Ph. D. progress seminar report- Hritankhi Tripathy.pdf

Ph.D. Progress Report
on
Fabrication of In2S3-based Hydrogels as a
Multifunctional Photocatalyst for Environmental
Remediation and Energy Application
Submitted by
Hritankhi Tripathy (523CH3001)
Under the supervision of
Prof. Arvind Kumar,
Associate Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha, 769008
August 2025

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CONTENTS
Sl. No. TITLE Page No.
1 Introduction 3
2 Literature review 4
2.1 Research Gap 5
2.2 Objective 6
3 Materials and methods 6
3.1 Chemicals required 6
3.2 Preparation Methods 6
4 Results and discussions 7
5 Conclusion 17
6 Work Plan 17
7 References 17

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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No. Title Page No.
Fig. 1 Preparation of In2S3 and In2S3 hydrogel 7
Fig. 2 (a) XRD spectra, (b) FTIR spectra, (c) Photoluminescence (d) UV-DRS (e)
Tauc plot In2S3- TA Hydrogel
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Fig. 3 FESEM of In2S3 and In2S3-TA hydrogel with EDX 9
Fig. 4 I. (a) FTIR spectra; (b) XRD spectra, II. FESEM of prepared catalysts of
ICS Hydrogel
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Fig. 5 (a) DRS spectra, (b)Tauc plot, (c) Bode plot, (d) EIS spectra, (e)X-ray
photoelectron spectra of developed photocatalysts.
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Fig. 6 I. (a) FTIR spectra; (b) XRD spectra, II. FESEM of prepared catalysts of
ICB Hydrogel
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Fig. 7 (a) DRS spectra, (b)Tauc plot, (c) (d) (e) Mott-Schottky, (f) PL spectra (g)
EIS spectra, (e)X-ray photoelectron spectra of developed photocatalysts
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Fig. 8 (a) effect of concentration, (b) catalyst dosage, (c) effect of time (d)
reusability, (e)pH, (f) effect of temperature, (g) water matrix of In2S3-TA
Hydrogel.
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Fig. 9 (a) Photocatalytic degradation efficiency of different photocatalysts, (b)
SMX degradation efficacy of different catalysts via PMS activation, (c-d)
Kinetic plot of SMX degradation and corresponding rate constants, (e)
reusability of photocatalytic hydrogel, (f) Residual PMS concentration in
photocatalytic-PMS system.
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Fig. 11 (a) Influence of initial concentration, (b) Effect of catalyst dosage, (c) Effect
of PMS dosage, (d) Effect of initial pH, (e) Influence of Co-ions and (f)
Effect of different water matrices on SMX degradation via PMS activation
under LED lamp.
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Fig. 12 (a) Photocatalytic degradation efficiency of the photocatalysts, (b) SMX
degradation efficiency of different photocatalysts, (c) Kinetic plot of SMX
degradation and corresponding rate constants, (d) Influence of initial
concentration, (e) Effect of catalyst loading, (f) Effect of initial pH on SMX
degradation by ICB Hydrogel.
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Fig. 13 (a) Effect of co-ions (b) Effect of water matrices on SMX degradation via
photocatalytic-PMS activation, (c) SMX degradation efficiency of ICB
hydrogels under sunlight, (d) Reusability of ICB hydrogels, (e) ) Scavenging
experiments.
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Fig. 14 Photocatalytic production of H2O2 using (a) water sacrificial agent, (b)
isopropanol as sacrificial agent, (c) Effect of catalyst loading on
H2O2 production, and (d) Reusability of ICB hydrogels.
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LIST OF TABLES
Sl. No. Title Page No.
1 List of degradation of different pollutants by In2S3-based catalysts 4

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1. Introduction
Water pollution and energy shortages are two critical global challenges that demand immediate attention [1]. The
increasing presence of persistent organic pollutants in water systems has led to widespread environmental
degradation and public health concerns [2,14]. Among these pollutants, antibiotics like sulfamethoxazole (SMX)
have emerged as particularly problematic due to their chemical stability, high solubility, and resistance to
traditional treatment methods [3,4]. This has resulted in their accumulation in aquatic environments, leading to
ecological disruptions and the potential development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria [5,11].
To address these challenges, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have emerged as effective treatment techniques
[6,13]. Among the various AOPs, photocatalysis has gained significant attention due to its eco-friendly nature,
ability to utilize sunlight, and minimal chemical requirements. Photocatalysis involves the use of semiconductors
that, when activated by light, generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) capable of degrading pollutants at the
molecular level [7,8,15].
Indium sulfide (In2S3) is a semiconductor material suitable for applications in photovoltaics, photocatalysis, and
optoelectronic devices [9,10-14, 21]. The bandgap of indium sulfide (In2S3) is an important parameter governing
its photocatalytic properties [10,16-19]. With a bandgap typically ranging from 2.0 to 2.4 electron volts (eV),
In2S3 is positioned in the visible light spectrum, enabling efficient utilization of solar energy for photocatalytic
applications such as wastewater remediation, hydrogen production [26,27], and carbon dioxide
sequestration [22−25]. However, In2S3 also exhibits certain drawbacks, such as limited charge carrier mobility
and rapid recombination rates of photogenerated electron–hole pairs, leading to reduced photocatalytic efficiency
and stability over prolonged usage. These disadvantages can be addressed via doping, dimensional engineering,
defect engineering, and heterojunction construction [1,28]. Among different modification strategies, constructing
heterojunctions is an efficient and practical approach, improving the charge separation efficacy and extending the
photo responsive absorption range in the solar spectrum [25]. Z-scheme heterojunction photocatalysts are
designed with enriched photo-oxidation materials (Semiconductor-II) and reduction materials (Semiconductor-I)
to develop a catalytic system possessing higher redox potential [29]. In this system, the accumulated electrons in
the conduction band of the semiconductor-II of the heterojunction can easily migrate to the valence band of the
semiconductor-I, where they recombine with the photoinduced holes [30].
Commonly, the photocatalysts are typically found in powder form, posing significant challenges for recycling due
to their small size [31]. To overcome this hurdle, a promising approach involves anchoring the nanocatalysts onto
active and sustainable support materials [32,33]. Among different catalytic supports, natural biopolymer sodium
alginate was chosen as base material due to its environmental friendliness, suitability, biodegradability, and ability
to form different structures such as thin films, hydrogels, and composites [2, 34-35]. Hydrogels are renowned for
their porous structure, expansive surface area, remarkable hydrophilicity, and slightly improved adsorption
characteristics, which offer a compelling option for such immobilization in a range of applications [36]. Yet, it is
important to acknowledge that utilizing hydrogels in wastewater treatment primarily hinges on adsorption, lacking
the capability to degrade noxious contaminants or achieve self-regeneration effectively. The concept of
photocatalytic hydrogels has attracted more research interest due to their higher reusability and ease of
recoverability. Also, the improved optical properties and migration of charge carriers upon forming alginate

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hydrogel may benefit from enhancing the catalytic potential [37]. Thus, for the first time, we report indium-
sulfide-based ternary photocatalytic hydrogels for wastewater remediation.
The integration of In2S3 into hydrogel matrices represents a significant advancement in photocatalysis. Hydrogels,
with their high-water retention capacity, porosity, and tunable properties, prov
ide an ideal platform for embedding photocatalysts. They enhance the photocatalytic activity and stability of the
embedded materials, making them suitable for sustainable and efficient pollutant degradation. This study focuses
on developing In2S3-based hydrogels for the photocatalytic degradation of SMX, providing a comprehensive
analysis of their synthesis, characterization, and performance.
2. Literature review
In2S3-based photocatalysts have been extensively studied for the degradation of various pollutants, demonstrating
remarkable efficiency when combined with other materials.
Table 1: List of degradation of different pollutants by In2S3-based catalysts
Composite Pollutant Degradation
Time (minutes)
Degradation
Efficiency (%)
Preparation
Method
Citation
In2S3/Ti3C2 MXene
Quantum-dots/
SmFeO3
Sulfamethoxazole
120 98.0 % Solvothermal
[1]
In2S3 Methyl orange 150 89.4 Hydrothermal [5]
ZnO/ZnS/In2S3 Rhodamine B 17x of ZnO - Hydrothermal [7]
Fe-In2S3 hollow
nanotube
Tetracycline - 100 Solvothermal [8]
In2S3@Au@P3HT Phenol 80 85 Hydrothermal [10]
In2S3-MxInySz
(M = Bi or La)
Azo-dyes and
Cr(VI)
- - Cation exchange
reaction
[11]
InXS3- C Lignosulfonate 30 90 One-pot [12]
In2S3/WS2 Paraben 90 >85 Hydrothermal [16]
In2S3/BiOIO₃ Organic pollutants 100 98.6 In-situ
construction
[18]
TiO2@In2S3 Methylene blue 100 60 Hydrothermal [19]
Yb₂O₃/In2S3 Norfloxacin 45 96.4 Ultrasonic-
assisted anchoring
[23]

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In₂S₃/Polyimide Organic pollutants 60 92.3 Ultrasonication [24]
Ag/HAp/In2S3 QDs Tinidazole 30 96.32 Solvothermal [26]
SrxIn2-xS3 Rhodamine B 240 98 Hydrothermal [27]
Ni-In2S3 tube Ciprofloxacin 240 97.7 In-situ [28]
β–In2S3/
g–C₃N₄/WO₃
(Z-scheme)
Tetracycline 300 92.4 Hydrothermal
synthesis
[29]
S-scheme
In₂S₃/Zn₃In₂S₆
Bisphenol A 60 92.7 Hydrothermal [30]
β–In2S3 decorated
g − C3N4/WO3
Tetracycline 140 96.4 Hydrothermal [31]
In2S3–BiOCl Rhodamine B 45 98,6 Hydrothermal [32]
TiO₂(B)/In2S3
spheres
Rhodamine B 20 99.9 Hydrothermal [35]
In2S3/In₂O₃
(S-scheme)
Tetracycline 60 89.2 In-situ [37]
CuFe₂O₄/In2S3 Tetracycline 150 95.2 Physical
composite method
[38]
These studies collectively highlight the versatility and efficacy of In2S3-based composites for degrading various
pollutants, providing a foundation for future advancements in photocatalytic wastewater treatment.
2.1. Research Gap
▪ Rapid Charge Carrier Recombination: Despite its promising properties, In2S3 suffers from significant
recombination of photogenerated charge carriers, which reduces its photocatalytic efficiency.
▪ Limited Surface Area and Poor Dispersibility: The low surface area and agglomeration of In2S3
particles limit the active sites available for photocatalytic reactions.
▪ Lack of Comprehensive Hydrogel Integration Studies: The potential of hydrogel matrices to enhance
the dispersibility, surface area, and stability of In2S3 is underexplored.
▪ Insufficient Research on Heterojunction Formation: While heterojunctions with In2S3 show promise,
there is a lack of systematic studies optimizing material combinations and structural configurations.
▪ Specificity to SMX Degradation: The degradation pathways and mechanisms for antibiotics like SMX
using In2S3-based systems require further investigation.
▪ Multifunctionality: Dual functionality of In2S3 in degrading pollutants and generating energy (e.g., H₂O₂
production) is not fully realized.

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▪ Surface ModificationThere is a significant lack of effective techniques to modify the surfaces of In2S3
photocatalysts without compromising their structural integrity and morphology, which limits their
performance in pollutant degradation applications
▪ Pollutant Mineralization: Current In2S3-based photocatalytic systems often leave behind toxic
intermediates after pollutant degradation, highlighting the need for improved approaches to achieve
complete mineralization of contaminants.
2.2. Objectives
▪ Fabrication of Morphologically Engineered In2S3 Hydrogels via etching and weak acids for
Environmental Remediation.
▪ Development of Binary In2S3 Heterojunction-Based Photocatalytic Hydrogels via PMS Activation for
SMX Degradation
▪ Construction of Dual Z-scheme Ternary In2S3 Heterojunction Hydrogels as a Multifunctional
Photocatalyst for H2O2 Production, SMX Degradation
▪ Synthesis of Advanced In2S3–hydrogel System for Dual Mode Energy Harvesting and Energy Storage
in Photocatalytic Degradation and Energy Production.
3. Materials & Methods
3.1. Chemicals Required
For In2S3 and In2S3-Tartaric acid, Indium sulphate, thioacetamide, sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, ethanol,
acetone, sodium alginate, calcium chloride, tartaric acid, pectin, ferric chloride, and polyvinyl alcohol were
supplied by Sisco Research Laboratories (SRL) (India). For ICS Hydrogel, Indium chloride, copper chloride,
thiourea, thioacetamide, selenium powder and ferric chloride, sodium hydroxide, sodium chloride, sodium
chloride, sodium nitrate, sodium sulfate, sodium phosphate, p-benzoquinone, isopropanol, sodium azide,
methanol, silver nitrate, and sulfamethoxazole. For ICB Hydrogel, the peroxymonosulfate was purchased from
Sigma-Aldrich Company (USA). Indium chloride, thioacetamide, thiourea, cadmium chloride, sodium
hydroxide, sodium sulfide, bismuth nitrate, nitric acid, sodium tungstate, ethanol, acetone, sodium alginate,
calcium chloride, sodium nitrate, sodium phosphate, sodium chloride, p-benzoquinone, isopropyl alcohol,
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, silver nitrate, sodium azide, potassium iodide and potassium hydrogen phthalate
were supplied by Sisco Research Laboratories (SRL) (India). All chemicals of analytical grade were used
without further purification.
3.2. Synthesis of materials
3.2.1. In2S3 microsphere - About 2.5 g of indium sulphate was dissolved in 50 mL of water via magnetic
stirring, to which 5 g of thioacetamide were added and mixed for 1.5 h. Further, few drops of HCl were
added, and the yielded mixture was stirred for 3 h. Finally, the yielded solution was kept in a
hydrothermal reactor at 120 °C for 24 h. After the hydrothermal reaction, the yielded solution was
centrifuged, and the obtained samples were washed with ethanol and later dried in a hot air oven at 60°C.
3.2.2. In2S3 -TA Hydrogel - In2S3 and tartaric acid (TA) are taken in 1:1 ratio and stirred for 2 hours at 50o
C
while adding few drops of HCl. After this, it was transferred to the autoclave and kept at 110o
C for 24
hours. Then, it was filtered and washed continuously with water and ethanol and kept for drying. The

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compound formed was named as In2S3-TA. Further, In2S3-TA was mixed into 3g of Pectin solution and
the solution was put dropwise into the FeCl3 solution, the hydrogel formed was then washed.
3.2.3. ICS Hydrogel - Indium sulfide (In2S3) was synthesized by dissolving 2.5 g of indium chloride in 50 mL
water, followed by the addition of 5 g thiourea and 1 g thioacetamide, with stirring for 1.5 h. After adding
10 mL ethanol, the mixture was sonicated for 3 h and hydrothermally treated at 120 °C for 24 h. Copper
selenide (CuSe) was prepared by mixing 7.5 g copper chloride with 7.5 g selenium in 100 mL water,
adjusting pH to 9–10 using NaOH. Equal amounts of In2S3 and CuSe were mixed and hydrothermally
treated to form ICS nanocomposites. For hydrogel formation, 3 g CMC was dissolved in 50 mL water,
mixed with 1.2 g ICS, and crosslinked using 1 M FeCl₃ to produce ICS-CMC hydrogels.
3.2.4. ICB Hydrogel - Indium sulfide (In2S3) was synthesized by dissolving 2.5 g of indium chloride in 50 mL
water, followed by the addition of 5 g thiourea and 1 g thioacetamide, with stirring for 1.5 h. After adding
10 mL ethanol, the mixture was sonicated for 3 h and hydrothermally treated at 120 °C for 24 h. Copper
selenide (CuSe) was prepared by mixing 7.5 g copper chloride with 7.5 g selenium in 100 mL water,
adjusting pH to 9–10 using NaOH. Equal amounts of In2S3 and CuSe were mixed and hydrothermally
treated to form ICS nanocomposites. For hydrogel formation, 3 g CMC was dissolved in 50 mL water,
mixed with 1.2 g ICS, and crosslinked using 1 M FeCl₃ to produce ICS-CMC hydrogels.
Fig.1. Preparation of In2S3 and In2S3 hydrogel
4. Results & Discussion
4.1. In2S3-TA Hydrogel
The XRD patterns reveal distinct crystalline peaks for In2S3 at 2θ values of 27.5°, 33.5°, 48.1°, and 59.7°,
corresponding to its well-defined cubic crystal structure (JCPDS No. 46-1088). Sodium alginate (SA) shows
broad peaks, indicating its amorphous nature. In the In2S3 hydrogel, the crystalline peaks of In2S3 are retained,

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but with slight broadening and reduced intensity. This suggests successful integration of In2S3 into the
hydrogel matrix, along with partial loss of crystallinity due to interaction with the sodium alginate matrix.
The FTIR spectrum highlights characteristic peaks for In2S3, sodium alginate, and the In2S3-alginate hydrogel,
demonstrating their structures and interactions. In₂S₃ (red) exhibits peaks at 3321.70 cm⁻¹ (O–H stretching
from surface hydroxyls), 1635.17 cm⁻¹ (H–O–H bending of adsorbed water), and 560.80 cm⁻¹ (In–S bond).
Sodium alginate (green) shows peaks at 3278.99 cm⁻¹ (O–H stretching), 1590.18 cm⁻¹ (asymmetric COO⁻
stretching), and 1008.76 cm⁻¹ (C–O–C stretching of glycosidic linkages). The hydrogel (blue) features shifted
peaks at 3245.69 cm⁻¹ (O–H stretching), 1672.14 cm⁻¹ (COO⁻ stretching), and 558.75 cm⁻¹ (In–S bond),
signifying strong hydrogen bonding and interactions between In2S3 and alginate, which confirm the successful
formation of the hydrogel.
Fig.2 (a) XRD spectra, (b) FTIR spectra, (c) Photoluminescence (d) UV-DRS (e) Tauc plot In₂S₃- TA Hydrogel
The PL spectrum reveals a significantly lower emission intensity for the In2S3 hydrogel compared to pure In₂S₃,
indicating reduced recombination of photogenerated electron-hole pairs in the hydrogel. This reduction enhances
the separation efficiency of charge carriers, which is crucial for improved photocatalytic activity. The UV-DRS
analysis shows that the In2S3 hydrogel exhibits enhanced absorption in the visible light region compared to pure
In2S3, demonstrating its superior light-harvesting capability. Furthermore, the Tauc plot indicates a significant
reduction in the band gap of the In2S3 hydrogel (approximately 1.4 eV) compared to pure In2S3 (around 2.4 eV),
which enables the hydrogel to efficiently utilize a broader visible light spectrum, enhancing its photocatalytic
performance. This narrower band gap allows the hydrogel to utilize a broader spectrum of visible light, making it
more efficient for photocatalytic applications. Overall, the In₂S₃ hydrogel outperforms pure In2S3 due to its

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enhanced charge separation, broader visible light absorption, and reduced band gap, all of which contribute to its
superior photocatalytic performance.
The FESEM image of In2S3 shows well-defined microspheres, while the hydrogel formed with sodium alginate
exhibits a unique flower-like surface pattern, indicating successful structural integration. The EDX analysis
confirms the presence of elemental indium (In), sulfur (S), oxygen (O), and sodium (Na), validating the
composition of the In2S3-alginate hydrogel.
Fig.3 FESEM of In₂S₃ and In₂S₃-TA hydrogel with EDX
4.2. ICS Hydrogel
XRD analysis confirmed the presence of cubic-phase In2S3 and hexagonal-phase CuSe in the ICS composite.
Characteristic peaks for In2S3 appeared at 15.08°, 21.72°, and 29.46°, while CuSe showed peaks at 26.62°,
35.76°, and 50.01°. After integration into the hydrogel matrix, the overall intensity of peaks reduced,
suggesting a decline in crystallinity due to the amorphous nature of CMC, but the integrity of both phases
remained intact.
FTIR spectra confirmed key functional groups and structural interactions. Peaks at 721 cm⁻¹ and 603 cm⁻¹
corresponded to In–S and Cu–Se stretching vibrations. The disappearance of the broad –OH stretch around
3400 cm⁻¹ and the COO⁻ stretching at 1596 cm⁻¹, typical of CMC, indicated successful crosslinking with Fe³⁺
ions during hydrogel formation.
Fig.4. I. (a) FTIR spectra; (b) XRD spectra, II. FESEM of prepared catalysts of ICS Hydrogel

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SEM images showed a porous, 3D interconnected network structure, crucial for reactant diffusion and active
site accessibility. CuSe appeared as nanoflower aggregates, while In₂S₃ was present as dispersed nanorods.
After gelation, these nanostructures were embedded within a sponge-like CMC framework. EDX elemental
mapping confirmed the homogeneous distribution of In, Cu, S, O, C, and Fe within the hydrogel.
Optical analysis by DRS revealed that the ICS-CMC hydrogel exhibited strong absorption in the visible range.
The estimated band gap from Tauc plots was 1.4 eV for the hydrogel, significantly lower than that of pure
In₂S₃ (2.4 eV) and comparable to CuSe (1.2 eV), demonstrating enhanced visible light harvesting due to
heterojunction formation and polymer integration.
Fig. 5. (a) DRS spectra, (b)Tauc plot, (c) Bode plot, (d) EIS spectra, (e)X-ray photoelectron spectra of
developed photocatalysts.
PL spectra showed that ICS-CMC had the lowest emission intensity compared to individual In₂S₃ and CuSe,
indicating that electron–hole recombination was effectively suppressed in the hydrogel. This enhanced carrier
separation is key to high photocatalytic efficiency.
The X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) confirms the presence and oxidation states of the key elements.
The In 3d peaks were observed at approximately 444.9 eV (In 3d₅/₂) and 452.3 eV (In 3d₃/₂), corresponding
to In³⁺. For Cu, peaks at around 932.2 eV (Cu 2p₃/₂) and 952.1 eV (Cu 2p₁/₂) confirmed the presence of
Cu⁺/Cu²⁺ species, which are crucial for PMS activation through redox cycling. S 2p peaks appeared at
~161.9 eV, confirming the presence of sulfide (S²⁻) from both In₂S₃ and CuSe.
EIS revealed that the hydrogel had the smallest arc radius in the Nyquist plot, indicating the lowest charge-
transfer resistance among all tested samples. This confirmed improved interfacial conductivity due to the
synergy between CuSe and In2S3.
Mott–Schottky measurements confirmed that In2S3 behaved as an n-type and CuSe as a p-type semiconductor.
The conduction and valence band edges were calculated to be –0.46 V and 1.94 V for In2S3, and 0.17 V and
1.37 V for CuSe, respectively. This supported the formation of a type-II heterojunction, which favors spatial
charge separation and enhanced photocatalytic ROS generation.
4.3. ICB Hydrogel
XRD confirmed the crystalline phases of the ternary components: Bi₂WO₆ (orthorhombic), CdS (hexagonal),
and In2S3 (cubic). Bi₂WO₆ showed peaks at 28.3°, 32.8°, and 47.0°, CdS at 26.5°, 43.9°, and 52.1°, and In2S3

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at 27.3° and 30.6°. Upon incorporation into the hydrogel, peak intensities decreased and broadened,
confirming dispersion in the alginate matrix and minor amorphization without phase transformation.
FTIR spectra showed Bi–O and W–O vibrations between 450–750 cm⁻¹, Cd–S stretching near 605 cm⁻¹, and
polysaccharide features of alginate such as C–O stretching at 1043 cm⁻¹ and carboxylate groups at 1600 cm⁻¹.
The integration of ternary oxides and sulfides was evident from overlapping vibrational bands and shifts
indicating interaction among phases and the matrix.
SEM images revealed spherical beads with uniform rough surfaces and micro-porosity. These features are
beneficial for catalytic contact with pollutants. EDX mapping indicated even distribution of In, Bi, Cd, W, O,
and S across the hydrogel, confirming homogeneity and successful encapsulation.
Fig.6. I. (a) FTIR spectra; (b) XRD spectra, II. FESEM of prepared catalysts of ICB Hydrogel
XPS confirmed the oxidation states of key elements: In³⁺ (452.3 eV), Cd²⁺ (411.2 eV), Bi³⁺ (159.2 eV), and
W⁶⁺ (35.7 eV). The binding energy shifts from standard values suggested interfacial electronic interaction,
supporting Z-scheme heterojunction behavior.
DRS analysis showed the hydrogel absorbed well into the visible region. The band gap, estimated using Tauc
plots, was 1.34 eV for the ICB hydrogel, lower than Bi₂WO₆ (3.2 eV), CdS (2.29 eV), and In₂S₃ (2.23 eV),
which enhanced its photocatalytic potential under solar/visible light.
Fig. 7. (a) DRS spectra, (b)Tauc plot, (c) (d) (e) Mott-Schottky, (f) PL spectra (g) EIS spectra, (e)X-ray
photoelectron spectra of developed photocatalysts

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PL intensity for the ICB hydrogel was significantly lower than for individual Bi₂WO₆ or CdS, reflecting
reduced recombination of photogenerated charge carriers. This improved photostability and supports the high
photocatalytic activity observed.
EIS demonstrated that the ICB hydrogel had the smallest semicircle in Nyquist plots, reflecting the best
charge transport characteristics among its components. This was attributed to interfacial interactions between
the three semiconductors and alginate support.
Mott–Schottky plots verified n-type conductivity for all three materials, and band edge positions supported a
dual Z-scheme electron transfer model. Flat-band potentials were –0.96 V (In₂S₃), –0.89 V (CdS), and +0.15 V
(Bi₂WO₆). The dual Z-scheme configuration allowed electrons from Bi₂WO₆ and holes from In₂S₃ to
recombine, preserving high redox potentials in CdS (reduction) and Bi₂WO₆ (oxidation), ideal for
simultaneous pollutant degradation and H₂O₂ production.
5. Photocatalytic studies
5.1. In2S3-TA Hydrogel
Effect of concentration (mg/L): The degradation efficiency decreases with increasing SMX concentration. At
10 mg/L, the efficiency is approximately 81%, dropping to about 57% at 50 mg/L. This trend indicates that
higher pollutant concentrations require more active sites for effective degradation, which limits the catalyst's
efficiency at higher concentrations. Catalyst loading (g/L): The degradation efficiency improves with
increasing catalyst loading. At 1 g/L, the efficiency is around 58%, rising to approximately 81% at 5 g/L. This
indicates that more catalyst provides additional active sites and reactive species, enhancing the degradation
process. Effect of time: The graph shows degradation efficiency over time. By 20 minutes, it reaches around
65%, and by 60 minutes, the efficiency peaks at approximately 81%.
Fig.8 (a) effect of concentration, (b) catalyst dosage, (c) effect of time (d) reusability, (e)pH, (f) effect of
temperature, (g) water matrix of In2S3-TA Hydrogel.
This two-phase trend reflects rapid degradation at the beginning, followed by stabilization as the pollutant
concentration decreases. Reusability: The degradation efficiency remains consistent over multiple cycles,
with minimal reduction. The first cycle achieves approximately 82%, while the eighth cycle is about 63%.
This indicates the hydrogel's excellent reusability and stability over repeated use. pH: The degradation
efficiency varies with pH. At pH 2, the efficiency is around 76%, decreases significantly to about 62% at pH

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6, and slightly drops to approximately 79% at pH 12. This indicates that extreme acidic or alkaline conditions
are optimal for degradation, while neutral conditions may hinder the catalyst's performance. Temperature
(°C): As the temperature increases, the degradation efficiency improves. At 20°C, the efficiency is around
60%, reaching its maximum at approximately 71% at 40°C. Further, at 60°C, the efficiency slightly increases
to 79%, possibly due to thermal degradation by the hydrogel. Water source: The degradation efficiency varies
across water sources. In distilled water, the efficiency is around 99%. For tap water, it slightly decreases to
about 87%, followed by pond water at 80%, and drinking water at approximately 83%. The reduced efficiency
in tap and pond water may be due to competing ions or impurities, though the hydrogel remains effective in
all conditions.
5.2. ICS Hydrogel
Under visible LED light and 100 mg/L PMS, the ICS hydrogel achieved 100% SMX degradation in 5 minutes,
with 34.5% attributed to dark adsorption. In comparison, degradation over 60 minutes without PMS was
lower: ICS hydrogel (75%), ICS composite (62%), CuSe (58%), In₂S₃ (41%). The reaction followed pseudo-
first-order kinetics with a rate constant of 0.989 min⁻¹. Degradation efficiency declined with increasing SMX
concentration (from 100% at 10 mg/L to 83% at 40 mg/L) and excessive catalyst dose (decreased from 100%
at 2 g/L to 88% at 5 g/L due to radical quenching). The optimal PMS dose was 200 mg/L, with efficiency
dropping to 75% at 250 mg/L due to the formation of SO₅•. pH studies showed higher efficiency in basic
conditions, while acidic pH suppressed degradation due to electrostatic repulsion and radical quenching.
These results confirm that high efficiency in the ICS/PMS system stems from visible-light activation,
effective PMS consumption, radical generation (•O₂⁻, SO₄•⁻, •OH), and the structural advantage of the CMC-
based 3D hydrogel.
Fig. 9. (a) Photocatalytic degradation efficiency of different photocatalysts, (b) SMX degradation efficacy
of different catalysts via PMS activation, (c-d) Kinetic plot of SMX degradation and corresponding rate
constants, (e) reusability of photocatalytic hydrogel, (f) Residual PMS concentration in photocatalytic-PMS
system.

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Fig. 10. (a) Influence of initial concentration, (b) Effect of catalyst dosage, (c) Effect of PMS dosage, (d)
Effect of initial pH, (e) Influence of Co-ions and (f) Effect of different water matrices on SMX degradation
via PMS activation under LED lamp.
The environmental performance and practical viability of the ICS-CMC hydrogel were validated through
interference and real-matrix studies. In the presence of 50 mg/L co-existing ions, SMX degradation remained
high: 95% with nitrate, 92% with sulfate, 85% with chloride, 75% with phosphate, and 59% with bicarbonate.
Real water tests showed 99% SMX removal in tap water, 97% in river water, and 89% in pond water was
achieved in industrial wastewater. The hydrogel demonstrated excellent reusability over 20 cycles with
efficiency dropping only from 100% to 92%. High-resolution mass spectrometry identified 20 intermediates
and revealed four SMX degradation pathways involving demethylation, deamination, ring opening, and
desulfurization. Radical scavenging studies identified superoxide (•O₂⁻), hydroxyl (•OH), and sulfate (SO₄•⁻)
radicals as dominant, with inhibition values of 10.3%, 35.7%, and 11.2% respectively. A type-II
heterojunction between In₂S₃ and CuSe facilitated efficient charge separation (CB values: –0.888 V for In₂S₃,
+1.162 V for CuSe), enhancing ROS generation. Selenium further promoted electron transfer, while Fe and
Cu redox cycling sustained SO₄•⁻ production. Together, these factors ensured highly efficient SMX
degradation under visible light with PMS activation.
5.3. ICB Hydrogel
The photocatalytic degradation of SMX using ICB hydrogels was significantly enhanced by PMS activation
under visible light. Alone, ICB hydrogels showed 31% SMX removal via dark adsorption, while photolysis
and standalone photocatalysis achieved limited degradation: CdS (54%), Bi₂WO₆ (49%), In₂S₃ (61%), ICB
(68%), and ICB hydrogel (75%). PMS alone (400 mg/L) degraded 57% of SMX in 60 minutes. However,
combining PMS with ICB hydrogel resulted in 99% degradation of 10 mg/L SMX within 20 minutes, with a
rate constant of 0.191 min⁻¹—2.5x and 9x higher than ICB and In₂S₃, respectively. A synergistic coefficient
of 1.18 confirmed a strong interaction between PMS and the photocatalyst. Parameter studies revealed that
increasing SMX concentration from 10 to 50 mg/L reduced degradation from 99% to 89%, while increasing
catalyst dosage from 2 to 5 g/L improved degradation from 80% to 99%. Beyond 5 g/L, efficiency dropped
due to light scattering. PMS dosage optimization showed that 400 mg/L was ideal, with efficiency declining

15
from 99% to 83% at 1000 mg/L due to radical quenching. SMX degradation was highest under acidic
conditions; at pH > 5.5, efficiency decreased due to electrostatic repulsion between the negatively charged
hydrogel and PMS/SMX species. Additionally, increasing temperature from 25 °C to 35 °C enhanced
degradation from 90% to 99%, owing to faster PMS activation and radical formation.
Fig. 11. (a) Photocatalytic degradation efficiency of the photocatalysts, (b) SMX degradation efficiency of
different photocatalysts, (c) Kinetic plot of SMX degradation and corresponding rate constants, (d)
Influence of initial concentration, (e) Effect of catalyst loading, (f) Effect of initial pH on SMX degradation
by ICB Hydrogel.
Fig.12. (a) Effect of co-ions (b) Effect of water matrices on SMX degradation via photocatalytic-PMS
activation, (c) SMX degradation efficiency of ICB hydrogels under sunlight, (d) Reusability of ICB
hydrogels, (e) ) Scavenging experiments.

16
Fig. 13. Photocatalytic production of H2O2 using (a) water sacrificial agent, (b) isopropanol as sacrificial
agent, (c) Effect of catalyst loading on H2O2 production, and (d) Reusability of ICB hydrogels.
The practical application of ICB hydrogels in real water environments was comprehensively evaluated. In
the presence of 50 mg/L co-ions, SMX degradation efficiency decreased in the order: control (99%) > sulfate
(94%) > nitrate (88%) > phosphate (80%) > chloride (67%) > bicarbonate (66%), due to radical scavenging
or catalyst deactivation. When applied to various water matrices (distilled, drinking, tap, lake), SMX
degradation remained high–only lake water showed reduced performance owing to turbidity and natural
organic matter. Under natural sunlight at NIT Rourkela (May 2024), 2 g/L ICB hydrogels degraded 99% of
SMX (10 mg/L) in 30 minutes, demonstrating strong solar-driven activity. Reusability tests showed that ICB
hydrogels retained high performance over 10 cycles, with only a 13% decrease in SMX degradation,
highlighting their stability and ease of recovery.
Scavenger studies highlighted the dominant roles of sulfate radicals and electrons in SMX degradation—
AgNO₃ and methanol reduced efficiency to 48.36% and 19.7%, respectively. p-Benzoquinone and
isopropanol caused 36% and 55.18% inhibition, while EDTA and sodium azide had minimal effects (73%
and 76% remaining), indicating minor involvement of holes and singlet oxygen.
Superoxide radicals were confirmed by NBT assay, which showed a decline in absorbance at 258 nm,
indicating conversion to diformazan. Hydroxyl radicals were validated using terephthalic acid, which formed
2-hydroxyterephthalic acid with PL emission at ~240 nm, confirming •OH formation. Mechanistically, a
direct Z-scheme heterojunction between In₂S₃, CdS, and Bi₂WO₆ facilitated electron-hole separation.
Electrons in In₂S₃ and CdS reduced O₂ to •O₂⁻ and formed H₂O₂, while holes in Bi₂WO₆ activated PMS to
generate SO₅•⁻ and subsequently SO₄•⁻ and •OH, culminating in SMX mineralization to CO₂ and H₂O.
Photocatalytic H₂O₂ generation was also investigated. Under visible light (300 mg/L catalyst), ICB hydrogels
produced 302 μM H₂O₂—1.5x, 2.6x, 2.4x, and 4.4x more than ICB, In₂S₃, CdS, and Bi₂WO₆, respectively.
With 2-propanol as a sacrificial agent, H₂O₂ yield rose to 455 μM, outperforming ICB (312 μM), CdS
(212 μM), In₂S₃ (201 μM), and Bi₂WO₆ (125 μM). Catalyst loading from 100 to 300 mg/L increased H₂O₂
yield from 212 to 455 μM over 60 minutes. Reusability was maintained over five cycles, with only a slight
decline from 455 to 421 μM, confirming excellent photo-stability and redox activity of the ICB hydrogel
system.

17
6. Conclusion
This work successfully demonstrates a systematic advancement in In₂S₃-based photocatalytic hydrogels, starting
from mono-, binary, to ternary heterojunction systems.
• In₂S₃-TA hydrogel exhibited a reduced band gap (~1.4 eV), efficient visible light absorption, and
enhanced charge carrier separation. It achieved 81% degradation of SMX at 10 mg/L concentration
within 60 minutes, and retained 63% efficiency after 8 reuse cycles, confirming its structural and
catalytic stability under diverse pH, temperature, and water sources.
• ICS hydrogel integrated CuSe into In₂S₃ within a CMC matrix, forming a type-II heterojunction with a
band gap of 1.4 eV. With PMS activation under visible light, it achieved 100% SMX removal in 5
minutes (k = 0.989 min⁻¹). The ICS-CMC hydrogel was reusable over 20 cycles with only 8% efficiency
loss and effectively resisted interference from co-ions and natural water matrices. Mechanistic studies
revealed strong involvement of •OH, •O₂⁻, and SO₄•⁻ radicals in the degradation pathways.
• ICB hydrogel, a dual Z-scheme system (In₂S₃–CdS–Bi₂WO₆), showed the highest performance. It
removed 99% of SMX in 20 minutes under PMS and visible light, with a degradation rate constant of
0.191 min⁻¹. H₂O₂ generation reached 455 μM with 2-propanol, outperforming individual components
and previous systems. The material retained 87% of its photocatalytic activity after 10 reuse cycles in
natural sunlight and maintained 92% H₂O₂ yield after 5 cycles, confirming high photostability and redox
cycling capacity.
Work plan
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