in all the course of the
Amazon below the Brazilian frontier. It is used by all classes, and in
immense quantities by the Indians and laborers. Our boatmen in
Brazil were always contented with plenty of salt fish and farinha.
Every two or three hours of the day, whilst travelling, they would
stop rowing, pour a little water upon a large gourd-full of farinha,
and pass around the mass (which they called pirào) as if it were a
delicacy.
The women generally make the farinha. They soak the root of
the mandioc (Jatropha Manihot) in water till it is softened a little,
when they scrape off the skin, and grate it upon a board smeared
with some of the adhesive gums of the forest and sprinkled with
pebbles. The white grated mass is put in a conical-shaped bag,
made of the coarse fibres of a palm, and called tapiti. The bag is
hung up to a peg driven into a tree, or a post of the shed; a lever is
put through a loop at the bottom of the bag; the short end of the
lever is placed under a chock nailed to the post below, and the
woman hangs her weight on the long end. This elongates the bag,
and brings a heavy pressure upon the mass within, causing all the
juice to ooze out through the interstices of the wicker-work of the
bag. When sufficiently pressed the mass is put on the floor of a mud
oven; heat is applied, and it is stirred with a stick till it granulates in
very irregular grains, (the largest about the size of our No. 2 shot,)
and is sufficiently toasted to drive off all the poisonous qualities
which it has in a crude state. It is then packed in baskets (lined and
covered with palm-leaves) of about sixty-four pounds weight, which
are generally sold, all along the river, at from seventy-five cents to
one dollar. The sediment of the juice which runs from the tapiti is
tapioca, and is used to make custards, puddings, starch, &c.
September 3.—Our boatmen came down to the port at 8 a. m.
They were accompanied, as usual, by their wives, carrying their
bedding, their jars of masato, and even their paddles; for these
fellows are too lazy, when on shore, to do a hand's turn; though
when embarked they work freely, (these Cocamillas,) and are gay,

cheerful, ready, and obedient. The dress of the women is nothing
more than a piece of cotton cloth, generally dark brown in color,
wrapped around the loins and reaching to the knee. I was struck
with the appearance of one, the only pretty Indian girl I have seen.
She appeared to be about thirteen years of age, and was the wife of
one of our boatmen. It was amusing to see the slavish respect with
which she waited upon the young savage, (himself about nineteen,)
and the lordly indifference with which he received her attentions.
She was as straight as an arrow, delicately and elegantly formed,
and had a free, wild, Indian look, that was quite taking.
We got off at a quarter past nine; the merchants at the same
time; and the padre also returns to-day to Yurimaguas; so that we
make a haul upon the population of Laguna, and carry off about
seventy of its inhabitants. Twenty-five miles below Laguna, we
arrived at the mouth of the Huallaga. Several islands occupy the
middle of it. The channel runs near the left bank. Near the middle of
the river we had nine feet; passing towards the left bank we
suddenly fell into forty-five feet. The Huallaga, just above the island,
is three hundred and fifty yards wide; the Amazon, at the junction,
five hundred. The water of both rivers is very muddy and filthy,
particularly that of the former, which for some distance within the
mouth is covered with a glutinous scum, that I take to be the
excrement of fish, probably that of porpoises.
The Huallaga, from Tingo Maria, the head of canoe navigation,
to Chasuta, (from which point to its mouth it is navigable for a
draught of five feet at the lowest stage of the river,) is three hundred
and twenty-five miles long; costing seventy-four working hours to
descend it; and falling four feet and twenty-seven hundredths per
mile. From Chasuta to its mouth it has two hundred and eighty-five
miles of length, and takes sixty-eight hours of descent, falling one
foot and twenty-five hundredths per mile. It will be seen that these
distances are passed in nearly proportional times. This is to be
attributed to the time occupied in descending the malos pasos, for
the current is more rapid above than below. The difference between

the times of ascent and descent is, on an average, about three for
one. It is proper to state here that all my estimates of distance, after
embarkation upon the rivers, being obtained from measurement by
the log-line, are in geographical miles of sixty to the degree.

CHAPTER IX.
Entrance into the Amazon—Nauta—Upper and Lower Missions of
Mainas—Conversions of the Ucayali—Trade in sarsaparilla—
Advantages of trade with this country.
The river upon which we now entered is the main trunk of the
Amazon, which carries its Peruvian name of Marañon as far as
Tabatinga, at the Brazilian frontier; below which, and as far as the
junction of the Rio Negro, it takes the name of Solimoens; and
thence to the ocean is called Amazon. It is the same stream
throughout, and to avoid confusion I shall call it Amazon from this
point to the sea.
The march of the great river in its silent grandeur was sublime;
but in the untamed might of its turbid waters, as they cut away its
banks, tore down the gigantic denizens of the forest, and built up
islands, it was awful. It rolled through the wilderness with a stately
and solemn air. Its waters looked angry, sullen, and relentless; and
the whole scene awoke emotions of awe and dread—such as are
caused by the funeral solemnities, the minute gun, the howl of the
wind, and the angry tossing of the waves, when all hands are called
to bury the dead in a troubled sea.
I was reminded of our Mississippi at its topmost flood; the
waters are quite as muddy and quite as turbid; but this stream

lacked the charm and the fascination which the plantation upon the
bank, the city upon the bluff, and the steamboat upon its waters,
lends to its fellow of the North; nevertheless, I felt pleased at its
sight. I had already travelled seven hundred miles by water, and
fancied that this powerful stream would soon carry me to the ocean;
but the water-travel was comparatively just begun; many a weary
month was to elapse ere I should again look upon the familiar face
of the sea; and many a time, when worn and wearied with the
canoe life, did I exclaim, "This river seems interminable!"
Its capacities for trade and commerce are inconceivably great.
Its industrial future is the most dazzling; and to the touch of steam,
settlement, and cultivation, this rolling stream and its magnificent
water-shed would start up into a display of industrial results that
would indicate the Valley of the Amazon as one of the most
enchanting regions on the face of the earth.

Pr. Vernazzi del. Wagner & McGuigan's Lith. Phila.
GIVARO.
Pl. 13.
From its mountains you may dig silver, iron, coal, copper,
quicksilver, zinc, and tin; from the sands of its tributaries you may
wash gold, diamonds, and precious stones; from its forests you may
gather drugs of virtues the most rare, spices of aroma the most
exquisite, gums and resins of the most varied and useful properties,
dyes of hues the most brilliant, with cabinet and building-woods of
the finest polish and most enduring texture.

Its climate is an everlasting summer, and its harvest perennial. I
translate from a book of travels in these countries, by Count
Castelnau, (received since my return to the United States,) an
account of the capacities of some of the southern portions of this
vast water-shed:
"The productions of the country are exceedingly various. The
sugar-cane, of which the crop is gathered at the end of eight months
from the time of planting, forms the chief source of wealth of the
province of Cercado.
"Coffee is cultivated also with success in this province, and in
that of Chiquitos yields its fruit two years after having been planted,
and requires scarcely any attention. Cocoa, recently introduced into
these two provinces, gives its fruit at the end of three or four years
at most. The tamarind, which thrives in the same localities, produces
its harvest in five years. Cotton gives annual crops; there are two
varieties—the one white, the other yellow. Tobacco grows, so to
speak, without cultivation in the province of Valle Grande, where it
forms the principal article of commerce. Indigo, of which there are
three cultivated kinds and one wild, is equally abundant. Maize yields
at the end of three months all the year round; it is also cultivated in
the province of Cercado. The cassave produces in eight months after
planting; there are two kinds of it—one sweet, and the other bitter;
the first can replace the potato, and even bread; the second is only
good for starch. There is an enormous amount of kinds or varieties
of bananas, which produce in the year from seed; they are specially
cultivated in the province of Cercado. Two kinds of rice—one white,
the other colored—are cultivated in the two provinces of Cercado
and Chiquitos. They produce every five or six months; they say it is
found wild in the region of Chiquitos.
"The grape, which grows well everywhere, and especially in the
province of Cordilleras, where it was cultivated in the Missions up to
the time of the Independence, is nevertheless made no article of
profit. It will some day, perhaps, form one of the principal sources of
wealth of this country. Wheat, barley, and the potato might be

cultivated with advantage in the provinces of Chiquitos and
Cordilleras; but till now results have been obtained only in that of
Valle Grande. The cultivation of cocoa has commenced in the
province of Cercado, and it is also found in a wild state, as well as
the Peruvian bark, on the mountains of Samaripata. As we have
already said, fruits abound in this region. They cultivate there
principally oranges, lemons, citrons, figs, papaws, pomegranates,
melons, watermelons, chirimoyas, (which the Brazilians call fruto de
conde,) pine apples, &c. The last of these fruits grow wild, and in
great abundance, in the woods of Chiquitos. We met it, particularly
the evening of our arrival, at Santa Ana. Its taste is excellent; but it
leaves in the mouth such a burning sensation that I bitterly repented
having tasted it. They cultivate in sufficient abundance, in the
province, jalap, Peruvian bark, sarsaparilla, vanilla, rocou, copahu,
ipecacuanha, caoutchouc, copal, &c. Woods for dyeing, cabinet
making, and building, abound; and the people of the country collect
carefully a multitude of gums, roots, and barks, to which they
attribute medicinal virtues the most varied. In many points in the
departments, and especially in the provinces of Valle Grande and
Cordilleras, iron is found, and traces of quicksilver. Gold is found in
the province of Cercado, near the village of San Xavier. The Jesuits
wrought mines of silver in the mountains of Colchis. Don Sebastian
Rancas, while governor of Chiquitos, announced to the government
that diamonds, of very fine water, had been found in the streams in
the environs of Santo Corazon."
September 4.—The shores of the river are low, but abrupt. The
lower strata next to the water's edge are of sand, hardening into
rock from the superincumbent pressure of the soil with its great
trees. There were a great many porpoises sporting in the river. At 3
p. m. we passed the narrow arm of the river that runs by Urarinas, a
small village situated on the left bank. The channel inside the island
seemed nearly dry. Ijurra, however, passed through it in a small
canoe, and bought some fowls and a small monkey at the pueblo.
The channel of the river runs near the right bank. Population of
Urarinas, eighty.

September 5.—The patos reales, a large and beautiful species of
duck with which the river abounds, are now breeding. We saw
numbers of pairs conducting their broods over the water. Though the
young ones could not fly, they could dive so long and fast that we
could not catch them. I brought home a pair of these ducks, and
find that they answer exactly to the description of the Egyptian
goose. They have small horns on their wings.
We met canoes of Tarapoto from the Ucayali with salt fish; also
one belonging to Urarinas, returning from carrying sarsaparilla to
Nauta.
September 6.—Passed the mouth of the small river Airico on the
left. One of our Indians says that the ascent of this river for a week
brings the traveller to a lake, and for another week, to mountains.
We have had quite heavy squalls of wind and rain every day
since entering the Amazon. The canoes are so low that they cannot
ride the waves of mid-river, and are compelled to haul in for the
land, and wait for the storm to pass. We saw alligators to-day, for
the first time.
September 7.—Arrived at Parinari. This is an Indian village of
three hundred and thirty inhabitants, situated on a hill on the right
bank of the river. It is about twenty feet above the present level of
the river, which rises, in the full, to within three feet of the houses.
The people live principally by fishing, and gathering sarsaparilla to
sell at Nauta. The lieutenant governor gave us some spirits made of
plantains. It was vile stuff; very strong; and is said to be
unwholesome.
September 8.—Saw Ronsocos; and the Fiscales killed six howling
monkeys with their pucunas. Passed the mouth of Tigre Yacu on the
left. It is seventy yards broad, and looks deep and free from
obstruction. Its waters are much clearer than those of the Amazon.
It is navigable for canoes a long way up; and a considerable quantity
of sarsaparilla is gathered on its banks, though inhabited by

savages, who are said to be warlike and dangerous. We camped at
night on an island near the middle of the river. A narrow island lay
between us and San Regis, a small pueblo on the left bank, whence
we could hear the sound of music and merry-making all night. It has
two hundred and ten inhabitants.
The Fiscales, cooking their big monkeys over a large fire on the
beach, presented a savage and most picturesque night scene. They
looked more like devils roasting human beings than like servants of
the church.
September 9.—Passed a channel called Pucati, which is a small
mouth of the Ucayali. It is now nearly dry. In the rainy season it is
passable for canoes; but spreads out so much in its course (forming
small lakes) that it leaves few places to kindle a fire on, or sleep;
and is, for this reason, little used. It takes three days to come
through it from the Ucayali to the Amazon; and six to traverse it the
other way. Soon after leaving this, we passed another small channel,
said to communicate with a large lake—a large one probably in the
full, when this whole country between the Ucayali, Amazon, and
channel of Pucati, is nearly overflowed. We arrived at Nauta at noon,
having travelled two hundred and ten miles from the mouth of the
Huallaga.
We called on the governor general of the Missions of Mainas,
Don José Maria Arebalo, who received us with some formality, and
gave us lodgings in one of the houses of the village—I suspect,
turning out the inhabitants for that purpose. My companion, Ijurra,
was not sure of a cordial reception; for, when sub-prefect of the
province, he had caused Arebalo to be arrested and carried prisoner
from Balza Puerto to Moyobamba. But our friend was much too
magnanimous to remember old feuds, and he and Ijurra soon
became boon companions.
Nauta is a fishing village of one thousand inhabitants, mostly
Indians of the Cocama tribe, which is distinct from that of the
Cocamillas of Laguna. It has a few white residents engaged in

trading with the Indians for salt fish, wax, and sarsaparilla, which
are obtained from the Ucayali. Don Bernardino Cauper, an old
Portuguese, does most of the business of the place. He sends parties
of Indians to fish or gather sarsaparilla upon the Napo and Ucuyali;
and he has two or three boats (called in this part of the country
garreteas) trading down the river as far as Egas. He supplies all the
country above with foreign articles from Brazil, and receives
consignments from the upper country, which he sends to Egas.
Don Bernardino lives in a sort of comfort. He has plenty of meat,
(calling turtle, salt fish, and fowls meat,) with farinha from below,
and beans and onions from his little garden. There is good tobacco
from above to smoke, and wholesome, though fiery, Lisbon wine to
drink. I have been frequently struck during my journey with the
comparative value of things. The richest man of a village of one
thousand inhabitants, in the United States, would think Bernardino's
table poorly supplied, and would turn up his nose at a grass
hammock slung between two hooks in the shop for a bed-place. Yet
these things were regal luxuries to us; and, doubtless, being the
best that are to be had, Don Bernardino is perfectly contented, and
desires nothing better.
The old gentleman is very pious. The Cura of Pebas was at this
time in Nauta, attending to the repairs of the church; and we
celebrated a nine-days' service (Novena) in honor of our Lady of
Mercy, the patroness of the arms of Peru. The expenses of the
service (being a fee for the padre and the lighting of the church with
wax) were borne by individuals. The padre gave the first day; then
Senhor Cauper; then his wife, his wife's sister, his son, his pretty
Brazilian niece, Donna Candida; then came Arebalo; then Ijurra and
I; the priest winding up on Sunday. But my old friend was not
contented with this; and when I shoved off on Monday for the
Ucayali, I left him engaged in another church service, setting off
rockets, and firing, from time to time, an old blunderbuss, loaded to
the muzzle, in honor of a miracle that had happened in Rimini, in

Italy, some year and a half ago, of which we had just received
intelligence.
The governor general gave me some statistics, from which it
appears that the province of Mainas is divided into the province
proper, (of which the capital is Moyobamba,) the upper and lower
Missions, and the Conversions of the Ucayali.
The upper Mission has four districts—Balza Puerto, Xeberos,
Laguna, and Andoas; containing seventeen villages, and nine
thousand nine hundred and eleven inhabitants. The lower Mission
has two districts—Nauta and Loreto, with seventeen villages, and
three thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine inhabitants. The
Conversions of the Ucayali are confined to the villages of Sarayacu,
Tierra Blanca, and Sta. Catalina, and number one thousand three
hundred and fifty inhabitants, mostly converts of the Panos tribe.
They are governed by priests of the College of Ocopa, who are
under the spiritual direction of its guardian; but hold their temporal
authority under the prefect of the department. Arebalo estimates the
number of whites in the Missions and Conversions—counting men,
women, and children—at four hundred and seven.
Both Missions are under the authority of a governor general,
who holds his commission from the sub-prefect of the province. Each
district has its governor, and each town its lieutenant governor. The
other authorities of a town are curacas, captains, lieutenants,
adjutants, ensigns, sergeants, alcaldes, and constables. (All these
are Indians.) The office of curaca is hereditary. The right of
succession is sometimes interfered with by the white governor; but
this always gives dissatisfaction, and is occasionally (added to other
grievances) the cause of rebellion and riot. The savages treat their
curaca with great respect, and submit to corporal punishment at his
mandate.
I know of no legal establishment in the Missions—the law
proceeding out of the mouths of the governors. Indians are
punished by flogging or confinement in the stocks; whites are

sometimes imprisoned; but if their offence is of a grave nature, they
are sent to be tried and judged by the courts of the capital.
Arebalo estimates the value of the commerce of the Missions
with Brazil at twenty thousand dollars annually; and that with the
Pacific coast, through Chachapoyas and Truxillo, at twenty thousand
more. The vegetable productions of the Missions do not equal the
value of the imports; but the people get some money from the coast
for their manufactures of coarse cotton and straw-hats; and a little
gold is occasionally obtained from the sands of the Napo and
Pastaza.
The Missions send to Chachapoyas and Truxillo tobacco, salt fish,
straw-hats, coarse cotton cloths, wax, incense for the churches,
balsam copaiba, and vanilla, and receive, in return, cattle, horses,
goods of Europe, and a little money. The Brazilians bring up heavy
articles—such as I described as composing the cargo of the traders
we met at Laguna; and take back straw-hats, hammocks of the
Indians, sarsaparilla, and money. The value of the sarsaparilla of the
Missions is estimated at two thousand dollars at the place of
production, and six thousand at its place of sale in Brazil; the value
of the wax at the same at the place of production; and at four
thousand dollars at place of sale. The greatest profit, however, is
made on the fish, of which thirty thousand pieces are taken annually
in the Ucayali and Amazon. It costs there about three cents the
piece; and is worth in Tarapoto, Lamas, and other places of the
province, about twelve and a half cents the piece.
Estimate of the expenses and returns of a canoe-load of salt-fish
from Nauta to Balza Puerto.
Estimate of the expenses and returns of a canoe-load of salt-fish
from Nauta to Balza Puerto.
Dr. A canoe-load of eight hundred pieces may be
bought in Nauta for one yard of English
cotton cloth (valued at twenty-five cents)
for every eight pieces $25 00

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Handbook of Software Quality Assurance 4th ed Edition G. Gordon Schulmeyer

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