Organisational designs and structures, traditional & contemporary organisational designs

Editor's Notes

• #4: When organizing work, managers need to clarify who reports to whom, which is know as the chain of command—that is, the line of authority extending from upper to lower organizational levels. Authority refers to the rights inherent in a managerial position to give orders and expect the orders to be obeyed. Authority is a major concept discussed by the early management writers, who viewed it as the glue that held an organization together. Each management position had specific inherent rights associated with the position’s rank or title. When managers delegate authority, they must allocate commensurate responsibility. That is, when employees are given rights they also assume a corresponding obligation to perform and be held accountable for their performance. Early management writers distinguished between two forms of authority: line authority and staff authority. Line authority entitles a manager to direct the work of an employee according to the chain of command, which is shown here in Exhibit 6-3. In the chain of command, every manager is subject to the direction of his or her superior. Sometimes the term ”line” is used to differentiate line managers from staff managers. In this context, line refers to managers whose organizational function contributes directly to the achievement of organizational objectives. Whether a manager’s function is classified as line or staff depends on the organization’s objectives.
• #6: Organizing is the management function that creates the organization’s structure. When managers develop or change the organization’s structure, they’re engaging in organization design, which is the process of making decisions about how specialized jobs should be, the rules to guide employees’ behaviors, and the level at which decisions will be made. Organizing and organizational structure have undergone much change in the 80 years since the basic concepts of organization design were formulated by management writers such as Henri Fayol and Max Weber. Let’s now look a the six basic elements of organizational structure: Work specialization Departmentalization Authority and responsibility Span of control Centralization versus decentralization, and Formalization.
• #7: Work specialization is the degree to which tasks in an organization are divided into separate jobs. Most managers today see work specialization as an important organizing mechanism but not as a source of ever-increasing productivity.
• #8: Departmentalization. Once work tasks have been defined, they must be grouped together in some way through a process called departmentalization—the basis on which jobs are grouped in order to accomplish organizational goals. There are five major ways to departmentalize (Exhibit 9.2): 1. Functional departmentalization is grouping jobs by functions performed. 2. Product departmentalization is grouping jobs by product line. 3. Geographical departmentalization is grouping jobs on the basis of territory or geography. 4. Process departmentalization is grouping jobs on the basis of product or customer flow. 5. Customer departmentalization is grouping jobs on the basis of common customers. 6. Two popular trends in departmentalization include: a. Customer departmentalization continues to be a highly popular approach because it allows better monitoring of customers’ needs and responding to those changes in needs. b. Cross-functional teams, a hybrid grouping of individuals who are experts in various specialties (or functions) and who work together, are being used along with traditional departmental arrangements.
• #9: Early management writers argued that common work activities needed to be grouped together to get them done in a coordinated and integrated way. How jobs are grouped together is called departmentalization. There are five common forms of departmentalization (as seen in Exhibit 6-2), although an organization may use its own unique method. Functional departmentalization, or grouping activities by function—such as engineering, accounting, information systems, and human resources—is one of the most popular ways of organizing the workplace. Its major advantage is that it achieves economies of scale by placing people with common skills and specializations into common units. Product departmentalization groups employees according based on a corporation’s major product areas. Each product is under the authority of a senior manager who is a specialist in, and is responsible for, everything related to his or her product line. The advantage of product grouping is that it increases accountability for product performance because all activities related to a specific product are under the direction of a single manager. 3. Employees can also be grouped by the type of customer an organization seeks to reach. For example, the sales activities in an office supply firm can be divided into three departments that serve retail, wholesale, and government customers, respectively. The assumption underlying customer departmentalization is that customers in each department have a common set of problems and needs that can best be met by specialists. 4. Another way to departmentalize is on the basis of geography or territory, which is called geographic departmentalization. The sales function might have western, southern, midwestern, and eastern regions. 5. Process departmentalization groups activities on the basis of work or customer flow. Examples of process departmentalizaiton can be found in many states’ motor vehicle offices and in health care clinics. Units are organized around common skills needed to complete a certain process. It is interesting to note that some companies, such as Black & Decker, organize their divisions along functional lines, their manufacturing units around processes, their sales around geographic regions, and their sales regions around customer groupings. Still other organizations use cross-functional teams, which are teams comprised of individuals from various departments who tackle complex tasks in which diverse skills are needed. Note also that today’s competitive environment has refocused the attention of management on its customers, so many organizations are placing greater emphasis on customer departmentalization.
• #10: 1. Authority is the right inherent in a managerial position to tell people what to do and to expect them to do it. 2. Responsibility is the obligation or expectation to perform. Responsibility brings with it accountability, which is the need to report and justify work to a manager’s superiors. 3. Unity of command is the classical management principle that a subordinate should have one and only one superior to whom he or she is directly responsible; that is, a person should report to only one manager. a. Because managers have limited time and knowledge, they may choose to delegate some of their responsibilities to other employees. Delegation is the assignment of authority to another person to carry out specific duties, allowing employees to make some of the decisions.
• #11: The chain of command is the continuous line of authority that extends from the upper organizational levels to the lowest levels and clarifies who reports to whom. Three related concepts include authority, responsibility, and unity of command.
• #12: a. Line managers are responsible for the essential activities of the organization, including production and sales. b. Staff managers have advisory authority, and cannot issue orders to those in the chain of command, except for those in their own department.
• #13: The concept of span of control refers to the number of subordinates a manager can supervise effectively and efficiently. 1. The span of control concept is important because it determines how many levels and managers an organization will have (see Exhibit 9.3 for an example). 2. What determines the “ideal” span of control? Contingency factors such as the skills and abilities of the manager and the employees, the characteristics of the work being done, similarity of employee tasks, the complexity of those tasks, the physical proximity of subordinates, the degree to which standardized procedures are in place, the sophistication of the organization’s information system, the strength of the organization’s culture, and the preferred style of the manager will influence the ideal number of subordinates. 3. The trend in recent years has been toward larger spans of control.
• #14: The concepts of centralization and decentralization address who, where, and how decisions are made in organizations. 1.Centralization is the degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization, usually in the upper levels of the organization. 2.Decentralization is the handing down of decision-making authority to lower levels in an organization. 3.The trend is toward decentralizing decision making in order to make organizations more flexible and responsive. 4.Employee empowerment is another term for increased decentralization and is the increasing of the decision-making discretion of employees. 5.A number of factors will influence the amount of centralization or decentralization an organization uses (see Exhibit 9.4).
• #15: Formalization refers to the degree to which jobs within an organization are standardized and the extent to which employee behaviour is guided by rules and procedures. 1. In a highly formalized organization, employees have little discretion, and there’s a high level of consistent and uniform output. Formalized organizations have explicit job descriptions, lots of organizational rules, and clearly defined procedures. 2. In a less-formalized organization, employees have a lot of freedom and can exercise discretion in the way they do their work. 3. Standardization not only eliminates the possibility that employees will engage in alternative behaviours, it even removes the need for employees to consider alternatives. 4. The degree of formalization can vary widely between organizations and even within organizations.
• #16: Organizations don’t have the same structures. Even companies of similar size do not necessarily have similar structures. A. Mechanistic and Organic organizational forms (see Exhibit 9.5). 1)A mechanistic organization is an organizational structure that’s characterized by high specialization, rigid departmentalization, narrow spans of control, high formalization, a limited information network, and little participation in decision making by low-level employees. 2)An organic organization is a structure that’s highly adaptive and flexible with little work specialization, minimal formalization, and little direct supervision of employees. 3)When is each design favoured? It “depends” on the contingency variables.
• #17: 1. Strategy and Structure. One of the contingency variables that influences organizational design is the organization’s strategy. a. Most current strategy-structure frameworks tend to focus on three strategy dimensions: 1) Innovation—needs the flexibility and free flow of information of the organic organization 2) Cost minimization—needs the efficiency, stability, and tight controls of the mechanistic organization 3) Imitation—which uses characteristics of both mechanistic and organic 2. Size and Structure. There’s considerable historical evidence that an organization’s size significantly affects its structure. Larger organizations tend to have more specialization, departmentalization, centralization, and formalization although the size-structure relationship is not linear.
• #19: 3. Technology also has been shown to affect an organization’s choice of structure. a. Every organization uses some form of technology to transform inputs into outputs. b. Joan Woodward’s study of structure and technology found that organizations adapted to their technology. She found that three distinct technologies had increasing levels of complexity and sophistication. 1) Unit production is the production of items in units or small batches. 2) Mass production is large-batch manufacturing. 3) Process production is continuous-process production. c. Woodward found in her study of these three groups that distinct relationships existed between these technologies, the subsequent structure of the organization, and the effectiveness of the organization. Exhibit 9.6 provides a summary of these findings.
• #20: The final contingency factor that has been shown to affect organizational structure is environmental uncertainty. One way to manage environmental uncertainty is through adjustments in the organization’s structure. The more uncertain the environment, the more flexible and responsive the organization may need to be.
• #21: We now need to look at various organizational designs that you might see in today’s organizations. Exhibit 9.7 summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of each of these designs. 1. A simple structure is an organizational design with low departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization. a.Its strengths are its flexibility, speed, and low cost to maintain. b.Its major drawback is that it’s most effective in small organizations. 2. As an organization grows, the structure tends to become more specialized and formalized. When contingency factors favour a bureaucratic or mechanistic design, one of two options is likely to be used. 3. One option expands functional departmentalization into the functional structure, which is an organizational design that groups similar or related occupational specialties together. 4. The other option is the divisional structure, which is an organizational structure made up of autonomous, self-contained units.
• #22: However, many of today’s organizations are finding that the traditional hierarchical organizational designs aren’t appropriate for the increasingly dynamic and complex environments they face. 1. Team structures. One of the newer concepts in organizational design is the team structure, which is an organizational structure made up of work groups or teams that perform the organization’s work. 2. Matrix and Project Structures. Another variation in organizational arrangements is based on the fact that many of today’s organizations deal with work activities of different time requirements and magnitude. a. One of these arrangements is the matrix organization, which assigns specialists from different functional departments to work on one or more projects being led by project managers (see Exhibit 9.9). b. Another of these designs is the project structure, which is a structure in which employees are permanently assigned to projects.
• #24: A matrix organization assigns specialists from different functional departments to work on one or more projects being led by project managers (see Exhibit 9.9).
• #25: Another approach to organizational design is the boundaryless organization, which describes an organization whose design is not defined by, or limited to, the horizontal, vertical, or external boundaries imposed by a predefined structure.
• #26: a. A virtual organization is one that consists of a small core of full-time employees and that temporarily hires outside specialists to work on opportunities that arise b. A network organization is a small core organization that outsources major business functions c. A modular organization is a manufacturing organization that uses outside suppliers to provide product components that are then assembled into final products.
• #27: Some organizations have adopted an organizational philosophy of a learning organization—an organization that has developed the continuous capacity to adapt and change because all members take an active role in identifying and resolving work-related issues. Exhibit 9.10 shows the characteristics of a learning organization.
• #28: Exhibit 9.10 shows the characteristics of a learning organization.