Theory frankfurt school and critical theory
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The document discusses the Frankfurt School of critical theory and its key figures. It summarizes their views on how advertising and propaganda manipulate public behavior by appealing to emotions rather than facts. Figures like Freud, Reich, Adorno, Horkheimer, Marcuse, Habermas are discussed. They analyzed how Enlightenment ideals of reason and liberation were subverted and humans dominated. Habermas aimed to rationally evaluate norms and legitimize social decisions through open communication to bridge the fact-value divide.
Theory frankfurt school and critical theory
- 1. Critical Theory and the Frankfurt School
- 2. I. Psychoanalysis and AdvertisingBackground and Context of Frankfurt School
- 3. Advertising and PropagandaEdward Bernays The “Father of Public Relations”
- 4. Nephew of Sigmund Freud
- 5. PR was invented as "peacetime propaganda.“ Bernays was inspired by the mass persuasion of the public during WWI.History of Advertising Information does not drive behavior. Bernays helped transform advertising from a means of conveying information into an art of manipulation. Because facts do not always persuade, businesses needed to appeal to people's emotions. Products were now seen as a means of expressing one’s inner self to others.
- 6. “Torches of Freedom”Bernays helped make smoking by women socially acceptable
- 7. Smoking was associated with power and independence
- 8. “Torches of Freedom” suggests that to be against smoking is to be against women’s right to vote!The Birth of Consumer CultureAdvertising helped transform America into a NEEDS culture into a DESIRE culture.Consumerism is necessary to avoid UNDER-CONSUMPTION: to grow the economy, more stuff has to be produced, which means that people have to buy more stuff, which can’t happen if people don’t desire more stuff!
- 9. The Birth of Consumer CulturePresident Herbert Hoover’s “Happiness Machines” Consumerism is necessary for a healthy economy and stable political orderPeople must be made happy and docile
- 10. Sigmund Freud and the ‘Repressive Hypothesis’Freud’s ‘Discoveries’Linked Childhood to adult behaviorsLibido and infantile “sexuality”: infants reach towards pleasure and away from painRepression causes pathologies (e.g. neurosis)Morality derived from repressive childhood upbringing(1856-1939)
- 11. Sigmund Freud and the ‘Repressive Hypothesis’Implications: Unconscious forces drive most of our behavior
- 12. Our behavior is not generally the result of rational calculations, or based on information alone. Emotion plays a major role in decision making.Civilization and its DiscontentsFreud argued that Human Nature is inherently violent and aggressive, and that sublimation of these primal instincts is necessary for civilization to continue.
- 13. Sublimation occurs when primary sexual energies are repressed, and then redirected towards artistic or cultural ends.Wilhelm ReichStudent of Freud’s
- 14. Contrary to Freud, Reich argued that Human Nature is inherently peaceful, loving, and affectionate.
- 15. Rather than repression and redirection of the primary drives (sublimation) being necessary for peaceful coexistence, Reich argued that such repression was the cause of violent and pathological tendencies in humans.(1897-1957)
- 16. Wilhelm ReichReich sought answers to the following questions:What explains fascism? Why are children more emotional than adults? What is the biological function/purpose of emotions?
- 17. Reich’s ‘Discoveries’Muscular and Character ArmorOur personalities reflect in part the chronic tensions we hold in our bodiesPrimary versus Secondary DrivesOur primary drives/desires are to reach out towards pleasure, affection, and love. These often get chronically unsatisfied or blocked, and we develop secondary drives, like obtaining money, or becoming famous, etc.Sexual Emotional Energy and “Function of the Orgasm”His most famous and controversial claim was that the purpose of the sexual orgasm was the release of chronic in-built tension. The release of this muscular “armor” (tension) would concur with a psychological release of our character structure. We would become more spontaneous and caring.
- 18. II. Critical Theory
- 19. Critical Theory OverviewFocus:The use of reason to critique the ways in which reasoned, critical thought is suppressed in culture and in institutional practices Reason used to dominate rather than to liberate individuals/groupsHighlight the irrational character of the established rationality
- 20. The Frankfurt SchoolThe Frankfurt School tried to assimilate the psycho-analytic writings of Freud with Marxian political economy, in an attempt to explain why the revolutions had not occurred. They turned to a theory of culture and ideology to account for the failure of socialist revolutions in the West.
- 21. The Frankfurt SchoolThe ‘first generation’ of Frankfurt School theorists included Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, Herbert Marcuse, Erich Fromm, among others. Habermas is the leading intellectual figure in the Frankfurt School, belonging to its second generation of theorists. HorkheimerAdornoBenjaminFrommMarcuse
- 22. Dialectic of EnlightenmentEnlightenment thought was intended to emancipate humanity.It accomplished this through science and technology, which entailed the domination of nature.Instead of freeing humanity, technology has been used to dominate both nature and humanity!HorkheimerAdorno
- 23. Herbert MarcusePsychoanalyst, Sociologist, and Philosopher; a leader of the student protest movements in the 1960s.
- 24. His most famous book is One-Dimensional Man:
- 25. Agreed with Freud that some repression of our instincts was necessary, but argued that there existed in society surplus repression, or more repression than is technologically necessary to keep the society running.
- 26. Freedom is repressed through a process he refers to as "repressive desublimation.” (1898-1979)
- 27. JürgenHabermasAssociated with the ‘2nd generation’ of Frankfurt School theoristsOpposes technological determinism. Growth of productive forces doesn’t necessarily emancipateTherefore, emancipation requires critical reflectionWants to liberate us from external constraints on speech and thought.
- 28. Facts and NormsIs there a ‘rational’ way to determine the ends we pursue? Or is this just a matter of opinion, faith, values, etc.? Habermas says yes, there is a way to rationally determine whether a value or opinion is rational!
- 29. Habermas and LegitimacyAccording to JürgenHabermas, social relationships are legitimate to the extent that they are based on free, unconstrained, and open communication among all of participants and include all of those affected. He refers to this as the ideal speech situation.
- 30. Two Types of CriticismsINTERNAL CRITIQUE Accepts the moral criterion of evaluation of a justification, but rejects the collective decision (or relationship) as falling short of this criterion, or even being incompatible with it.EXTERNAL CRITIQUERejects the value implied in the justification and offers an alternative moral criterion of evaluation.
- 31. Two Types of CriticismsExample: “We should eat at McDonald's for dinner, because the food tastes good.”Claim = “We should eat at McDonald’s”
- 32. Warrant = “Because the food tastes good”
- 33. Implied normative criterion: TasteInternal critique: “Yes, we should eat at the best tasting restaurant, but Burger King is better”External critique: “No, we should eat at the healthiest restaurant”
- 34. Claims and WarrantsTo argue is to evaluate claims on the basis of their warrants. Claim- a statement about what is, or what should be;Warrants- reasons or evidence that supports the claimWhat counts as evidence depends on the nature of the claim (see next slide)3 criteria for evaluating the validity of claimsAll statements fall into three categories, based on how that statement’s validity-claims can be evaluated:Objective; The external world :: TruthSubjective; The internal world :: SincerityNormative; The social world :: Rightness (morality)
- 35. Continuum of Social Relations
- 36. Types of ActionTwo ‘models of action’: instrumental vs. communicative:Instrumental = using someone elseCommunicative = forming a common will
- 37. Types of Action
- 38. Bridging the Fact-Value DivideAccording to Habermas, to understand any statement means you can evaluate its validity (truth, sincerity, or rightness). Evaluation is inherent to understanding. For Habermas, the primary intent of every communication is that the intent of the communication be understood. Therefore, to understand a normative statement implies we can evaluate it in some way (e.g. by examining the arguments pro and con). What is important for Habermas is that normative statements can also be evaluated on a rational basis. He thus attempts to bridge the divide between facts and norms (aka facts and values).
- 39. Bridging the Fact-Value DivideHabermas tells us that social interaction consists of communication, and that the social decisions (aka “collectively binding decisions”) are valid to the extent that they are arrived at through a process of free and open (unconstrained) communication. His theory doesn’t tell us whether the content of any particular decision is valid or invalid, but rather, his theory attempts to show us how we can determine whether the means by which we arrive at collective decisions are valid or invalid.
- 40. Bridging the Fact-Value Divide‘Seriously intended agreement is an end in itself’ Agreement = power that rests on the forceless force ofconviction, or, the ‘force of the better argument.’The strength of a consensus is measured on its claim to ‘rational validity’ , not its success in achieving goals.
- 41. Bridging the Fact-Value DivideHow do we know which coercion is rationally legitimate?What kind society could be rationally legitimated? Every society has to use some coercion. It has to have laws, etc. It must serve general interests. Must find universal moral rules that apply to every rational person.Example: all human beings share a common interest in preventing deadly diseases and environmental devastation. All coercive mechanisms must be legitimate in the eyes of all (or most) of all those capable of participating in a rational discourse about it. = “Universal pragmatics”
- 42. Structural Violence and Distorted Communication“Structural violence” = unperceived blockages to communication, which does not manifest itself as force.Agreements (consensus) can *appear* to arise from unconstrained, unblocked communication (‘ideal speech situation’), and therefore *appear* to give rise to legitimate power, when in reality, it arises from blocked, constrained communication and is therefore illegitimate.
- 43. Structural Violence and Distorted CommunicationA speech situation is deformed if it is coerced.Example: your boss asks you, “Do you like my new tie?” (You can’t say no!) This is coercive, and deforms and distorts communication. This is a kind of coercion for Habermas.
- 44. Structural Violence and Distorted CommunicationIn short: Habermas thinks that people are deluded about their objective interests, because of ‘distortions’ in communication, i.e. b/c of ideology.Is this just another version of ideology-critique? YES (but with a ‘communicative’ twist).?
- 45. Legitimation CrisisLegitimation crisis = state unable to sustain the mass loyalty of its citizensInterrelated economic and political steering problems in the capitalist system/societyExamples: 1960s, hippies, London Riots, 2011Why do youth today distance themselves from the norms of society? Symptomatic of problems with socialization of children.
- 46. Public Sphere and ‘Colonization of Life-World’Freedom to engage in political discussion and informal communication core to democratic societyCivil society: Private individuals/citizens coming together in, and as a publicToday, public sphere colonized by economic interests; communication is restricted
- 47. Criticisms and Evaluation of HabermasHabermas as new critique of Censorship. Central dilemma: Habermas’ theory implies a capture of the state to eliminate old bourgeois limitations on public discourse, but this would impose new systems of domination.*To do what it must to establish equality, it will undermine the freedom it espouses.Habermastherefore doesn’t want to spell out explicitly the political command implications of his theory, because he is troubled by the historical failures of communism/socialism. So he confines his project to the level of theory alone.
Editor's Notes
- #3: Prior to the age of advertising, products were sold primarily on the basis of NEEDS. Products were advertised as necessities rather than as luxury goods, as things that you needed. During this era the image of the “American consumer” began to replace the traditional roles/identities of “American worker.”
- #4: Smoking was seen primarily as a man's activity, and there was a taboo against women smoking in public. Bernays hired young women involved in the suffrage movement to smoke cigarettes as a symbol of power and independence. These cigarettes were called "torches of freedom." Shortly thereafter smoking became socially acceptable for women.
- #10: Note: The unconscious is distinct from preconscious. The unconscious actively resists becoming conscious. Unconscious memories are said to be “repressed” rather than simply forgotten.
- #14: Importantly, he regarded the sexualization of culture (e.g. in pornography, prostitution) to be a symptom of the repression of our true sexual nature. Both Freud and Reich reduce the essence of human nature to that of a single attribute: the libido (sexuality). For this they can be criticized for being deterministic as well as essentialist. Whereas for Freud, the libido is a quasi-metaphorical and literary concept, for Reich the libido is a real, physical force that can be quantitatively measured (akin to electricity or gravity).
- #27: Note: the term “validity” pertains to whether a statement (aka ‘communication’) is valid or invalid. The term “valid” is a broader, more general description than “truth” which pertains to only the first of the three categories. In other words, truth is a special case of validity. Validity also pertains to subjective statements, which can be evaluated according to the criterion of sincerity, and normative statements, which can be evaluated according to the criterion of moral rightness.
- #40: From Alvin Gouldner.