Theories of social work — presentation transcript

Theories of Social Work — Presentation Transcript

1. Theories of Social Work S.Rengasamy Madurai Institute of Social Work Social Workers
Celebrating Community –Honouring Diversity

2. Social Work is a practical job. It is about protecting people and changing their lives, not
about giving theoretical explanations of why they got into difficulties … Social work is about
social change at the individual as well as at community level. Change is complex, diversified
and risk prone. To understand it, social worker need knowledge. imagination, comprehension
& creativity….in short, a radical shift in understanding “Knowledge as process” as opposed to
“Knowledge as product” is needed. But our understanding of social work (especially with the
faculty and students of social work colleges in non metropolitan cities of India and students
with low level mastery of English language) is frozen with the simple definition of social work
...it is the art and science of helping the people to help themselves. Compilation and
interpretation of social work definition accessible to the students (PD Mishra 1994) conveys a
meaning that social work is a “helping” “assisting” „enabling” activity, which in turn suggests
social work is seen as a benign and uncontentious activity, willingly accepted. This
understanding fails to reflect the major transformations social work discipline has undergone
as well as its global outlook. There is nothing wrong in simplifying a concept, but if it ignores
the complexities associated with the concept, that will end our further seeking. Whatever may
be a definition of social work, it is normally based on certain perspectives and understanding
of that perspective / theory will help us to appreciate that definition. It is this clarity that
normally make one to commit in his/ her professional responsibilities.

3. To answer these questions one need to What is the need know why people are suffering.
What is our of social work or responsibilities towards Why Social work? fellow human
beings? How we gain knowledge about the human problems? What makes us perceive the
human Definition of problems in a particular social work How social work way? Why we
subscribe generally convey is carried out? to certain methods of solving problems? …. Social
workers need to answer these questions To whom social before addressing others work is
going to problems. Theories & serve? or perspectives of social characteristics of work may
provide some answers to these its cliens questions

4. Why Social Work? Life means to face the demands of day to day life and realize the self.
By life tasks we mean the responses people make as they face the demands made upon
them in various life situations, such is growing up in a family, entering school or work, raising
a family, earning their daily bread, working in the industry, problems relating to job or earning,
facing illness, accidents and death. People are dependent on social systems to realize their

aspirations and to cope with their life tasks. In order to realize their life tasks people have to
interact with three kinds of resource systems in the social environment 1. Informal or natural
resource system consists of family, friends, neighbors, co workers, etc 2. Formal resource
system consists of membership in organizations, trade union organizations or other socio
cultural organizations 3. Social resource system such as schools, hospitals, housing
societies, police, banks etc Why people are unable to obtain the resources, services or
opportunities in the resource systems, they need to cope with their life tasks and realize their
aspirations? 1. A needed resource or service may be scarce or may not exist or may not
provide appropriate help to people who need it. 2. People may not know the existence of a
resource system or may be hesitant to turn it for help for several reasons like distance,
corruption, delay or poor quality etc 3. The polices and procedures of the resource system
may inhibit / prevent it access (eg. eligibility criteria, gender, etc) 4. Several resource system
may be working at cross purposes The purpose of social work is to enable the people to use
the social resources to meet their life tasks

Increasing one's ability in discreet thinking to sort out right and wrong Increasing one's
positive self-image and overcoming stigma Involving in the growth process and changes that
is never ending and self-initiated Ability to inform others‟ perceptions though exchange,
education and engagement. Ability to learn and access skills for improving
personal/collective circumstance. Having positive-thinking about the ability to make change
Ability to exercise assertiveness in collective decision making Ability to consider a range of
options from which to choose (not just yes/no, either/or.) The ability to access information
and resources for decision-making The ability to make decisions about personal/collective
circumstances 5. What do we mean by helping people to help themselves? 1. Increased
understanding of oneself or a situation. 2. Being able to make a decision 3. Being able to
confirm a decision. 4. Being able to get a support for a decision. 5. Being able to change a
situation 6. Adjusting to a situation that is not going to change 7. Being able to examine
options and choosing one 8. Being able to discharge feelings Compare self help with
empowerment Empowerment includes the following, or similar, capabilities:-

6. Theory is an “attempt to retrospectively explain and to What is theory? It is important first
to be clear what the term theory means in an academic sense. Cottrell provides a useful
general definition: A theory is a set of ideas that helps to explain why something happens or
happened in a particular way, and to predict likely prospectively predict” outcomes in the
future. Theories are based on evidence and reasoning, but have not yet been conclusively
proved. Thompson‟ s definition includes similar ideas: An attempt to explain…a framework
for understanding…a set of ideas linked together to help us make sense of a particular issue.
Writing about social work theory, Beckett makes a connection with practice: …a set of ideas

or principles used to guide practice which are sufficiently coherent that they could if
necessary be made explicit in a form which was open to challenge.

7. It will be useful if we uTheories of personality (development) Theories of evolution,
nderstand the different types of theories taught and the logic as why are these theories
imparted to the students. It may be logical to group these theories in broader categories e.g.
& Theories of social work (clinical practice) etc. Theories of economic growth and
development, theories of group dynamics and leadership, Theories of deviance, crime and
correction, Theories of individual and group behavior, Theories of social organization and
social change, theories of social stratification, learning theories,

8. Curriculum Development Centre in Social Work Education, University Grants Commission,
India recognized three elements of social work curriculum 1. Values of the profession 2. Skills
and methods that are developed for the professional task 3. Major theories and concepts
Objectives of teaching theories 1. Refinement of practice 2. Provision of changing theoretical
inputs to the social work knowledge base 3. Building up of new theories from the practice
data The centre has recommended to include many different theories discretely and
dispersaly but failed to do a wise selectivity of appropriate theories to be taught rationally and
coherently and imparting knowledge of these theories compactly as an independent course
that are taught in other disciplines eg. Sociological Theories, Modern Economic Theories,
Contemporary Political Theories, Psychological Theories

Micro theories developed to explain very small-scale situations – for instance, relationships
between staff and patients on a hospital ward. Middle-range theories which focus on a
limited range of issues – for instance, labeling theory, which from a social integrationist
perspective aims to explain deviance; Grand, macro-level or global theories (sometimes
known as meta-narratives), such as Marxism or Psychoanalysis, which claim to be able to
explain everything in society, or all human behavior; 9. Thompson explains that there are
different levels of theories. These are:

10. The term theory is loosely used in social work profession. The use of social work theories
in professional literature is rather ambiguous. Concepts, frames of reference, practice models
and philosophical propositions have been termed as theories.

11. How theories help social workers? Social workers might use theory to understand and
explain three main aspects of social work 1. The task and purpose of social work – the role of
social work in society; 2. Practice theories: sometimes called social work approaches or
methods – how to go about doing social work; 3. The world of service users, including the
internal (psychological) world and the external (social) world

12. In social work, the term „theory‟ covers three different possibilities: Provable explanations
why something happens (Explanatory Theory) Organized description of activity in a
structured form (Models) Ways of conceptualizing the world or a particular subject
(Perspective)

13. Conceptual Frameworks Theories OF Social Work Theories FOR Social Work Orienting
Theories Practice Frameworks Practice Perspectives Practice Theories Practice Models
Theories of social work Focus on the profession and explain its purpose, domain, and
character within the society. They describe what the profession is all about and why it
functions as it does. Theories for social work Focus on clients and helping activities. They
explain human behaviours, the social environment, how change occurs and how change can
be facilitated by the social worker in order to benefit

14. Practice Frameworks Orienting Theories Practice Perspective Practice Theory Orienting
theories describe and This is a particular way of It offers both an explanation of explain
behaviour and how and viewing and thinking about certain behaviours or situations why
certain problems develop. practice. It is a conceptual lens and guidance on how they can
They provide important through which one views social be changed. A practice theory
background knowledge and are functioning and it offers very serves as a road map for
usually borrowed from other broad guidance on what may be bringing about a certain type of
disciplines such as biology, important considerations in a change. Most practice theories
psychology, sociology, practice situation. Like a camera are rooted in one or more
economics, cultural lens, a perspective serves to orienting theories. An example
anthropology, and the like. focus on or magnify a particular is psychosocial therapy, which is
Examples feature. Two perspectives, the based primarily on include the various theories
general systems perspective and psychodynamic theory and ego related to human
development, the ecosystems perspective, are psychology. Another is personality, family
systems, commonly used in assessing behaviour therapy, which is socialization, relationships
between people derived from the psychology of organizational functioning, and and their
environment. learning political power, as well as theories related to specific Practice Model
types of problems Practice Model is a set of concepts and principles used to guide such as
poverty, family intervention activities. The term model is also used when referring to violence,
mental illness, teen a conceptual framework that is borrowed from one field and applied
pregnancy, crime and racial in another, for example, the medical model (study, diagnose,
treat) discrimination. and the legal model (an approach to social action and client advocacy,
involving competition and conflict among adversaries).

The environment impacts the actions, beliefs, and choices of the individual The Strengths
Perspective This perspective is built on the assumption that every individual, family, group

and community has strengths and focusing on these strengths leads to growth and
overcoming difficulties. Under this perspective, clients are generally the best experts about
what types of helping strategies will be effective or ineffective. The Cultural Competence
Perspective This perspective is the understanding and approval of cultural distinctions, taking
into account the beliefs, values, activities, and customs of distinctive population groups. Many
cultures have prescribed ways of talking about health and the human body and these factors
impact a person's reaction and acceptance of health services. These perspectives are
consistent with a Family-Centered or Client-Centered approach, which is central to the
standards of best practice with persons with disabilities and consistent with
social Individuals, families, and neighborhoods exist in a political, economic, and cultural
environment Families exist within communities and neighborhoods Individuals exist within
families 15. Framework for Social Work Practice Social work draws from many frameworks
for practice, but some of these frameworks have had more influence on the profession of
social work than others. The three influential frameworks are The Ecosystem Perspective
This perspective focuses on the interplay between the person and his or her environment. To
understand the functioning of the individual, we must understand his or her environmental
context:

Description: theory provides a genera Observation: theory provides guidance on what a
social worker might need to look out for when meeting people who use services or carers and
their families. 16. How might theory be of use to social workers? Social work, like all
professions, uses theory to guide practice. Intervention: theory can provide ideas about what
might bring about a change in the situation. Prediction: theory can indicate what might
happen in the future. Explanation: theory can suggest how different observations might be
linked in a framework that explains them. lly understood and shared language in which
these observations can be organized and recorded.

Theory provides a way of making sense of complexity and uncertainty Theory can help avoid
discrimination; Theory can ensure accountability; Theory is the mark of a profession; 17.
The importance of theory Theory is important, in social work and social work education for a
number of reasons because it:

18. Why should Social Workers be concerned about theory? Observation: it tells us what to
see, what to look out for Description: it provides a conceptual vocabulary and framework
within which observations can be arranged and organized. A clear theoretical perspective
guides Explanation: it suggests how different observations and influences might be linked
and connected; it offers possible causal social work relationships between one event and
another practice in five key areas Prediction: it indicates what might happen next
Intervention: it suggests things to do to bring about change

19. What do we mean by theory in social work? Payne (1991: 52) helps us by distinguishing
four types of theory 1. Theories about social work explain the nature and role of social work
in society 2. Theories of social work describe which activities constitute social work, set aims
for social work activities and explain why those activities are relevant and effective in meeting
the aims 3. Theories contributing to social work are the psychological, sociological and other
theories which explain or describe personal and social behaviour and are used to make
theories of social work systematic, related to general social science explanations and to give
supporting evidence for the social work theory‟s prescriptions 4. Theories of social work
practice and method prescribe in detail how the other theories so far outlined may be applied
in the interaction between workers and clients

20. Is social work a teachable practice? Or does it come from experience and creativity?
Some argue that Social work is less technical, more creative and intuitive. Both client and
social worker are important when dealing with issues as the client is the expert of his own
personal life. The ideal theory for social work would therefore be one that encourages deep
thinking and questioning, one that respects the inherent dignity of the client and complexity of
social problems... not one that categorizes People believe that science can furnish means,
but not ends. Methods but not goals. So, Social workers must achieve something other than
technical proficiency, i.e. Understanding the human condition, not science. Social workers
use contextual knowledge. Synthesis of knowledge from many sources, including personal
experience. Common sense and wisdom on the job

21. Ecological System Theory 3 Crisis Theory 4 Urie Bronfenbrenner Empowerment Theory
Kathleen Ell E. Cox & L. Gutierrez B. Gilliland & R. 8 J. Lee, E. Canada, James P. Chatterjee
& S.P. Robbins L.G. & H. J. Parad Family Life Cycle Theory 5 Cognitive Psychodynamic
Theory Humanistic (Existential/ Theories 6 Sigmund Freud, Eric Erickson Transpersonal)
Alfred Adler 9 Abraham Maslow, 2 Jean Piaget Carl Rogers Family Systems Strategic Carl
Jung 1 Therapy Behavioral 7 (Model) 10 Theories Object Relations Theory B.F. Skinner
Margaret Mahlen, Otto Ivan Pavlov Social Work Theories Kernberg Social-Cultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky: Solution Focused Therapy Structural Family Therapy Thomas Scheff: 11
(Model) Murray Bowen, Virginia Satir 12 13

22. Professional Research Knowledge from Values Methodology other Disciplines
Recognition & Knowledge about Raising Awareness Analyze of Different about Life Long
Learning Social Theories regard to (Professional /Personal Processes Different
Development) Social Work Fields Knowledge & Skills to Work Understanding of Legal & with
Clients administration Learning about Procedures & Social Care Different Theoretical
Institutions Functioning Approaches

23. Social Work Practice Social Policy as theory Encounters pressing need Seeks cultural
Change Needs personally left Requires social action Requires immediate action Calla for
long term strategy Focuses on interpersonal practice Stress on strategic planning/analysis

24. Why do we need theories in social work? In order to see the beauty of one theory, The
use of theories makes Social it‟s important to learn about many Workers feel more safe &
competent theories. This is how we can prevent in their practice, reduces feelings of making
an ideology out of one theory helplessness & fear of unknown For social workers theory is
important because it teaches social workers how to The more social workers use theories,
perceive people through their resources, not less they use intuition, and it makes to classify
them according to their social work practice more professional problems...it‟s a shift from
control to help. and efficient Theory, together with intuition is a way to develop personal style
of professional practice...without theory, just with intuition, social workers would feel like a
puppet on strings.

Eco-Systems Current Social Work Practice Models Problem Task- Solution Narrative
Cognitive Crisis Solving Centered Focused Behavioral In brief, social work practice models
are like recipes. They are step-by-step guides for client sessions. Perspectives represent
what aspects of the session are emphasized or highlighted in a session (i.e. questions asked
or time spent). Theories are overall explanations of the person-in-environment configuration.
Theories help explain why the problem is occurring and where the most efficient intervention
should take place. Feminist Strengths 25. Major Theories – Used in Social Work Practice
Systems Psychodynamic Social Learning Conflict Theory Theory Theory Theory Primary
Perspectives

26. Types of theory Formal written accounts Moral, political, cultural defining the nature and
values drawn upon by Theories purposes of welfare (e.g. practitioners for defining explaining
what upon by practitioners for „functions‟ of social work social work is defining personal
pathology, liberal reform, Marxist, feminist) Formal written theories of Theories inductively
practice (e.g. casework, derived from particular Theories family therapy, group work);
situations; can be tested to explaining how applied deductively; general see if they apply to to
do social ideas may be applied to particular situations; also work particular situations
unwritten practice theories constructed from experience Formal written social Practitioners‟
use of science theories and experience and general Theories empirical data (e.g. on cultural
meanings (e.g. the explaining the personality, (e.g. the family as an institution, client world
marriage, the family, race, normal behavior, good class, gender) parenting)

27. Theory A general statement about the real world whose essential truth can be supported
by evidence obtained through the scientific method. – Must explain in a provable way why
something happens. Ex: Learning theory explains behavior on the basis of what organisms

have learned from the environment. Model Is a blueprint for action. It describes what
happens in practice in a general way. Ex: The behavioral model (based on learning theory)
gives specific guidelines to for how to effect change. If a parent complains that his child is
having difficulty staying in his own bed at night and the parent has been allowing the child to
sleep in his/her bed( thereby reinforcing the child‟ s difficulty) the practitioner would help the
parent to extinguish the behavior by removing the reinforcement. Perspective A way of
perceiving the world flows from a value position. Note: The perspective will influence choice
of theory and model. Note: Payne (1997) argues that social work theory succeeds best when
it contains all three elements of perspective, theory and model. Example: Men who batter
their partners Theory: Social learning theory – men learn their violent behavior in their family
of origin, and from a culture that rewards anger and violence in men; cognitive theory – what
men say to themselves in situations of stress increases their anger and their propensity to be
violent. Model: Cognitive-behavioral Perspective: Feminist

28. Levels & Definitions of Social Economic Development Practice in Social Work Levels of
Major Purposes, Outcomes, or Processes Practice Associated with Levels of Social Work
Practice Individual & Through "self help," "mutual aid," and "conscientization" strategies
individuals and Group groups learn how to perceive and act upon the contradictions that exist
in the social, Empowerment political, and economic structures intrinsic to all societies.
Conflict Efforts directed at reducing: (1) grievances between persons or groups; or, (2)
Resolution asymmetric power relationships between members of more powerful and less
powerful groups. Institution- Refers both to the process of "humanizing" existing social
institutions and that of Building establishing new institutions that respond more effectively to
new or emerg-ing social needs. Community- Through increased participation and "social
animation" of the populace, the process Building through which community's realize the
fullness of their social, political, and economic potential; the process through which
communities respond more equitably to the social and material needs of their populations.
Nation- The process of working toward the integration of a nation's social, political, Building
economic, and cultural institutions at all levels of political organization. Region- The process
of working toward the integration of a geo-political region's social, Building political,
economic, and cultural institutions at all levels of social organization. World-Building The
process of working toward the establishment of a new system of interna-tional relationships
guided by the quest for world peace, increased social jus-tice, the universal satisfaction of
basic human needs, and for the protection of the planet's fragile eco-system.

29. While considering a theory or theories, social workers also understand its limitations too:
Recognise that no single theory can explain everything: When a person engages in an action
(or inaction) the reason for their behaviour can be rooted in a range of causes or Limitations
of Theories motives. Related to the first point, recognise that some theoretical approaches

just don't work with some people. Applying Brief Solution Focused Therapy can be really
effective with some people. For other people, it leaves them cold. Always apply the value
base to theory - much of the theory used in social care practice and social work is drawn from
outside of the profession. Theory may have its roots in education, psychology or
management. As such, it may not incorporate social work values and you should take
responsibility for applying these Never be intimidated by theory. You use it every day.

30. Why do we need to apply social work theory to practice? 2 Whilst individual social work
Using theory can help to Theories can help us to theories have different justify actions and
make sense of a situation. purposes, using all kinds of explain practice to Using theory, we
can theory in our work offers us, service users, carers generate ideas about as social
workers, some and society in general. what is going on, why important things. The aim is that
this will 1 things are as they are etc. lead to social work For example the becoming more
widely In work with individuals, information obtained as accountable and making use of the
theories part of an assessment can ultimately more which may relate to their seem like a
jumble of respected. information - applying 3 specific situation will give us more direction in
our work theory can help "make with them. 4 sense" of the information. It is clear then, that 6
theory is important in Using theory can give an explanation about why an action practice -
both for work resulted in a particular consequence. This can help us with service users and
review and possibly change our practice in an attempt to for social work to be make the
consequences more effective. 5 more valued in society.

31. The vast majority of Social Workers function within one of four basic models of practice:
the Personal Social Services Model (PSSM); the Social Welfare Model (SWM), the Social
Development Model (SDM), and the New World Order Model (NWOM). MODELS OF
SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE The Personal Social Services Model The Personal Social
Services Model (PSSM) of social development practice seeks to extend to people
everywhere a range of basic social services that are needed to either restore or enhance
their capacity for social functioning. The model's primary goals are: 1) to provide remedial
and preventive services to individuals, families, and groups whose optimal social functioning
is either temporarily impaired or inter- rupted; and 2) to extend social protection to population
groups that are threatened by exploitation or degradation. The PSSM also seeks to ensure
increased sensitivity and responsiveness on the part of human service providers to the
special service needs of culturally diverse population groups. The Social Welfare Model The
Social Welfare Model (SWM) of social work (development) practice is rooted in comparative
social policy and comparative social research. The goals associated with the SWM include:
1) self help; 2) mutual aid; 3) humanitarianism; and 4) the establishment of effective,
preferably universal, systems of formal social provision. The SWM also views developmental
social welfare practice as part of the worldwide movement that seek to promote social

security and social justice for people everywhere The Social Development Model The Social
Development Model (SDM) has its origins in community organization and community
development practice and does, therefore, promote the fullest possible participation of people
in determining both the means and goals of social development. In doing so, the model seeks
to provide a framework for understanding the underlying causes of human degradation,
powerlessness, and social inequality everywhere in the world. The ultimate goal of the
SDM, however, is to guide collective action toward the elimination of all forms of violence and
social oppression. The New World Order Model The New World Order Model (NWOM) of
social development practice is closely associated with the writings of "visionary" economists,
political scientists, legal scholars, and environmentalists (Brandt Commission, 1981). Major
components of the NWOM are reflected in the fundamental social, political, and economic
reforms in the existing international "order" that are being sought by the United Nations (UN,
1990; UN/ESCAP, 1992b), the United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 1997), World
Bank 1997) and other leading international development assistance organizations. Elements
of the NWOM also have been described by social work theoreticians. The NWOM asserts
that the most serious problems confronting humanity are rooted in the fundamental
inequalities that exist in the present world "order," i.e., in the system of international social,
political, and economic institutions that govern relationships between nations and, within
nations, between groups of people. In promoting its social change objectives, the NWOM
calls for the creation of a "new world order" based on: 1) recognition of and respect for the
unity of life on earth; 2) the minimization of violence; 3) the satisfaction of basic human
needs; 4) the primacy of human dignity; 5) the retention of diversity and pluralism; and 6) the
need for universal participation in the process of attaining worldwide social transformation..

32. Theory of Focus of Theory Main Concepts Regarding Human Behavior Human Behavior
SYSTEMS THEORY How persons *Persons are in continual transaction with their
environment Includes: interact with their *Systems are interrelated parts or subsystems
constituting an ordered whole Ecological Systems environment. *Each subsystem impacts all
other parts and whole system [Systems Perspective] How the family *Systems can have
closed or open boundaries Includes: system affects the *Systems tend toward equilibrium
Family Systems individual and *Individual functioning shapes family functioning and family
systems can [Systems Perspective] family functioning create pathology within the individual
across the life- *Boundaries, roles, communication, family structure influence family span
functioning BEHAVIORISM & How individuals *Imitation & reaction to stimulation shape
behavioral learning SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY develop cognitive *Knowledge is
constructed through children physically and Includes: functioning and learn mentally acting
on objects Cognitive theory, through acting on *Intelligence is an evolutionary, biological
adaptation to Behavioral theory, their environment environment Social Learning theory

[Social *Cognitive structures enable adaptation & organization Behavioral perspective]
PSYCHODYNAMIC How inner *Unconscious and conscious mental activity motivate human
THEORY energies and behavior Includes: external forces *Ego functions mediate between
individual and environment Classical psychodynamic theory, interact to impact *Ego defense
mechanisms protect individuals from becoming Ego-psychology, Object-relations emotional
overwhelmed by unacceptable impulses and threats theory, development *Internalized
experiences shape personality development and Self-psychology functioning
[Psychodynamic Perspective] *Healing occurs through attention to transferences and the
treatment relationship

PSYCHOSOCIAL How internal & external *Human development occurs in defined &
qualitatively different stages that DEVELOPMENTAL forces shape life are sequential & may
be universal THEORY development, generally *Individual stages of development include
specific tasks to be completed & [Developmental by life stages crises to be managed
Perspective] *Time & social context shape & individualize the meaning of life stages
TRANSPERSONAL How the spiritual and *Focuses on meaning, connection, and purpose
THEORY religious aspects of human *Some people achieve developmental level beyond the
personal (ego- [Developmental existence can be based) level into transpersonal (beyond self
or ego) levels of Perspective; built upon understood consciousness and functioning.
Humanistic Perspective] How spiritual *There is an inherent tendency to express innate
potentials for love, development builds upon creativity, and spirituality and goes beyond bio-
*There is a difference between psychopathological phenomena and psychosocial
development spiritual growth experiences SOCIAL EXCHANGE How persons *Antecedents,
consequences, personal expectations, and interpretation shape and THEORY minimize costs
maintain behavior in the present [Rational Choice and maximize *Self-interest determines
social exchange Perspective] rewards through *Unequal resources determine power
inequities and reciprocity is essential social exchange *Six propositions: --Success
proposition --Stimulus proposition --Value proposition --Deprivation- satiation -- proposition --
Aggression-approval proposition --Rationality proposition SOCIAL How socio cultural *All
experience is subjective and human beings recreate themselves through an
CONSTRUCTIONISM and historical on-going, never static process [Social Constructionist
contexts shape *Knowledge is created through an interplay of multiple social and historical
Perspective] individuals and the forces creation of *Social interaction is grounded in
language, customs, cultural and historical knowledge contexts How individuals *All
phenomenon, including the sciences, must be approached with doubt in create themselves
order to understand how people construct reality *Humans are self-interpreting beings

SYMBOLIC How the “self” is *Human action is caused by complex interaction between and
within INTERACTIONISM influenced and shaped individuals [Social Constructionist by social
processes *Dynamic social activities take place among persons and we act according to
Perspective] and the capacity to how we define our situation symbolize *We act in the
present, not the past *Individuals are actors on the stage and take on roles, interacting with
the environment CONFLICT How power *All societies perpetuate some forms of oppression
& injustice and structural inequity THEORY structures & power *Power is unequally divided &
some groups dominate others [Conflict disparities impact *Social order is based on
manipulation and control by dominant groups Perspective] people‟ s lives *Social change is
driven by conflict, with periods of change interrupting periods of stability *Life is characterized
by conflict not consensus CONTINGENCY How individuals & *Groups are open, dynamic
systems with both change and conflict present THEORY groups gain power, *Groups are
stratified, with different and unequal levels of power and control [Systems access to
resources, *High discrimination and low privilege equals low opportunity Perspective] &
control over their *Oppression occurs when upward mobility is systematically denied lives,
often through *The social context must be critiqued and deconstructed collective action
*Assumptions for analyzing organizations: --there is no best way to manage organizations --
there must be a match between the environment and internal resources --the design of the
organization must fit with the environment

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