Modern bio ii nutrition
- 3. Autotrophic species – self feeders, photosynthetic organisms or producers. Organisms are differentiated into two types: 1. Chlorophyll bearing – with green pigment. 2. Non chlorophyll bearing – absence of chlorophyll.
- 4. Autotrophs Plants Some Protists Some Bacteria Nearly all Archaea • Heterotrophs – Animals – Fungi – Most Protists – Most Bacteria
- 5. • Heterotroph 1. Saprophytes – mushrooms, bread molds and decay bacteria. 2. Parasites – depend on other organisms for survival.
- 6. Why do we see green? Green color from white light reflected NOT absorbed Chloroplast: organelle responsible for photosynthesis Chlorophyll: located within Chloroplast Green pigment
- 8. Photosynthesis – physico-chemical process by which plants use the energy from sunlight to produce sugar which cellular respiration converts into ATP.
- 9. In plants and simple animals, waste products are removed by diffusion. Plants, for example, excrete O2 , a product of photosynthesis.
- 11. 2 Phases Light reaction Dark reaction Light reaction: converts light energy into chemical energy; produces ATP molecules to be used to fuel light-independent reaction Dark reaction: uses ATP produced to make simple sugars.
- 12. LIGHT Reaction Requires light Occurs in chloroplast (in thylakoids) Chlorophyll (thylakoid) traps energy from light Light excites electron (e-) Kicks e- out of chlorophyll to an electron transport chain Electron transport chain: series of proteins in thylakoid membrane Bucket brigade
- 13. LIGHT Reaction Energy lost along electron transport chain Lost energy used to recharge ATP from ADP NADPH produced from e- transport chain Stores energy until transfer to stroma Plays important role in light-independent reaction Total byproducts: ATP, NADP, O2
- 14. LIGHT Reaction 2 types: 1. Photolysis/Hill reaction – compound is broken down by light. 2. Photophosphorylation – creating ATP by using a Proton gradient created by the Energy gathered by sunlight.
- 15. Dark Reaction Does not require light Calvin Cycle Occurs in stroma of chloroplast Requires CO2 Uses ATP and NADPH as fuel to run Makes glucose sugar from CO2 and Hydrogen
- 16. Soil is composed of minerals, organic matter, water, air, and organisms Soil is full of microorganisms that break down and recycle organic debris Most roots of plants are found within the topsoil Topsoil – a mixture of minerals, living organisms and humus (partly decayed organic matter)
- 18. Only minerals that are dissolved in water are available for uptake by roots Approximately one half of the soil volume is occupied by spaces known as pores, which may be filled with air or water Water held in small pores is readily available to plants
- 20. Plants require 9 macronutrients and 7 micronutrients Macronutrients – used by plant in large quantities Micronutrients – used by plant in trace amounts Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen (essential for amino acids), potassium, calcium, magnesium (the center of the chlorophyll molecule), phosphorus, and sulfur
- 21. Carnivorous plants have modified leaves adapted for luring and trapping prey Prey is digested with enzymes secreted from specialized glands
- 22. Pitcher plants (common in northeast bogs) – have pitcher-shaped leaves with cavity filled with digestive fluid
- 23. Venus flytrap – (grows in bogs in North and South Carolina) – has 3 sensitive hairs on each side of leaf that, when touched, trigger the two halves of the leaf to snap together Once the prey is enfolded within a leaf, secreted enzymes from leaf surfaces digest the prey
- 25. Sundews – secrete sticky mucilage, which traps small animals, and digestive enzymes
- 26. Epiphytes – an organism that grows upon, or attaches to a living plant Most commonly refers to higher plants, but can also include bacteria, fungi, lichens, mosses, and ferns “Air plants” – do not root in the soil Obtain moisture from the air or from dampness (rain and cloud moisture) on the surface of their hosts
- 29. The human digestive system is a marvel of nutritional storage and acquisition!
- 30. Process of nutrition 1.Ingestion – process of taking food into the body. 2.Digestion – process of converting complex food into simple forms. Mechanical and Chemical Digestion 3. Absorption – nutrients are taken into the cells.
- 31. 4. Assimilation – utilizing nutrients for various functions. 5. Egestion – process of excreting unusable or undigested material from cell or digestive tract.
- 32. Animals are classified on how they obtain food: Herbivores are animals that eat plants exclusively Carnivores are animals that eat other animals Omnivores are animals that eat both plants and other animals
- 33. Animals are classified on how they obtain food: Scavengers are animals that eat dead animals. Insectivores are animals that feed on insects.
- 35. - Series of tubelike organs that convert food into energy and convert waste into excretable materials.
- 36. Ingested food may be stored or first subjected to physical fragmentation Chemical digestion occurs next, which breaks the food down into subunit molecules Food particles then pass through the gut’s epithelial lining into the blood (absorption) Wastes are excreted from the anus
- 37. Digestive Tract – tubular passage of mucous membrane and muscle extending about 8.3 meters from mouth to anus. Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines and anus.
- 38. Mouth Accessory Organs 1. Teeth – hard bonelike structures in the jaws. 1.1 Temporary teeth – primary teeth (20) 1.2 Permanent teeth – (32) after the age of 6.
- 39. Mouth Incisors – front four teeth. Canines – longest and most stable teeth. Premolars – transitional teeth between canine and molar. Molar – large and flat surface.
- 40. Tongue – fleshy, movable, muscular organ attached to the floor of the mouth. Papillae – raised protrusions where majority of the taste buds are located.
- 42. 4 types of papillae: 1.Fungiform – slightly mushroom shaped located at the apex. 2.Filiform – thin, long V-shaped cones without taste buds. 3.Foliate – ridges and grooves at posterior part of tongue. 4.Circumvallate – 3-14 in number present at the back of the oral part of the tongue.
- 43. Pharynx – passageway for air and food. 3 parts: 1.Nasopharynx – nasal cavities 2.Oropharynx – palatine tonsils 3.Laryngopharynx – esophagus
- 44. Esophagus Straight muscular tube connecting the oral cavity to the stomach. 4 basic layers: 1.Mucosa – mucous 2.Submucosa – mucous secreting gland (papillae) 3.Muscularis – upper part 4.Adventitia – outermost layer.
- 45. Stomach Muscular J – shaped organ that lies between esophagus and small intestine. Sphincter – located between esophagus and stomach. Pyloric valve – between stomach and small intestine.
- 46. Secretes: Gastric juices and gastrin (hormone) 3 general areas: 1. Fundus – upper portion 2. Body – middle 3. Antrum – pyloric sphincter.
- 47. Small Intestine Longest portion (22- 25ft) Digestion and nutrient absorption is completed.
- 48. 3 parts: 1. Duodenum – receives partly digested food, bile and other enzymes. 2. Jejunum – mid section 3. Ileum – final portion
- 49. Large Intestine Expanded tube which serves as temporary storage of waste product.
- 50. Accessory digestive organs Liver – largest organ in body; produces bile which emulsifies fat Gallbladder – stores and concentrates the bile Pancreas – produces pancreatic juice which contains digestive enzymes Bile and pancreatic juice are secreted into the small intestine
- 51. Liver – chemically modifies substances absorbed from the digestive tract before they reach the rest of the body Removes toxins and carcinogens, converting them to less toxic forms Regulates levels of steroid hormones (makes them more water soluble) Produces most proteins found in blood plasma
- 52. Digestive Glands – produce secretion needed for conversion of complex food to simple substance. A. Salivary Glands – produces Saliva Saliva – contains 99% of water Mucin – present in saliva which helps in lubrication. Salivary Amylase (ptyalin) digests starch into simple substance.
- 53. 3 major glands that secrete saliva: 1. Parotid – between the ear and back of lower jaw. 2. Submaxillary – lower side of the jaw. 3. Sublingual – floor of the mouth near the chin.
- 54. Liver – largest gland on the upper ride of abdomen. Secretes: Bile juice and bile salts – helps in neutralization Bilirubin and Biliverdin – greenish yellow pigment in bile juice. Bile juice – removes wastes from blood stream. Bile salts – emulsification of fats
- 56. Functions of Liver: Digestion of fats Converts glucose to glycogen in controlling blood sugar Deamination of amino acids Storehouse of fats, glucose, vit. A,D,E,K, iron and copper Stores water
- 57. Functions of Liver: Produces RBCs in embryo Destroys old RBC in adults Produces heparin (clotting factor) Metabolizes toxic chemicals Produces 80% cholesterol of human body.
- 58. Pancreas - Long, yellowish, irregularly shaped gland beneath the stomach and connected to small intestines. - Secretes digestive enzymes and hormones. - Neutralizes chyme and break down proteins, fats and starch. - Secretes insulin and glucagon in blood stream.
- 59. Gastric glands – branched, tubular glands in the mucosa of the fundus and body of stomach. Secretes: HCl Zymogen (produces pepsin) Mucous cells(mucus)
- 60. Intestinal glands – simple tubular glands located in the mucous membrane of the intestine. Secretes: Sucrase Maltase Endo and exopeptidases Secretory cells
- 61. In general, carnivores have shorter intestines for their size than herbivores Herbivores ingest a large amount of plant cellulose, which resists digestion; these animals have a long, convoluted small intestine
- 62. In the mouth, food is physically broken down by teeth (mastication) Similar in function to the gizzard of birds and worms Salivary glands excrete saliva Antibacterial agents, mucin production Breaks down starch into glucose Controlled by the nervous system; tasting, smelling, or even thinking about food stimulates salivation
- 64. Vertebrate teeth are adapted to their food source Carnivorous teeth are pointed that lack flat grinding surfaces Herbivores have large, flat teeth suited for grinding cellulose cell walls of plant tissues Humans (omnivores) have carnivore-like teeth in the front and herbivore-like teeth in the back
- 65. Swallowing is initiated by voluntary action, but is continued under involuntary control When food is ready to be swallowed, the tongue moves it to the back of the mouth In mammals, the soft palate elevates, pushing against the back of the wall of the pharynx Elevation of the soft palate seals off the nasal cavity Pressure against the pharynx triggers the swallowing reflex
- 66. Bolus (food)
- 67. The uvula is the projection from the posterior edge of the middle of the soft palate Not to be confused with the epiglottis Plays a key role in the articulation of sound Initiates the gag reflex Can contribute to snoring
- 68. The esophagus actively moves a processed lump of food (bolus) through muscular action Swallowing stimulates successive, uni- directional waves of contraction that move food along the esophagus into the stomach peristalsis
- 70. The stomach is a sac-like portion of tract Has convoluted surface, allowing expansion Stores food (functions as crop of other animals) Contains an extra layer of smooth muscles for churning food and mixing it with gastric juice – an acidic secretion of the tubular gastric glands of the mucosa
- 71. Parietal cells of stomach secrete hydochloric acid (HCl) Chief cells secrete pepsinogen (inactive), which becomes pepsin (active) at low pH (~2) 2 liters of HCl and other secretions is produced by human stomach every day! The low pH of the stomach helps denature proteins
- 72. Acidity of stomach also kills most bacteria ingested with food Overproduction of gastric acid can lead to ulcers, a hole through the wall of the stomach The mixture of partially-digested food and gastric juice is called chyme; chyme leaves the stomach and enters the small intestine
- 74. Site of terminal digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins Site of absorption of products of digestion (amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, etc) Efficient digestion takes time, and so only small amounts of chyme may be introduced into the small intestine at any one time
- 75. Longest part of the digestive tract Up to 6 meters in humans Consists of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum Duodenum – first 25 cm; site of most digestion, receives enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver and gallbladder Jejunum and ileum – site of absorption • Very large surface area (3200 ft2 ) – folds, villi and microvilli – Similar to function of mycorrhizae
- 77. From liver Gallbladder Pancreatic duct PancreasCommon bile duct Duodenum β cell α cell Pancreatic islet (of Langerhans) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
- 78. The large intestine concentrates and stores wastes Much shorter than the small intestine, but larger diameter Small intestine empties directly into the large intestine at a junction where 2 vestigal structures remain The cecum and appendix
- 80. No digestion occurs Absorption of water, remaining electrolytes and vitamin K (products of bacterial metabolism) Many bacteria live and reproduce within the large intestine; excess bacteria are incorporated into the feces Feces are moved along by peristalsis and exit the body through the anus
- 81. Animals lack the enzymes necessary to digest cellulose, the structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants However, the digestive tracts of some animals contain bacteria and protists that convert the otherwise undigestable cellulose into substances that the host can absorb
- 82. The activities of the gastrointestinal tract are coordinated by the nervous system and the endocrine system The nervous system stimulates salivary and gastric secretions in response to sight, smell, and consumption of food When food arrives in the stomach, proteins in the food stimulate the secretion of gastrin, which triggers the release of HCl and pepsinogen from the gastric glands
- 83. After a carbohydrate-rich meal, the liver and skeletal muscles remove excess glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen During fasting or exercise (low levels of glucose), an increased secretion of glucagon by the pancreas promotes the breakdown of glycogen and release glucose (glycogenolysis)
- 85. Type 1 diabetes – insulin-dependent diabetes, common in children Too much glucose, little or no insulin (mutation, no insulin made or non-functional), glucose excreted in urine Type 2 diabetes – insulin-independent diabetes, adult onset Normal or elevated levels of insulin, but cells no longer respond to the insulin Insulin is the only hormone that decreases glucose in the body
Editor's Notes
- #4: Organic compounds – such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats; photosynthesis or oxidation of (electron donating) inorganic compounds such as sulfur, CO2, iron Producers – such as plants on land or algae in the water
- #5: Remember photosynthesis evolved in bacteria (cyanobacteria) Archea (extremophiles) – include methanogens (produce methane as a byproduct from CO2) , common in wetlands, produce marsh gas by oxidizing sulfur products
- #6: Remember photosynthesis evolved in bacteria (cyanobacteria) Archea (extremophiles) – include methanogens (produce methane as a byproduct from CO2) , common in wetlands, produce marsh gas by oxidizing sulfur products
- #9: Require “various” nutrients Much of the activity that supports plant life is hidden within the soil “naturally occurring” elements In the pine barrens, the soil is mostly sand, nutrient-poor – distinctive vegetation – scrub oak, pitch pine (including pines that require periodic fire to release seeds); LI formed by glaciers, glacial morraine A rock is an aggregate of minerals; minerals may be important nutrients
- #18: Note earthworm, could also have moles, beetles, centipedes, slugs, bacteria and fungi
- #19: In water… “within the spaces or pores among soil particles” Some of this water is unavailable because it drains immediately due to gravity
- #20: Without some space for air circulation in the soil, roots cannot respire; plants absorb oxygen through all parts of them and this includes their leaves, flowers and their roots. This is why you can drown a plant by watering it too much, thereby preventing the roots from absorbing oxygen. Plants that grow in wet soil, such as rice, will often have air pockets in their roots where they store oxygen absorbed by the parts of the plant above the soil. b) a balance of air and water is essential for root growth c) too little water prevents transpiration in plants
- #21: C,O,H found in all organic compounds Micronuts include chlorine, iron, manganese, zinc, boron, copper and molybdenum
- #26: They do not close rapidly
- #27: Not necessarily parasitic – some just grow on, do not obtain nutrition from, their hosts
- #28: Spanish moss (bromeliad); fern
- #29: 6lb burger, a ft and a half across
- #30: 2 hours, 23 minutes
- #37: Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds; Stones have been swallowed Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids) Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
- #38: Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds; Stones have been swallowed Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids) Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
- #39: Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds; Stones have been swallowed Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids) Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
- #40: Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds; Stones have been swallowed Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids) Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
- #41: Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds; Stones have been swallowed Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids) Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
- #42: Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds; Stones have been swallowed Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids) Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
- #43: Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds; Stones have been swallowed Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids) Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
- #44: Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds; Stones have been swallowed Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids) Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
- #45: Saliva breaks down starch into glucose Pharynx – common passage of nasal and oral cavities; pharynx leads to the esophoagus In stomach, any bacteria are killed, food is broken down into smaller pieces to create larger surface area for food digestion From the stomach, food passes to the small intestine
- #46: Cloaca – receives products of digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts Large intestine consists of cecum and colon (cecum is first part)
- #47: Cloaca – receives products of digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts Large intestine consists of cecum and colon (cecum is first part)
- #48: Cloaca – receives products of digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts Large intestine consists of cecum and colon (cecum is first part)
- #49: Cloaca – receives products of digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts Large intestine consists of cecum and colon (cecum is first part)
- #50: Cloaca – receives products of digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts Large intestine consists of cecum and colon (cecum is first part)
- #52: Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
- #53: Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
- #54: Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
- #55: Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
- #57: Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
- #58: Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
- #59: Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
- #60: Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
- #61: Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
- #63: The road to wellville Pavlov’s dog; mucin – mucus – makes food slippery
- #64: Ingested pebbles pulverize food in gizzard; crop – a storage organ, moisture added, makes food softer esp. for seed eaters; pidgeons produce crop milk to feed baby pigeons (male or female)
- #67: Larynx = voicebox Epiglotus is not the same as the uvula; prevents food from entering trachea
- #71: Folds up when empty, expands like a balloon as it fills with food
- #72: In humans, only proteins are digested in stomach (not fats or carbs)
- #74: Pyloric sphincter – junction b/w stomach and small intestine
- #75: (stomach – stores food)
- #77: Villi are fingerlike projections – greatly increase the surface area of the small intestine
- #78: Pancreas also functions as an endocrine gland – secerets hormones into the blood that control the blood level of glucose and other nutrients, produced in the Islet of Langerhans
- #79: Cecum – in herbivoes – host a large number of bacteria Appendix – believed to have no function, however, the appendix produces and protects bacteria that are beneficial
- #81: Bacterial fermentation produces gas within the colon; increases greatly after consumption of beans or other types of vegetables b/c the passage of undigested plant material (fiber) into the large intestine provides substrate for bacterial fermentation Vit K is required for blood cotting
- #83: Other hormones listed in book, not going to cover in class (exam?)
- #85: Secretion of insulin by the pancreatic inlets after a meal; insulin stimulates opening of cell of channels for glucose to enter cell (stimulates the uptake of glucose from blood)
- #86: Must administer insulin for type I Type II – small meals at regular intervals, control diet, exercise, some target cells remain