Course Content. Page Introduction BakoNS 24 22 23 24 31 3.2 33 3.4 35 36 37 39 44 43 44 45 48 Protection The principles of Protection The Basic Requirements of a Protective System Fault Discrimination Categories of Electrical Protection Fault Detection Forms of Protection - including: Earth Leakage Core Balance Earth Fault Restricted Earth Fault Overcurrent and Earth Fault Zones of Protection Current Transformers Safety Measurement and Protection Current Transformers, construction and design. Current Transformer Magnetic Characteristics and Operation ‘Specification of Current Transformers — in terms of: Rated Burden Operation Accuracy Class Accuracy Limit Classification of Current Transformers Application and Location of Current Transformers Practical Analysis of Current Transformer Performance Overview of Relay Operation Induction Relays Attracted armature Moving Coil Thermal Relays Timing Relays Static and Microprocessor Relays K Series Relays MOPN Relays MiCOM 241 Relay Fault Level Calculations Power System Impedance Per unit System Impedance and Reactance Generator and Transformer Fault Level Calculations Motor Fault Level Earth FaultsUnit & Time Current Protection Protection Discrimination Introduction Discrimination by Current Level Discrimination by Time Discrimination by Comparison Interconnector and Feeder Protection The Balanced Voltage System Relay Setting Exercise Grading Exercise Transformer Protection Overview Typical Transformer Faults Bias Differential Protection Transformer Earth Fault Protection Balanced Earth Fault Protection Standby Earth Fault Protection Over temperature Protection Buchholtz Protection Overfluxing Protection Motor Protection Motor Operation Typical Motor Duties Time/Current and Start /Load Characteristics Types of Motor Fault Overload and Fault Protection Considerations ‘Thermal Replica Relays Correlation of Protective Devices Generator Protection Overview Abnormal Operating Conditions Generator Protection Devices Stator Faults Unbatanced Loading Rotor Faults Stator Winding Protection and Earthing Stator Earth Fault Protection Overcurrent and Overload Protection Overfluxing Rotor Earth Fault Protection Over Voltage Protection Low Forward Reverse Power Protection Asynchronous Operation Excess Temperature Typical Protection and Tripping Schemes10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 11.0 4 412 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 417 11.8 11.9 11.10 14.11 41.12 14.13 11.14 44.15, 11.16 11.17 11.18 11.19 11.20 41.24 11.22 11.23 11.24 11.25 11.26 41.27 Busbar Protection ‘Types of Busbar Faults Zoning Faults Check Features for an Earth Fault Scheme Phase and Earth Fault Schemes Settings Duplicate Busbar Protection Schemes Feeder Protection Overview Unit Protection of Feeders Relay Elements Pilot Characteristics Insulation Requirements System types Tee'd Feeder Schemes Carrier Systems Practical Work Notes IOMT Relay Settings Delta-Star transformer Fault Currents Effects of CT Saturation Primary Injection of Biased Differential Relay MBCH Biased Differential Relay Testing of CDG Overcurrent Relay by Primary injection Reverse Power Relay MWTU Primary Injection of Overcurrent Protection CT magnetising curves Testing Field Failure Relay MYTU Testing Frequency relay MFVU Secondary injection of Biased Differential Relay Secondary Injection of Electro-mechanical IDMT Relay Secondary Injection of Directional Overcurrent Relay Secondary Injection of Overcurrent Relay PBO2 MBCH Bias Curves MBCH block Diagram Fuse Grading Exercise Typical Block Diagram of an AC Relay Determine Settings for Generator Differential Protection Determine Settings for Generator Differential Protection (Answers) Actual Settings Applied to a Generator Generator Settings Grading Example Busbar Fault Calculations MiCOM Relay Getting Started. Publication TG1155c1 MiCOM Relay Application Notes. Publication TG 1155504INTRODUCTION. This is a five day in house, protection training course to be delivered in Abu Dhabi at Abu Dhabi Marine Operating Company (Adma Opco). The aim of this training course is to provide delegates with an in depth technical knowledge of the protection systems and protective devices and where appropriate their application in the Adma Opco network. Expected Learning Outcome Knowledge of the basic principles of protective systems and common protection practice Knowledge of common types of protective devices/systems, how they function and appreciation of their respective applications. Understanding of current transformer design, application and testing. Knowledge of the requirements for the protection of motors, generators, transformers, busbars and feeders. Appreciation of the requirements of setting up, testing and calibrating various electro-mechanical and static relays (electronic and digital) Comprehension and experience of protection grading methods, relay operation under fault conditions and fault level calculations Specific knowledge of relays and protective systems in current use with ‘Adma Opco.Section 1 Protection1 PROTECTION Circuit breakers and fuses are used as protective devices in an electrical installation to protect the system in the event of a fault. They would be useless however; if it took a long time to detect the fault before clearing it because immense damage can occur extremely quickly in an electrical supply system. This means a fast and effective system of detecting a fault condition is necessary to ensure that the protective device operates in as short a time as possible following the occurrence of a fault. To protect a person when using portable equipment, a fault must be disconnected within 0.4 seconds. To protect fixed equipment, a fault must be disconnected within 5 seconds. (IEE regulations 16" Edition, BS7671). 1.1 THE PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTION The purpose of protection is to detect that a fault has occurred on the system, identify the faulty section of the system and then to operate as rapidly as possible to trip the faulty section. ‘The protection on the faulty section of the system must operate fast enough to: 1) Prevent the fault current causing overload damage to the adjacent healthy plant which is carrying the fault current to the faulty section 2) Provide safety for personnel 3) Ensure that the system remains stable during and after the fault e.g. the fault does not cause any generators to go unstable and pole slip 4) Safeguard adjacent plant from damage caused by the faulty section e.g. by fire or explosion 5) Minimise the damage to the faulty section. ‘The protection on most electrical systems does not prevent faults occurring, it operates after the fault has started. This is because most protection equipment requires a fault current to make them operate.1.2. BASIC REQUIREMENTS There are 4 basic requirements of a protective system: 1) Reliability The protection must operate rapidly after long periods of inactivity, possibly years. Therefore protection equipment must be designed to be robust and as simple as possible. 2) Discrimination The protection systems must be able to discriminate between the faulty section and the adjacent healthy sections, which will also be carrying fault current. Only the protection on the faulty section should operate to disconnect the faulty section. 3) Stability ‘The protection system for each section must remain stable, ie. not operate, when that section is feeding a large fault current to an adjacent faulty section. This is particularly important with "Unit! type protections which balance the current flowing into the section with the current flowing out of the section. This fault current can be 10 to 20 times the normal full load current on a large inter- connected system, 4) Sensitivity The protection must be sufficiently sensitive to operate rapidly for small values of fault current. Designers usually try to set the relay trip setting at about haif the minimum fault current value. 1.3. FAULT DISCRIMINATION When a fault occurs, a number of protective devices will detect it, but only those devices directly associated with the faulty equipment are required to operate. This is achieved by discrimination; there are three methods of discrimination; 4) Time/current e.g. by using Inverse Definite Minimum Time relays. 2) Comparison e.g. by using Differential Protection or Restricted Earth Fault Protection relays 3) Magnitude e.g. by using High-set Overcurrent Protection relays or fuses.1.4 CATEGORIES OF ELECTRICAL PROTECTION There are two main categories of electrical protection: non-unit protection and unit protection. a) —_Non-unit Protection SUPPLY Loap Fig.1-1 _Non-unit Protection Figure 1-1 shows a simple form of non-unit protection, although it has a definite start point it does not have a definite end point in the system. It will operate for all faults further down the system provided the value of the fault current and the time duration of the fault are greater than the protection setting, (b) Unit Protection PROTECTED ZONE Fig. 1-2 Unit ProtectionAs figure 1-2 shows, unit protection uses current transformers on the input and output connections to measure the current coming into the section and the current going out of it. In a healthy section these currents will balance and the protection will not operate i.e. remain stable, When a fault occurs in the section, the input current will increase and be out of balance with the output current. This out of balance current will cause the protection relay to operate. Unit protection monitors the balance of the input to output current of the section it covers and ignores all faults outside the protected zone. Restricted earth fault protection is another form of unit protection and is quite often used on star connected generators and transformers when it is not possible to fit current transformers to both sides of the protected unit. This form of unit protection is shown in figure 1-3. PROTECTED ZONE : Fig. 1-3 Restricted Earth Fault Protection Unit protection is used on closed ring systems, interconnected grid systems and on high value plant such as generators or medium/large transformers, Most unit protections utilise the circulating current principle that was first developed by Merz and Price.1.5 FAULT DETECTION A fault on an electrical system results in excess current. The most common forms of detection and removal of the excess current is by the use of fuses andlor current transformers operating with a protective relay to trip a circuit breaker. a) Fuses - simple and economic. HRC (High Rupturing Capacity) fuses are used. The fuse forms the weak link in the circuit, because the element in the fuse is a much smaller cross sectional area than the cable it protects, the element will reach its melting point first. The greater the current, the quicker the element melts, For very large overcurrent, “cut-off occurs before the peak value is reached, This implies, on a SOHz system, an operating time of less than 1/200 second therefore serious overheating and electromagnetic forces in the system are avoided. The HRC fuse is silent in operation, does not emit flames, is tamper proof and as the fuse elements are made of silver wire, it wili not deteriorate. As the fuse element is enclosed, most HRC fuses have a small explosive indicator, which blows a small hole in the fuse label when the fuse ruptures. The fuse has two disadvantages: 1) inconvenience of replacement. In practice it may take longer to trace a blown fuse than to replace it 2) Poor protection against small overcurrents. An overcurrent relay can be set to trip a circuit breaker on as little as 20% overload while an HRC fuse will only operate at around 50% overcurrent, (fusing factor 1.5) Fusing factor = Minimum Operating Current Nominal rating of fuse b) Current transformer (CT) Used in series with the circuit to produce a reduced replica of the primary current and operate the relay trip coils. The position of current transformers is shown in Figure 1-4SUPPLY ct X—PRA toMT) RELAY Fig.1-4 CTPosition LOAD The circuit shows the inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relay, which is probably the most widely used form of non-unit protection. Grading is possible ‘over a wide range of currents and unlike the fuse which has no definite minimum ‘operating time, the relay can be set with the design limits to any value of definite minimum time required 1.6 FORMS OF PROTECTION There are a number of different types of protection. The designer selects the most appropriate but there are some basic requirements: 4) Allcircuits must have earth fault protection 2) Alllcircuits must have overload protection Protection is then a balance between the cost of the equipment it is protecting and the cost of the protection system. a) Simple Earth Leakage Protection The most common fault on the supply system is the earth fault between one phase and earth. It is important to remove this type of fault as quickly as possible before it becomes a more serious fault involving other phases. One problem is that on distribution systems, often the current flowing in an earth fault is limited by the system neutral earthing through a resistance. This may well produce the situation where the earth fault current is less than the normal load current of the system and so normal overcurrent relays will not trip. The following protective schemes are designed to be sensitive to earth fault conditions, and hence rapidly open the appropriate circuit breaker before more major damage can occur. & 8 x €b) Core Balance Protection In a healthy three-phase, 3-wire system the currents flowing in each phase add up vectorially to zero. This is used in a protective scheme that simply detects earth faults. Should an earth fault occur in such a scheme, this current balance of all three phases no longer applies. Such a condition can be easily detected and an appropriate circuit breaker tripped. Two simple schemes are illustrated in Figure 1-5. 8 FS @) (b) Fig. 1-5 Simple Earth Fault Protection In scheme (a) all three-phase conductors pass through a magnetic core Providing the system is healthy the three currents produce no overall flux in the core and so no emf is induced in the secondary winding - hence the relay does not operate. When an earth fault occurs the currents no longer balance each other and so the resulting flux in the magnetic core produces an emf in the secondary winding which operates the relay tripping the protective circuit breaker. Hence the name core balance protection. Scheme (b) uses three current transformers one for each phase. The circuit is connected such that when the system is healthy the currents flowing in each transformer add up to zero and hence the relay does not operate. On an earth fault, the currents no longer balance and so the relay operates,c) Earth Fault Protection An alternative scheme is shown in Figure 1-6 below in which the current transformer is connected in the earth return to the star point of the main transformer. Earth Fault Relay Fig. 1-6 Earth Fault Protection When an earth fault occurs on the three-phase system a current flows in the star point to earth conductor, this is used to operate the relay and trip an appropriate circuit breaker. Naturally this type of scheme can only be used for a star connected transformer or generator which has its star point earthed. The only problem with simple earth leakage protection is that the earth fault may ‘occur at points well beyond the immediate circuit where the protective scheme is used. The earth leakage relay will operate even though there may be another breaker further down the line that could sense and isolate the fault. This protection therefore should only be used on a simple feeder and not a line supplying several feeders. d) Restricted Earth Fault Protection The schemes we have considered so far would respond to an earth fault anywhere on the system. Commonly it is useful to limit the region of operation of earth leakage protection. A typical example is for the protection of a star connected winding of a transformer in which the earth leakage relay will only operate for faults in the transformer. The principles of this type of scheme are shown below in Figure 1-7.tA RELAY = (@) in zone fault = (©) extemal fault Fig. 1-7 Restricted Earth Fault Protection ‘When the fault is in the transformer, the current between the CTs is no longer balanced and the relay operates. When an earth fault occurs outside the transformer, the out of balance earth current induces an emf in the earthed star point CT which opposes that produced by the faulted line CT. The result is that the relay does not operate e) Combined Overcurrent (O/C) And Earth Fault (E/F) Protection Normally on a feeder, overcurrent and earth fault protection is combined in a single relay containing three elements. The circuit used in practice is similar to that shown in Figure 1-8 below. >)» | ©® Fig. 1-8 Over-current and Earth Fault ProtectionOvercurrent relays O/C4 and O/C2 give complete protection against phase to phase and phase to earth faults since the phasor sum of the three line currents in any three phase system is zero, even when the load is unbalanced or there is a phase to phase fault. The earth fault relay is given a much more sensitive setting than the overcurrent relays, as the overcurrent relays must be set to operate only when normal full load current is exceeded. Therefore the scheme enables the earth fault relay to detect earth faults quickly and, hopefully, prevent them developing into more serious phase to phase faults. ‘An earth fault induces current in only one CT causing the current to flow through the earth fault (or residual) circuit Provided that the earth fault setting is sensitive enough, the element will operate. f) Zones Of Protection It is essential that the zones of protection provided by the various relays protecting the lines, busbars, transformers etc, should overlap, i.e. there should never be any blind spots. See Figure 1-9. Figure 1-9 GENERATOR BUSBAR ZONE ‘ZONE TRANSFORMER ZONE : FEEDER BUSBAR i ZONE :Section 2 Current Transformers2 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS Current transformers are designed for two main applications, (a) Measurement and (b) Protection. a) b) Measurement current transformers operate over a range of current up to a specific value, usually round about 120% of rated current. They have much smaller cores than protection CTs, with faster magnetic responses and quickly saturate (the core material is usually metal). Protection current transformers are required to operate over a wider range of currents, up to many times the circuit rating. Under such conditions, the flux density corresponds to advanced saturation and the response during these periods is very important Figure 2-1 below shows the magnetic characteristics of both types of current transformers. 1000% ()—7 VY Protection CT Secondary Voltage Measurement CT 120% () —} ‘Secondary Current Fig. 2-1 Comparison of Magnetic Characteristics However, the CT has two very important qualities: ) They reduce the primary currents to a suitable level the relays are able to handle. They provide an insulation barrier between the different voltage levels. Remember that for correct operation, the protective relay is dependent upon the correct design/selection of the current transformer is used to drive the protective relay.Because all transformers work by mutual induction they have a slow transient response. i.e. The primary electric current magnetizes a laminated iron core which then produces an electric current in the secondary winding, This inhibits rapid response to rapidly changing primary currents which slows. down the rate of change of current delivered to the protection relays. 24 Safety Current transformers must not be energised when the secondary is open circuit, This is because a CT acts as a constant current device. For a 1A CT with a burden of 5 ohms, the output voltage will be 1x § = 5 Volts, If the burden is 50 ‘ohms the output voltage will be 1 x 50 = 50 Volts. If there is a high resistance in the secondary circuit, (e.g. 1000 ohms or an open circuit). The CT core will saturate and there will be some very large voltage spikes which can electrocute 2.2 Construction and Design Current transformers are really transformers with a one-tur primary winding, i.e the primary winding is the line conductor, which passes through a laminated iron ring carrying the secondary winding. These are known as Bar-primary or Ring- wound CTs. Grain-orientated sheet steel strip is wound into a ring to form the core. The core is then covered with insulation and the secondary winding is wound over this. The wire is selected for the correct current rating and the correct number of turns to produce the required ratio. e.g. a 500/1 CT will nominally have 500 secondary turns. The CT ratio must also be related to the primary current i.e. a full load primary current of 500 amps would require a S00/1 CT, and a full load current of 2000 amps would require a 2000/1 CT. A final layer of insulation is then applied, when this is installed, the primary conductor passes through the centre of the ring, thus acting as a single turn. CTs conform to the normal transformer emf equation, which is: ‘Average Voltage = Rate of change flux x Number of turns Normal design criteria is to limit the flux to the value when saturation commences. This is known as the Knee Point Flux, and this is therefore the maximum value of the magnetising current that produces this flux. Since the flux changes from zero to maximum in % of a cycle, the rate of change of the flux is as follows: 4x @ webers/cycle or at frequency f, = 4x@ xfwebersis oryGiving an average induced voltage of, Vay = «= 4x ®x fx Nvolts or arms value of, V = 444xOxfxN volts The flux = flux density (B) x Core Area (a), then the Knee Point voltage is V = 4.44 x Bx axNxf The flux density of electrical sheet stee! is about 1.5 tesla, Therefore if the approximate dimensions of the core are known, it is possible to estimate the Knee Point voltage. For example: A300/1 CT with a core area of 30 x 40 mm would have a Knee Point flux of. 1.5 x 30 x 40 x 10°6 = 0.0018 weber. ‘Which on a 50 Hz system gives a Knee Point voltage of: V = 4.44 x 0.0018 x 300 x 50 = 120V. ie. for a given CT the voltage produced is proportional to the cross sectional area of the core 2.4 Specification of Current Transformers a) Burden The load of a CT is called the Burden and can be expressed in terms of either a VA load or an impedance. When VA is used, it is taken to be at the CT nominal secondary current, eg, A SVA burden on a 1A CT would have an impedance of 5S ohms * SVA/1A=5V, then impedance Z = 5V/1A= 5 ohms, * oraSACT, SVAISA = 1V, then impedance Z = 1V/SA = 0.2 ohms. All burdens such as cables, panel wiring and relays, are connected in series and the increase in impedance results in an increase in the burden upon the CT.b) Operation h, L 1 Fig. 2-2 Operation of CT In Figure 2-2, Ig is the magnetising current, Re is the CT winding resistance and Rp + Xb is the burden. ‘The primary AT = secondary AT, therefore Ny x I = Nz (le + I2) In practice, Ip is so small compared with |,, it is ignored in all calculations other than those concerned with ratio and phase angle errors. |, depends on V, which is dependant on the product of secondary current and impedance of the burden, plus the CT secondary winding resistance. Therefore according to Ohms Law, —*V,, = I, (R, +R, + X,) Figure 2-3 demonstrates the difference in magnitude of |, and 1, which is the ratio error and @ is the phase angle error.® Fig. 2-3 CT Secondary Phasor Diagram The magnetising curve figure 2-4, shows that Ie is small compared to |, up to the knee point (the knee point is defined where an 10% increase in the secondary voltage produces a 50% increase in the magnetising current), hence the ratio and phase angle errors will be small. Therefore the primary/secondary relationship will be maintained to this point, i.e. where |, (R, + R, + X,) = 120 volts. Beyond the knee point |, increases greatly as the voltage collapses resulting in larger ratio and phase angle errors. 710% [increase ‘Secondary anes 50% Voltage 10 increase 8 8 8B ot 02 03 Secondary Current |, (amperes) Fig. 2-4 CT Magnetising CharacteristicIf Ry =2o0hm Rp =3 ohm Then linearity will be maintained up to a secondary current of: L= WR, +R, +X, = 120/2+3+0= 24 amp. ie. 24 times the CT rating. Or, if linearity is required up to 20 times the CT rating, then the total impedance should not exceed: Vkpi20 = 120/20 = 6 ohms c) Saturation Ifthe impedance R, + X, is very high, then the voltage calculated from I,(R, +R, + X,) will be very large, in fact well above the knee point value. 1, would become significantly larger and would therefore result in the ampere/tur balance equation N, x |, = N, (le + lz) with |, being reduced The limiting value is when the CT secondary is an open circuit and |, is zero, then all the input ampere/tums will be used in driving the CT into saturation. In this saturated condition, the rate of the flux will only take a fraction of the time compared to the % of the cycle when the CT is unsaturated. The result of this rapid change of flux is that there will be a small increase in the average voltage. However, more damaging is the high level of instantaneous voltage that will be induced. This can then lead to insulation failure and overheating, caused by the increase in iron losses. d) Short Time Rating ‘When a CT is used in a power circuit it may be subjected to a fault current many times greater than its primary rating. It must therefore be able to withstand the effects of this current for the time it is likely to exist. The maximum current that the CT can carry without mechanical or thermal damage is expressed as a multiple of its rated current. For example: An 800/5 CT is capable of withstanding 24,000A.* Then its short-time factor is 24,000/800 = 30. This short-time factor would always be associated with a period of duration of the current, e.g. 3 seconds. Smaller currents are permissible for longer periods, the time increasing as the square in the reduction of the current. Larger currents are not necessarily permissible for any period of time, since electromagnetic forces have also to be considered. e) Accuracy Limit Factor When a current transformer is used to energise a protective relay, it must maintain its characteristic ratio up to some multiple of its rated current. This multiple, which depends on the type and characteristics of the protection may be 10, 20 or of some higher value, is known as the accuracy limit factor. f) Specification One method of specifying CTs for protection is outlined in BS 3938, where in the CTs are defined in terms of rated burden, accuracy class and accuracy limit. Standard value of rated burden are: 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15 and 30 VA. The accuracy classes are: 5P and 10P which then give composite error limits of 5% and 10%. The standard accuracy limit factors are 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30. This method of describing a CT is as follows: 15 VA 5P 20, which means at rated burden of 15 VA will therefore not have more than a 5% error at 20 times its rated current. It is sometimes more convenient to refer to the maximum useful voltage which can be obtained, the magnetisation current at some value and the secondary resistance. These are known in general as class X CTs. 9g) _ Rated Secondary Current Current transformer secondaries are normally rated at: 1) _0.5A (usually where long leads are involved), 2) 1A (by far the most common) 3) SA (where relays are very close to CTs & relays can be more robust). Most burdens require a definite VA at rated current and therefore their impedance varies inversely as the square of the rated current. The value of the rated secondary current is related to the relay rating. However, burdens are situated some distance from the CTs and therefore the connecting leadsintroduce a definite resistance, resulting in more burden at the higher rated current, e.g. Lead resistance of 1 ohm will produce a burden of 1VA at 1A which corresponds to 25VA at 5A Clearly in cases where lead resistance may be appreciable, there is great advantage in using lower rated secondary windings, but only where primary currents are small, otherwise the number of secondary turns becomes a problem. h) Application In specifying CTs, the connected burden and mode of operation must be taken into account, also any other devices which may be connected and the variation in the impedance over the range of settings of any relay. For example, the normal burden of an electromechanical overcurrent relay is 3VA at setting, where the normal setting range is 50% to 200% of the nominal current. Therefore a 1A relay set to 50% would have a setting current of 0.5A, and the voltage across the coil at this current would be: V=3VAI0.5A = 6Volts Therefore Z=6VI0.5A = 12 ohms Ata setting of 200%, the relay setting current would be 2A, then the voltage is as follows: V = 3VA/2A = 1.5V- Therefore = Z= 1.5V/2A=0.75 ohm If the characteristic of the relay is to be maintained up to 20 times the relay setting, then the knee point voltage must not be less than: 20 x 6V = 120 Vfor the 50% setting 20 x 1.5V = 30 V for the 200% setting ‘Since the 50% setting is the most onerous, it is important therefore that the lowest setting is taken into account when specifying the knee point voltage. However, the situation is eased a little due to relay saturation, at 20 times the rated current, the relay impedance will be reduced to half of that setting. This means that a knee point voltage of 60V would be satisfactory for this particular case.In many cases however, the CTs associated with over current must also cater for earth fault relays. An earth fault relay having a minimum setting of 20% would have a voltage at setting of: V = 3VA/0.2A = 15V Therefore = Z = 15V/0.2A=75 ohm f the earth fault current is restricted to say twice the CT primary rating and therefore 10 times the relay setting (2/0.2 = 10), therefore the knee point voltage should be greater than: 10 x 15V = 150V or allowing for saturation 75V In this case the size is determined by the earth fauit relay, a suitable CT would be 7.5VA SP 10, This would produce a voltage of 7.5V at a rated current when connected to a 7.5 ohm burden and would only have a 5% error at 10 times rated current (ie. at @ voltage of 10 x 7.5 = 75V). From this form of specification, the knee point voltage can be estimated Vkp = VA rating x ALF/secondary rated current Class 5P is specified when phase fault stability and accurate time grading is required. When these are unimportant, class 10P is suitable. i) Location of Current Transformers ‘Where possible current transformers are installed in circuit breaker bushings (or connections), in transformer turrets or generator pits, but where air-blast or SF6' circuit breakers are used, separate current transformer housings are employed. To provide the greatest cover overlapping zones of CTs are used wherever Possible. This is not usually possible where separately mounted CTs are employed and special tripping arrangements are necessary to ensure complete clearance of all faults. Figure 2-5 shows some of the options available. ccr Overlapping CT's CT's on B/Bar CT's on Circuit ‘igure 2-6 CT Arrangementsi) Interposing Current Transformers Interposing current transformers are used on unit protection schemes to further reduce the secondary current and to compensate for the star/delta connections of the primary transformer. k) Calculation Looking at a 600 MVA generator protection scheme. 22 KV primary current = 600 x 10° = 15,750 Amps 22 x ¥3 x 10° A 16000/1 CT with 16000 secondary turns would not be practical, so a 1600/5 is. chosen. In order to keep the burden as low as possible and use a standard 1A relay, a 5:1 interposing transformer is used (mounted close to the generator). 400 KV primary current = 600 _x 10° = 866 Amps 400.13 x 10° In this case a 1000/1 CT (which is a standard ratio) is chosen. To correct the delta/star transformer a star/delta compensation CT is required which should be 1:0.578 (0.578 = 1/N3), but we also need to correct for the mismatch due to the 1000/1 CT and not 866/1 so the ratio will actually need to be 1000 x 0.578 = 0.66. 866 Individually designed interposing transformers are normally used in conjunction with standard main CTs. On a general note, modem very low burden solid-state protection relays require much smaller current transformers ie. less core material and hence require less space. Typical Knee Point Voltages For electromechanical type relays * Va 2 2h (Rer + 2R)+K — (KS0to 100) For electronic type relays * Vk 2 K(Rer + 2Ri) (K 20 to 40)Section 3 Protection Relays3. OVERVIEW OF RELAY OPERATION A relay is a device that makes a measurement or receives a signal, which causes it to operate and to affect the operation of other equipment. A protection relay is a device that responds to abnormal conditions in an electrical power system to operate a circuit breaker to disconnect the faulty section of the system with the minimum interruption of supply. Many designs or relay elements have been produced but these are based on a few basic operating principles. The great majority of relays are in one of the following groups: a) Induction disc relays b) _Attracted-armature relays ¢) — Moving-coil relays d) Thermal relays ) Timing relays f) Static relays 3.1. Induction Relays These relays have an electromagnet system that produces torque in a non-magnetic aluminium disc. The torque is the product of two alternating fluxes that differ in phase, one flux is produced in the upper electromagnet and the other flux produced in the lower electromagnet. Maximum torque is produced when the fluxes are 90 degrees apart UPPER ELECTROMAGNET Voltage Call PERMANENT MAGNET _ Disc ay Lower Etectromaanet Fig.3-1 Schematic Diagram of an Induction Disc Relay‘A schematic diagram of the relay is shown in Figure 3-1. There is the type of element used in an electricity meter which measures energy consumed, that is, the product of power, (V x | x cos @) and time of usage. The voltage is applied to the upper electromagnet coil which, being very inductive causes a current lagging by almost 90 degrees, which results in the upper electromagnet flux to be in phase with the current. This flux is modified by an extra compensation loop so that it lags the voltage by exactly 90 degrees. The phase difference between the fluxes produces a torque proportional to power input V x I x cos@. The disc drives a train of gears to summate the consumption of energy. The most common use of the induction disc relay is an inverse definite minimum time overcurrent (IDMT) relay in which a torque proportional to I? is produced. The lower coil is energized by a secondary winding on the upper coil. This can also be achieved by a type of element known as a single quantity relay. In this type of element, the area of the pole faces are subdivided into subsidiary poles, a single coil is used to produce the magnetic field and the phase shift is produced by a short- circuited copper loop on one of the subsidiary poles. Figure 3-2 shows the arrangement. SOLID COPPER LOOPS DISC Ee acon eea Fig.3-2 Single Quantity Relay In both types of relay, the disc is arranged to travel through 180° before the contact is made, producing a time delay. The disc is held in the full reset position by a hairspring which exerts sufficient torque to keep the disc in that position until the relay setting current is exceeded. In an installation, the relay current setting would be chosen to be in excess of the normal load current so that under normal conditions the disc would not move from the fully reset position.‘When the relay setting is exceeded, the disc moves to close the relay contacts. The speed at which the disc moves depends on the magnitude of current. The higher the current, the faster the disc speed, and the shorter the time until the relay contacts close. The setting time of such relays varies inversely with the magnitude of the current. Pick-up 1.05 ~ 1.3 times setting 50 40 30 [Y] 20 10 Time (seconds) 1 2 3.4 5 6 8 10 20 30 Current (multiples of plug setting) Figure 3-3. Standard Inverse Characteristic CurveThe characteristic curve of the standard inverse-time relay is shown in Figure 3-3 The points to note on the characteristic are, ‘* an operating time of 10s at twice setting current * an operating time of 3s at ten times the setting current. A range of current settings is obtained by taps on the coil connected to a plugbridge. Typically these settings would cover a range of 50% to 200% of the relay nominal rating. For example, a relay for use with a 1A current transformer would, if all the coil was in circuit, have a setting of 0.5A, if only one half of the coil was in circuit, a setting of 1A and if only one quarter, 2A. There are usually seven settings in 25% steps, 50-75-100-125-150-175-200. See Figure 3-4. PLUG cu BRIDGE 200 50% tap UPPER ELEMENTN, BRAKE MAGNET se LOWER ELEMENT Fig.3-4 Basic IDMT Relay The operating time at twice setting current is 10s. This is the time for the disc to travel from the reset position to close the contacts. There is, however, the facility to move the reset position closer to the contact closed position so that the disc has to move only a fraction of the distance to make contact. For example, if the reset position was moved so that the disc had only to move one half of the distance, then at twice setting current the operating time would be 5s and at ten times the current setting is 1.5s. It is possible to move the reset position so that the travel is only 10% of full travel, This means that the operating time at a given current can be adjustedover a ten to one range. The device which alters the reset position has a calibrated scale, usually 0 to 1, and is known as the time multiplier. The inverse-time overcurrent relay is ideally suited for discrimination by time schemes. Induction Disc Relays known as Inverse definite Minimum Time (IDMT) are manufactured with three characteristic types, which are: (a) Standard |.D.M.T (b) Very inverse .D.M.T (c)_ Extremely inverse 1,D.M.T The characteristics of all three types are shown in Figure 3-5. 100 ol ol \ * 20 10 60 49 20 ‘Time (seconds) 06 04 02 on Fig. 3-5 Comparison of Time/Current Characteristic for |IDMT Relays3.2 Attracted Armature Relays This is the simplest type of relay and the most extensively used. The construction is usually very simple and robust; the bearing is often a knife-edge. As the armature gap decreases, the operating force increases, usually at a rate exceeding the restraint spring. For the relay to react, the operating quantity must be significantly reduced. The ratio of pick-up to dropout is the “returning ratio’, A high returning ratio produces the characteristic snap action, which gives good contact performance. These relays may be measuring relays, for example GEC’s CAG relays, used for high set overcurrent, or instantaneous overcurrent protection. The term instantaneous is slightly misleading, meaning only that no additional time delay has been intentionally introduced, Attracted armature relays can also be operated by AC. However, because the flux passes through zero every half cycle, the relay is noisy. To overcome this the AC may be rectified, or a copper shading loop may be fitted to the pole face. The shading loop has eddy currents which prevent this flux being zero across the whole pole face at any instant. 3.3 Moving Coil Relays Moving coil relays usually employ permanent magnets and are therefore inherently DC devices. The rotary moving coil relay has a construction very similar to the familiar moving coil instrument. The movement is restrained by two flat spiral springs, which sometimes also serve as current carrying connections. However, in order to provide higher operating torques necessary for good contact performance, the core inside the coil is usually a high performance permanent magnet, the magnetic circuit being completed by a concentric stéel tube within which the coil swings. The air gap in which the coil moves is also bigger than in a moving coil instrument in order to avoid particles of dust causing friction. Moving coi! relays of this kind are commonly found forming part of intertrip receive relays. Such intertrip receive relays usually contain filters to make the relays very insensitive to induced AC in the pilot wires.3.4 Thermal Relays These are relays in which the operating quantity generates heat in a resistance winding and so affects some temperature-sensitive component. Most protective relays of the thermal type are based upon the expansion of metal, a typical example being the use of bimetal material. Bimetal is available in strips, which are formed by welding two bars of different metals together throughout their length and then rolling ‘out the composite bar to form a thin sheet. When a strip of this material is heated, the difference in expansion rates of the two metals causes the strip to bend into a curve. The amount of motion of the end of the strip being magnified compared with the actual expansion of the individual metals. Relays can be constructed using straight pieces of bimetal or a longer strip may be coiled into a spiral thereby producing a large amount of motion in a compact space. The bimetal strip can be heated directly by passing current through it. In this case it is usually split longitudinally except at the extreme end so forming an elongated U The two divided ends are clamped to a support and current is fed through the loop. This results in the bimetal becoming heated and causing motion of the tip through a proportionate angle. 3.5 Timing Relays In some circumstances a time delay is required in conjunction with protection relays. These fall into three groups: a) Short-time Relays A short-time lag can be easily imposed using an attracted-armature type element, by fitting a solid copper cylinder to occupy a portion of the normal winding space. The “copper slug” may be placed at either end of the core but is most powerful when situated at the armature end. In this position, it delays both operate and release functions of the relay by virtue of the eddy-currents induced in it which resist a change in the core flux. Time relays of the order of 50 ms in the operate sense and 200 ms for release are possible. b) — Medium-value Accurate-time Delays For this application a more elaborate mechanism is employed. The relay is powered by a solenoid or attracted armature element. Either of these compresses a spring The other end of the spring drives a train of gears and an eddy-current brake system comprising a disc or drum rotating in a permanent-magnet field. The springshaft also carries a contact arm, which rotates as the gears run and ultimately makes contact at the end of its travel. A ratchet is usually fitted so that the relay can feset instantly when the coil is de-energized. This type of relay can give a maximum. time delay in the range of 1.0 to 30 s and can be adjustable for any one value over 2 10 to 1 range. c) Long-time Relays Relays of this class are usually of the motor-operated type. The motor may be a d.c. or a.c,, either synchronous or induction and will drive through gearing of such ratio that the operating time is achieved. The operating range extends from a few seconds up to hours, there being in principle no upper limit. When the gear ratio is high it is usual to incorporate a friction clutch in the drive chain, to avoid excess stress being built up should the motor continue to operate after the contact has completed full travel 3.6 Static and Microprocessor Relays Relays based on electronic techniques offer many advantages over the more usual electro-mechanical type. Apart from the obvious advantage of no moving parts the power requirements are low and therefore smaller current and voltage transformers can be used to provide the input. Additional benefits are improved accuracy and a wider range of characteristics. Electro-mechanical relays still represent the bulk of relays manufactured and it is unlikely that there will be a sweeping change-over to static relays particularly where the electro-mechanical relay is adequate, However, most of the future development in protection will be in static relays. The large application potential of the digital integrated circuit has led to enormous expenditure on research and development, which resulted in microprocessors with spectacular computing capabilities at a low cost. It is fairly certain that microprocessors will ultimately dominate protection and control systems. The utilization of microprocessors in the field of protection means that the logic part of the relay can be replaced by a program held in the microprocessor memory, This enables a relay function to be specified by software, which widens the scope of the relay and allows a single relay to be provided with a number of characteristics. Figure 3-6 shows a simplified block diagram of a microprocessor based over-current relay.instantaneous RelayOutput Time/Current Relay Output To CT |Microprocessop——— —— Output Driver Pees Interposing CT freee ee eee Time Multiplier Setting Switches aD TLE | Analogue _ Pte ja | [] [] | Digital =| ——— Converter | -——_— Instantaneous (high-set) Setting Switches Figure 3-6 Simplified Block Diagram of a Microprocessor-Based Over-current Relay Current Setting WARNING Handling Microprocessor Based Relays A person's normal movements can easily generate electrostatic potentials of several thousand volts. Discharge of these voltages into semiconductor devices when handling electronic circuits can cause serious damage, which often may not be immediately apparent but the reliability of the circuit will have been reduced. The electronic circuits of GEC ALSTHOM T&D Protection & Control Limited products are immune to the relevant levels of discharge when housed in their cases. Do not expose them to the risk of damage by withdrawing modules unnecessarily. Each module incorporates the highest practicable protection for its semiconductor devices. However, if it becomes necessary to withdraw a module, the followingprecautions should be taken to preserve the high reliability and long life for which the equipment has been designed and manufactured. 1 Before removing a module, ensure that you are at the same electrostatic potential as the equipment by touching the case. Handle the module by its front-plate, frame, or edges of the printed circuit board. Avoid touching the electronic components, printed circuit track or connectors. Do not pass the module to any person without first ensuring that you are both at the same electrostatic potential. Shaking hands achieves equipotential. Place the module on an antistatic surface, or on a conducting surface which is at the same potential as yourself. Store or transport the module in a conductive bag. More information on safe working procedures for all electronic equipment can be found in BS5783 and IEC 147-0F. If you are taking measurements on the internal electronic Circuitry of an equipment in service, it is preferable that you are earthed to the case with a conductive wrist strap. Wrist straps should have a resistance to ground between 500k - 10M ohms. If a wrist strap is not available, you should maintain regular contact with the case to prevent the build up of static. Instrumentation which may be used for making measurements should be earthed to the case whenever possible. GEC ALSTHOM T&D Protection & Control Limited strongly recommends that detailed investigations on the electronic circuitry, or modification work, should be carried out in a Special Handling Area such as described in BS5783 or IEC 147-0F.3.7 K-SERIES RELAYS The K-Series range of protection relays brings numerical technology to the successful MIDOS range of protection relays. Fully compatible with the existing designs and sharing the same modular housing concept, the relays offer more ‘comprehensive protection for demanding applications With enhanced versatility, reduced maintenance requirements and low burdens, K- Series relays provide a more advanced solution to power system protection. Each relay includes an extensive range of control and data gathering functions to provide a completely integrated system of protection, control, instrumentation, data logging, fault recording and event recording. The relays have a user-riendly 32-character liquid crystal display (led) with 4 pushbuttons, which aliow menu navigation and setting changes. Also, by utilising the simple 2-wire communication link, all of the relay functions can be read, reset and changed on demand from a local or remote personal computer (PC), loaded with the relevant software. KCGG & KCGU relays provide overcurrent and earth fault protection for power distribution systems, Industrial power systems and all other applications where overcurrent protection is required. The relays are used in applications where time graded overcurrent and earth fault protection is required. The KCGU provides ‘sensitive earth fault protection for systems where the earth fault current is limited, KCEG & KCEU relays provide directional overcurrent and earth fault protection. The overcurrent elements can be selectively directionalised, making the relays a cost-effective option where both directional and non-directional protection is required. The directional sensitive earth fault protection provided by the KCEU relay is particularly suitable for systems where the earth fault current is severely limited. Integral features in the K-Series relays include circuit breaker failure protection, back tripping, blocked overcurrent protection for feeders or busbars, cold load pick- up facilities, load shedding capabilities and two alternative groups of predetermined settings. The relays also have integral serial communication facilities via K-Bus. coe J. & 3 v og ~ v ay :3.7.1 Modeis available The following list of models are covered in the R8501E manual: KCGG 110/KCGG 210 KCGG 120 KCGG 130/KCGG 230 KCGG 140/KCGG 240 KCGU 110 KCGU 140/KCGU 240 KCEG 110/KCEG 210 KCEG 130/KCEG 230 KCEG 140/KCEG 240 KCEG 150/KCEG 250 KCEG 160 KCEU 110 KCEU 140/KCEU 240 KCEU 1414/KCEU 241 KCEU 150/KCEU 250 KCEU 160 Earth fault relay ‘Two phase overcurrent relay Three phase overcurrent relay Three phase overcurrent and earth fault relay Sensitive earth fault relay Three phase overcurrent and sensitive earth fault relay Directional earth fault relay Directional three phase overcurrent relay Directional three phase overcurrent and earth fault relay Directional earth fault and non-directional overcurrent relay Directional earth fault relay with Directional sensitive earth fault relay Directional three phase overcurrent and sensitive earth fault relay Directional three phase overcurrent and sensitive earth fault relay with wattmetric element Directional sensitive earth fault and non- directional overcurrent relay Directional sensitive earth fault relay3.7.2. User interface This interface provides the user with a means of entering settings to the relay and of interrogating the relays to retrieve recorded data. a) Front plate layout The front plate of the relay carries an identification label at the top comer. This identifies the relay by both its model number and serial number. This information is required when making any enquiry to the factory about a particular relay because it uniquely identifies the product. In addition there is a rating label in the bottom comer, which gives details of the auxiliary voltage, reference voltage (directional relays only) and current ratings. (See Figure 3-7) ‘Two handles, one at the top and one at the bottom of the front plate, will assist in removing the module from the case. Three light emitting diodes (led's) provide status indication and there is also a liquid crystal display and a four-key pad for access to settings and other readable data. Figure 3-7 Front plate LayoutLED indications The three LED's provide the following functions: « GREEN LED Indicates the relay is powered up and running. In most cases it follows the watchdog relay, but dual powered relays are the exception because the watchdog does not operate for loss of auxiliary supply. Such a condition would be considered a normal operational condition when the relays are energized from line current transformers alone. * YELLOW LED Indicates alarm conditions that have been detected by the relay during its self checking routine. The alarm lamp flashes when the password is entered (password inhibition temporarily overridden). * REDLED Indicates a trip that has been issued by the relay. This may be a protection trip or result from a remote trip command; the trip flags have to be viewed to decide which, KITZ interface Module Features ¢ Enables K-Bus to be interfaced with EC870 communications links + Provides for remote relay communications via modems ‘+ Optionally adds a real time tag to relay reply messages ‘* Allows synchronisation of real time clock via the communications link ‘© Desk top or back of panel mounting * Provides visual indication of communication operation on each port ‘* Suitable for electrically hostile environments * ITZ 103 enables Optimho (LFZP) distance relays to be interfaced onto K-BusThe KITZ interface units (refer to Figure 3-8) provide protocol conversion between K-Bus, the communication medium for Courier compatible devices, and IEC870 frame format data. It provides a serial connection (RS232/IEC870), which enables a master station (typically a personal computer) running Courier software to communicate with slave devices. The KITZ can be used to implement an integrated protection and control system utilising the serial communications facility of relays. Courier, the communication language for GEC ALSTHOM relays, provides access to relay menus allowing the user to read, change and control relay functions. Courier is based on a master-slave system whereby relays only respond when requested to do so by the master PC. All information is stored in the relays to form a distributed database which, combined with the generic nature of Courier, provides for ongoing relay developments without the need for software updates. Devices are linked using K-Bus, which consists of a screened twisted pair of wires, an arrangement developed for communicating in electrically hostile environments.Up to 32 devices can be connected in parallel on a single spur up to a maximum length of 1 km.3.7.3 Models Available 1. KITZ 101 Interface unit suitable for desk top mounting with ac auxiliary supply. 2. KITZ 102 Interface unit suitable for back of panel mounting with ac or de auxiliary supply. 3. KITZ 103 Offers protocol conversion between K-Bus and Optimho (Opticom) enabling integration of Optimho relays onto K-Bus. The KITZ 103 is suitable for back of pane! mounting with ac or de auxiliary supply. Note: The 100 series of relays are powered by an acide auxiliary supply. The 200 series of relays are dual powered i.e. powered by an acide auxiliary supply or from the line current transformers in the absence of an auxiliary supply. 3.7.4 KITZ 101/102 Application The KITZ 101/102 interface unit facilitates communications between K-Bus which links Courier compatible devices and the serial port of a PC. Alternatively the KITZ 101/102 may be connected via modems and a telephone network for remote access to devices. The KITZ 101/102 may also be used for interfacing K-Bus with remote terminal units (RTU’s) forming part of Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems having Courier language capability. The KITZ 101/102 interface unit offers protocol conversion between K-Bus and IEC870 formats, and will typically be applied in substations where a number of K-Bus compatible relays are operating. This provides access to all the functions of connected relays from a master station, such as a PC. Relay setting changes, configuration, disturbance and event records and remote circuit breaker operations are functions available using K-Bus. It should be noted that protection tripping and blocking signals are not routed via the K-Bus and KITZ interface units. Separate conventional wiring is used for these functions. Remote tripping and closing signals, where available as part of integrated control systems, are transmitted via K-Bus and KITZ. Typical applications are shown in Figures 3-9 and 3-10. The KITZ 101/102 interface unit provides protocol conversion, which allows for relay communications with SCADA systems. Intelligent SCADA systems capable of protocol conversion may communicate with relays using Courier language via the KITZ 101/102 connected to an RS232 port of a substation RTU.Subject to the capabilities of the SCADA system, all relay functions can be accessed via the KITZ 101/102. KITZ 101/102 application with a SCADA system is shown in Figures 3-9 and 3-10 below. eos SCADA systems unable to communicate using Courier language require an additional protocol converter between the substation RTU and the KITZ 101/102 interface unit. space Figure 3-10 Typical KITZ 102 sree APR GALION.KITZ 103. The KITZ 103 enables the Optimho (LFZP) distance protection relay to be interfaced onto the K-Bus. The unit provides a partial Courier interface enabling particular information from the Optimho relay to be accessed, in a similar manner to K-Series relays. Additionally, the unit provides protocol conversion of Opticom messages, enabling remote communication with the relay over K-Bus using a modified version of the Opticom communication software package. Typical application of the KITZ 103 is shown in Figure 3-11 | Figure 3-11. | Typical Application. _KITZ.103 Inte3.8 TYPE MOPN 01 AND 02 MOTOR PROTECTION RELAYS The MOPN 01, 02 relays are designed for use as main protection for asynchronous medium voltage motors or large synchronous low voltage motors. They offer comprehensive protection for motors and are normally applied for power ratings of SO0kW and above. Figure 3-12 shows a MOPN relay removed from its case. 1 3.8.1. Thermal overload protection The relay uses the thermal image method to monitor the thermal state of the motor. Both the positive and negative sequence currents are monitored; positive sequence current monitoring the load of the motor and negative sequence current monitoring any phase unbalance. The equivalent current is calculated using the following equation: Te = Ittemal = V(1,? + 31") To protect the motor against overload and avoid unwanted tripping, three independently adjustable time constants are employed in the overload curve: Te1 Overload time constant applied when the current is between Ie and 219. Te2 Start up time constant applied above 218. Tr Cooling time constant applied when the motor is stopped.To allow some motors to be started, the overload characteristic can be clipped by the protection during the required start time. a) Temperature Monitoring The relay constantly calculates the thermal state of the motor as a percentage of the stabilised temperature. (The stabilised temperature corresponds to the thermal state of the motor with a current equal to 18 flowing.) See Figure 3-13 for the thermal characteristics of the MOPN relay. The equation used to calculate the thermal state of the relay is as follows: eee eee eecee cee t = tlogn[kK*-a?] a Lk = 1) ee Where t= operating time T = time constant K= Ie Te Ie = equivalent thermal current on To = thermal setting thermal load coefficient and a= Imotor Ie Where Imotor = pre-fault current oat If the temperature exceeds an adjustable 90% Thermal sate value E1, a contact opens to inhibit any new attempt to start. A separate contact can be used to send an alarm if the overload exceeds 2.001 an adjustable value E2 (With the MOPN 02 sie 3 this alarm may be sent through the Figure 3-13 Hot and Cold Operate Time OPN-Bus communications network.)3.8.2 Short Circuit Protection In the event of a short circuit the relay trips in a definite time of 100ms, Figure 3-14 provides details of the relay curves with current plotted along the horizontal axis and time on the vertical axis. Terral evedood 7 Wns Rorearians dog Td | Tne Upton of heal | 7 Shon geet thon cr oi ee ae edict Figure 3-14 iim set In order to perform this task the MOPN has a number of protective features for which careful consideration to the setting of each must be given. This setting guide and application example are intended to be used in conjunction with publications R6121 and R8121, to assist in the selection of the most common settings on the MOPN. However, it must be remembered that motor protection relay settings are application specific and therefore can vary considerably from one motor to the next depending on the system conditions and application in question. With this in mind, we must stress that the following settings are only intended to be used as a guide. If further assistance is required, please contact GEC ALSTHOM T&D Protection & Control Limited.3.8.3. Typical motor parameters The following motor parameters will be used to help illustrate how to determine the most common MOPN settings. Voltage 11kV Full load current 280A 2.2 A— Starting current 470% Starting time 10s Heating time constant 20m Cooling time constant 100m Hot locked rotor withstand time 20s Cold locked rotor withstand time 30s CT Ratio 300/1 Useful information HS refers to disable in the menu system. Ie Thermal setting The J6 setting chosen will depend on the type of motor being protected; nowadays most machines are termed CMR (continuous maximum rating) motors. These motors are designed to carry the name plate value or full load current continuously. A CMR motor is usually run at some value less than its CMR and set to trip at its CMR. If the machine is not a CMR motor then the I setting will need to take into account the amount of overload which can be tolerated without thermal damage resulting,For this application we have assumed that the machine is a CMR motor and therefore J0 setting is calculated as: 6 = Iowr x (1/CT ratio) where ICMR = Continuous Motor Rating Therefore: I = 293 x 1/300 = 0.976 In Therefore:set 16 = 0.98 In Heating and cooling time constants (Te1, Te2 & Tr) The relay heating and cooling time constants are set in accordance with the motor thermal heating and cooling time constants. The relay heating time constant (Te1) should be set equal to the motor heating thermal time constant. However, it is good practice to set Tet slightly less than the motor heating thermal time constant to allow for relay tolerances, Te2 is automatically applied above 2 10 and is used to modify the relay thermal curve under certain applications, for example when a more sensitive setting is required under starting conditions. For most applications (DOL starting) Te2 should be set equal to Tet, resulting in one continuous thermal curve. For the motor parameters given: Set Te1 = 20m or 19m to allow for tolerances Set Te2 = Tet In certain applications the thermal time constants are unknown but a thermal withstand curve is given. For this application a heating time constant must be chosen which will give a thermal curve that fits just below the cold thermal withstand curve of the motor. For applications where neither the thermal time constants or the thermal withstand curve are available, settings Te1 and Te2 should be chosen so that the resulting thermal curve when plotted, on time current graph, lies above the start time but less than the stall withstand time. Tr is the cooling time constant. This is set as a multiple of Te1 and should be set to the nearest value above the motor cooling time constant. With Te1 = 20m: Set Tr to 5 x Te1 = 100m. It is not uncommon for motors to have a considerably long cooling time constant. If this is the case then it may not be possible to achieve the desired setting on theMOPN and therefore Tr must be set to maximum. However, it must now be remembered that during cooling the thermal replica in the relay does not follow the cooling curve of the motor. This is not usually a problem unless the motor is being cyclically operated. If this is the case, having a cooling time constant setting less than the motor cooling time constant would result in a premature successive start and possible damage to the motor. IL Threshold limit In certain applications the relay thermal curve may cut the starting characteristic thus resulting in a thermal trip during starting, Instead of altering the thermal time constant, IL can be used to increase the operating time of the thermal characteristic during starting. After the start time has elapsed, the characteristic will resume its original path To determine if this setting is required plot the thermal and starting characteristics to see if @ conflict exists. For this particular application example this feature is not required and has therefore been disabled Set IL =HS Starting inhibit threshold E1 E1 is expressed as a percentage of the thermal state of the motor. A contact associated with this setting is designed to open when the thermal state of the machine reaches the E1 setting and close again when the thermal state drops below the E1 setting. If this contact is wired into the starting circuitry it can be used to inhibit a hot restart until the motor has cooled to the E1 setting. There is no definite setting for E1 since it is based on the motors capability to withstand a hot restart. It is usually set to the minimum, which is 40%, and increased if desired. Set E1 = 40% Overheat alarm threshold E2 E2 is expressed as a percentage of the thermal state of the machine and is used to give an alarm when the thermal state reaches a predetermined value, say 90%. Set E2 = 90% Isc Short circuit settingThe short circuit protection is designed to provide very fast operation for heavy faults at the motor terminals. It is usually set to 1.2 X Maximum starting current Set to 1.24.7 x Zeon = sada 1655 1654 1 Isc = 4848 1 130 = 481n 5 S14 Earth fault current setting 13 Set to give an earth fault sensitivity within 10% to 25% of the minimum earth fault level, or within 10% to 60% of the motor continuous rated current, whichever is the lowest. For earth fault settings <20% of the motor continuous rated current, a core balance CT should be utilised. Where residually connected CTs are used, spill current may flow in the residual circuit under motor starting conditions. To ensure relay stability for these conditions, a stabilising resistor is required to be connected in series with the earth fault element. The value of the stabilising resistor can be calculated using the following formula Rstab = Ist [Ret + N.R1 + Relay Burden at_In ) -—— (a) To | I’n J where Jo = earth fault setting in amps Ist = motor starting current referred to CT secondary Ret = de resistance of CT secondary N= 1 for 4 wire CT connection (star point at CTs) 2 for 6 wire CT connection (both star points formed at relay panel). R1 = resistance of single lead from relay to CT For further information refer to the MOPN Service Manual R8121. Earth fault time delay TO A time delay of 0.3s shall be set, this has two functions:1 To provide stability under motor starting conditions where asymmetric CT saturation may occur. 2 To allow the protection to be used where the motor is controlled by fused contactors. Set to zero if stabilising resistor is used. I2 Phase unbalance protection Small values of negative phase sequence current due to an unbalance on the system will be accounted for in the thermal curve calculation, resulting in an accelerated thermal trip. However, for large values of negative sequence current resulting for example from loss of one phase during starting the I2 setting is used Recommended setting I2 < Istié where Ist = starting current. This setting is adopted since loss of a phase during starting will cause I2 = 0.5 x Ist. Setting the element to a third of this value ensures correct operation. 43 R<(47 Fea = 29TA 230k" 230 I < 471300 = 9.62 Ino-FY ot Set I2 = Gn Excessive start time and rotor stalling lf the thermal curve is greater than the start time and less than the stall withstand time then stall protection can be provided by the thermal curve. If this is not the case then additional stall protection will be required. The MOPN utilises internal overcurrent detectors and timers to provide excessive start time protection (stalling under starting) and rotor stall protection. When the machine is run up, the relay will detect a start condition and trip if the current is still above the Is setting after a time Td. With the machine running, the relay will detect a stall condition if the current increases above the Is setting and is not accompanied by a re-acceleration input (positive auxiliary supply on terminal 44), the relay will then trip after a time Tb1. In order for these protective functions to be used, a startcondition must be detected by the relay. This condition is obtained by the current reaching 0.9 Is and a de input applied to terminal 42 on the relay within a 200ms time window. For further information refer to publication R6121 In this application start/stall protection should be used since the thermal withstand curve of the machine is greater than the stall withstand time. The following settings are recommended: Set Is < motor start up current Set Td - 1s to 2s above the motor start up time Set Tb - If the motor stall withstand time > motor start time set Tb1 < motor stall withstand time. If the stall withstand time < motor start time, in order to provide adequate stall and start protection a scheme consisting of a timer relay plus a speed sensing switch Connected in series will be required. For the latter application, if the motor fails to slart, the speed switch will not operate, thereby allowing the timer relay to time out and operate the circuit breaker (scheme diagram is available upon request). Typically the time delay relay will be set to 1sec for a starting time of Ssec. For this application: Set Is = 3x10 =717A Set Td = 12s Set Tb =6s Minimum current IMIN and timer TMIN This function allows a trip when the current being drawn by the motor falls below a selected threshold. It can be used, for example, to protect electric pumps against becoming unprimed or to stop a motor in the event of a failure in the mechanical transmission. The trip occurs: 4. At the end of the normal start-up time Td, if the current remains below the selected setting,2. After an adjustable delay, TMIN, if the current drops below the preset value once Td has elapsed. Number of starts limitation It is possible to limit the frequency of motor restarts. This is done by selecting the maximum number of starts using the ST.Nb. (Tref) setting over a specified period given by the Tref TIME Setting. Exceeding this number during Tref will cause the relay to operate the same output that is used to inhibit the motor when the overload percentage E1 is exceeded. This contact will then remain open for a time given by FORBID TIME. It is important to note that there is no restriction on the time between starts during the time period Tref TIME. External trip timer TBV It is possible to trip the relay by applying a signal from an external under voltage or under frequency relay. An adjustable time delay, TBY, is provided within the relay. During this time the relay allows the motor to draw starting current ie. re-accelerate without tripping. For a detailed explanation on this feature refer to Publication R621 Plotting the relay characteristic When the various settings have been calculated it is good practice to plot out the thermal curves and start/stall information in order to see if there is any conflict Example curves are shown in Figure 3-15. It is possible to piot the cold thermal curve in one of two ways; firstly using the following equation and secondly using the thermal curves at the back of the service manual: Cold curve operating time = Tet Ln (K?) a 1) Where K = lef 16 Te = Equivalent current flowing into the relay = [1 + 312 It = Positive sequence current Tz = Negative sequence currentKis therefore a multiple of setting and if a CMR machine is used J@ = 100% full load current and therefore K is a multiple of full load current, For example in this application the starting current = 4.7 x full load current, hence at start K=4.7. This would result in the following operating time at start: Cold curve operating time = 20 x 60 x Ln (_4. r = 56s (477-1) Using the thermal! curves, proceed along the x axis to K = 4.7 then project up to the 0% thermal state curve and read off the corresponding t/Te1 value, which in this case is: t/Te1 = 0.045, therefore the operating time in seconds = 0.047 x 60 x 20 = 56.4s It is recommended that at least three points are calculated in order to get a true representation of the curve. This curve along with the stall withstand times and starting characteristic should be plotted to verify that no conflict exists i.e. the thermal curve does not intersect the starting characteristic)‘Thoma! overload Tol Spsioting ine in second al Bor Kelesié Figure 3-15 Example Setting3.9 | MOTOR PROTECTION BY MICON P241 RELAY Both asynchronous (induction) and synchronous motors perform a vital role in many industrial processes throughout the world, a vast majority of which would be unable to function without such a device. Loss of a motor through damage incurs much more than a possible electrical rewind but also a stop in an electrical process, resulting in expensive plant down times. This problem may be exacerbated by the damaged machine being positioned in an inaccessible position, such as an awkward corer of a factory or by a spare not being readily available. Therefore prior warning of a problem is vitally important to reduce the impact on a process resulting from a faulty motor. Comprehensive protection relays, such as the P241, can therefore be used to protect a motor from catastrophic failure, or possibly give the operator prior warning of @ problem, which may in tum reduce plant down time. However, it is also necessary to consider that any protective device, though reliable in operation under abnormal conditions, must not affect the continuous operation of the motor under normal operating conditions. Unfortunately, motor characteristics vary greatly depending upon their precise application. Each application therefore requires careful consideration regarding the specification and setting of the motor protection. For example, starting and stalling currents and times must be known when applying overload protection, and the thermal withstand of the machine under balanced and unbalanced loading must be defined. The conditions which motor protection may be required to detect can be divided into two broad categories; imposed external conditions and internal faults. Imposed external conditions includes unbalanced supply voltages, undervoltage, single phasing and reverse phase sequence starting, and in the case of synchronous machines only, loss of synchronism. Imposed internal conditions include bearing failures, earth faults, and winding failures and overloads,3.9.1 Introduction to the P241 Relay MICOM relays are a new range of products from ALSTOM T&D Protection & Control. Using the latest numerical technology, MiCOM relays include devices designed for the application to a wide range of power system plant such as motors, generators, feeders, overhead lines and cables. These relays are designed around a common hardware and software platform in order to achieve a high degree of commonality between products. One such product in the range is the Motor Protection Relay. This relay has been designed to cater for the protection of both asynchronous and synchronous motors, which may require extensive protection. The relay also includes a comprehensive range of non-protection features to aid with power system diagnosis and fault analysis. All these features can be accessed remotely from one of the relays remote serial communication options. Some of the protection features of the P241 relay are: * Thermal overload * Sensitive directional earth fault * Overvoltage and undervoltage + Short circuit + Excessive start/locked rotor and stall ‘* Limit to the number of hot and cold starts * Negative sequence/unbalance/single phasing and reverse phase sequence © Loss of load © Undertrequency.The features of the P241 will be examined during the course.Section 4 Fault Level Calculations4 FAULT LEVELS In the design of electrical power systems it is essential to take into account the fault level as in most cases it is this which determines the rating of the switchgear and the cables. A knowledge of the fault level is also necessary in order to calculate the protection settings and to predict the protection performance. Calculations involving short circuits always assume that the fault is a dead short circuit (zero impedance). Other influences, in particular arc resistance, contact resistance and conductor temperature, etc, can have the effect of lowering the short circuit current. Because of these unknowns, Voltage factor “c” is used in short circuit calculations that provides a calculation safety margin Table 1 gives the value of Factor “c’ for different distribution system voltages. Nominal Voltage Voltage factor c forthe Voltage factor c for the greatest short-circuit smallest short-circuit current. current. a) 230/400V 1.00 0.95 b) 400-1000 1.05 1.00 AKV to 35kV 1.10 1.0 ‘35KV to 230kV 1.10 1.0 380kV 1.10 1.0 Table 1. «System Voltage = Up, The line-to-line voltage by which a system is specified. * Short Circuit. A connection between two or more points in a circuit of low resistance or impedance that have different voltages * Short Circuit Current. The current flowing in an electrical circuit in which a short circuit occurs.Prospective Short Circuit Current. The short circuit current which would be available if the short-circuit was replaced by a connection with negligible impedance, and the supply remained unchanged Symmetrical Short Circuit Current. RMS value of the symmetrical AC component of a prospective short circuit current, taking no account of the DC component, if any. Initial Symmetrical Short Circuit Current Ik. RMS value of the symmetrical AC component of a prospective short circuit current at the instant the short circuit ocours if the short circuit impedance retains its value at time zero. Initial Symmetrical Short Circuit Power Sk. A fictitious quantity calculated as S_ = V3 x System Voltage x k Sq = V3 x Unxlk DC (aperiodic) component i pc of short circuit current. Mean value between the upper and lower envelope curve of a short circuit decaying from its initial value to zero. Peak short circuit current. Ip Maximum possible instantaneous value of prospective current ‘Symmetrical short-circuit breaking current Iy RMS value of the symmetrical AC component of a prospective short circuit current at the instant of contact separation by the first phase to clear in a switching device.Steady-state short-circuit current |, RMS value of the symmetrical AC component of a prospective short circuit current persisting after all transient phenomena have died away.In Three-Phase networks the following type of fault need to be considered. Kind of fault. Dimensional Numerical equation. (IEC 909) %MVA system © Three phase fault I's ey EE EEEeEEEEY =L1xU, — orlg = LL x 100% a V3x [Z| V¥3x [Zz] xUs vyii's WET © Phase to phase fault I’ia, La Mp =Lixt, x 100% 7 [2+ Z| [Zt ZyIxUp 13 Wee © Phase to earth fault I"y. ui Va =N3x41xU, or ly =N3x 1.1 x 100% I rereeceeceeeseeteeeeS |Zi+ Ze+ Zo [Zy+ Zt Z|Us 13 Ta Where 21, Z2 and Zo represent the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances. It is possible for other combinations of fault to occur, e.g. 2-phase to earth. All of these calculations involve complex calculations that can be found with the aid of fault calculation software, manual calculation or by graphical means.Fault Level Study Fuses a 25000m, SoMvA 2000, 20000 120m" ar 2b 1S201kV Damm PIC PIC cable 0.042 Source ‘OHL 620 25% ona a ava, 2805 Sak E D c B 1% A Refer all system impedances to a common base, in this example, 10MVA. 4 MVA transformer =7%x 40 = 17.5% 4 11kV cable between B and A. = 0.042 x11 10 =0.33% ‘% impedance on 10MVA base 14 11kV cable between C and B. = 0.24 x 100x 10 = 1.98% 11 % impedance on 10MVA base 30MVA transformer = 225x 10 =7.5% ‘% impedance on 10MVA base 30 132kV OHL = 62x 100x10 = 0.36% ‘% impedance on 10MVA base 132° 132kV source i = 100x 10 = 0.29% % impedance on 10MVA base 3500 Maximum fault level at substation A is: AOMVA x. = 35.7MVA 17. 5% + 0.33% + 1.98% + 7.5% + 0.36% + 0.29% 35.7MVA = 6260A at 3.3KV or 1880A at 11kV. Maximum fault level at substation B is: 4OMVA x 100% = 98.7MVA 1.98% + 7.5% + 0.36% + 0.29%98.7 MVA = 17280A at 3.3KV or 5180A at 11kV. Maximum fault level at substation C: JOMVA x 100% 7.5% + 0.36% + 0.29% 123 MVA = 21500A at 3.3kV or 538A at 132kV. 123MVA_ Maximum Fautt Level at substation D AOMVA x 100% 0.36% + 0.29% 1540MVA = 270,00A at 3.3kV or 6750A at 132kV. 1540MVA These simple calculations are used to find the maximum fault levels. Switchgear with an MVA rating capable of withstanding faults of this magnitude can now be selected with confidence for the distribution system from 132kV down to 400V. The fault levels are summarised beiow. ‘Switchboard Max. Fault level MVA A 35.7 B 98.7 Cc 123, D 1540 E 35004.1 Power System Impedance. In @ power system the impedance of the generators, transformers and cables determines the fault level. Of these, it is the transformer that presents the least difficulty in the determination of the impedance. On a transformer nameplate there is a quantity which is described as "impedance" or “impedance voltage”. It is specified as a percentage and its value is determined by the short-circuit test of the transformer. In a manufacturer's works, two tests are performed on every transformer. The open- circuit test, where the nominal voltage is applied to the primary to determine the magnetising current and the iron losses, and the short -circuit test from which the copper losses and the impedance are derived. The short-circuit test is performed by short-circuiting the three phases of the secondary winding and applying a voltage to the primary winding of such a value that rated full-oad current flows in the windings. This voltage, expressed as a percentage of nominal voltage, is referred to as the percentage impedance (or simply ‘impedance’). These terms should not be confused with the actual impedance of the unit though the latter is an element that is, percentage impedance = actual impedance x FL current x 100 /rated voltage. The relationship between voltage and current under these circumstances is linear, so that if twice the impedance voltage were applied then twice full-load current would flow. For example, if the impedance is 6%, and if 12% voltage is applied, then: Current = 12%/6%. = 2 x FL current So for a 3-phase fault on the secondary side with 100% voltage on the primary side: Fault current 100%/6% = 16.7 x FL current ‘Suppose the transformer is rated at 4MVA, 11kV/3.3kV, impedance 6% Then, Full Load current on the HV side = 4000KVA = 210A V8 x11 KV HV Short Circuit fault current = 240x 100% =3500A 6%and, Fuli Load current on the LVside = © 4000kKVA = 700A ¥3Bx3.3kV LV Short Circuit fault current = 700 x 100% =11,687A 6% It is easier to work in MVA than current because it is not necessary to distinguish between the HV and LV sides of the transformer, for example: Fault level on HV side = V3x11kVx3500A = 66.7MVA Fault level on LV side = ¥8x3.3KVx11,667A =66.7MVA This answer could have been derived by dividing the rating of the transformer by the % impedance: AMVA x100% = — 66.7MVA 6% 4.2 Per Unit System The use of % can be difficult to understand in fault level calculations. For exampie 6% is 6 in every hundred and 50% is 50 in a hundred. When used in calculations these are 6/100 and 50/100. If we use the Per Unit system, these values would be expressed as 0.06 and 0.5. The calculation for the 4MVA, 6% impedance transformer would become: Fault level = = 66.7MVA : ale 66.7 MVA — S This is shown in Figure 4-1. 4MVA 0.06 pu Figure 4-1 Transformer ImpedanceAn alternative way of looking at this diagram is that it has a voltage of 4, a resistance ©f 9.896 and a current of 66.7. In other words, It resembles ohms law: ‘+ The resistance is the per unit impedance. + The voltage is the MVA rating and the current is the fault MVA 4,3 Impedance and Reactance The impedance is related to the actual impedance of the transformer and is composed of resistance and reactance. The reactance is much greater than the resistance around 5 times greater for a smail transformer (SOOKVA), to about 20 times for a 40MVA transformer, Therefore for most calculations the resistance of the windings can be ignored and impedance level be taken as reactance. To ignore the resistance, means that the use of complex numbers can be ignored. The impedance of a generator is more difficult to obtain. It will not be specified on the nameplate but probably at the back of the operating manual. Various values of impedance, or more usually reactance, will be given, Under fault conditions the reactance of a machine varies. Generally three values are defined for the purposes of fault calculations |) The sub transient reactance Xd" which determines the initial current peaks and is of importance when determining maximum values of rupturing capacity of associated circuit breakers, and maximum mechanical stress on the machine. 2) The transient reactance Xd’ which usually applies for the behaviour of the machine in the period 0.1 -3.0 seconds after a disturbance. 3) The synchronous reactance Xd which is used for the machine under steady conditions. For the moment we shall use only the transient reactance which is specified as Xd’ A typical value of Xd’ is 20% and therefore a 3-phase fault at the generator terminals would be: Generator rated MVA = 5 x Rated MVA 02Example: fa 12.8 MW, 0.8 power factor generator has Xd' = 20% then find the fault level. Rating = 12.8MW = 16MVA 8 Fault level = 16 MVA = 80 MVA. 02 The situation is illustrated for clarity by Figure 4-2, called the impedance diagram. 80 MVA 16MVA. 0.2 pu Figure 4-2 Transformer Impedance4.4 Generator and Transformer Fault Level Calculations Consider a generator and generator transformer as part of a power system as shown in Figure 4-3 > 16MVA. 0.2pu 4MVA, X= 6% 3.3kV id The problem is that the MVA ratings are 4MVA 0,06pu different and therefore a common voltage cannot be applied. The solution is to use one of the ratings as a base and convert ; Figure 4-3 Circuit Impedance the other to that base. See Figure 4-4. Using a 16 MVA Base, Generator Impedance = 0.2 pu Transformer Impedance = 0.06 x16/4 = 0.24 pu —» > 46MVA 16MVA 0.24 pu 0.2 pu Figure 4-4When a common base is used the impedance can be connected together as shown, in Figure 4-5. 36.4 MVA Fault Level= 16 MVA > 02+024 = 36.4 MVA 02 pu 0.24 pu Figure 4-5 Impedance Diagram 16 MVA common base. Usually there are numerous generators and transformers of various ratings to be considered and so it is usual to choose a common base for the whole system and to refer to equipment ratings to this base. If calculations are concerned mainly with 11kV and 3.3kV ‘systems, then a base of 10 MVA is usually used. If 33kV and above a 100 MVA base is used. For 400V systems a 1 MVA base is normally used, Using the previous example, using a 10 MVA base. Generator Impedance = 40MVA_x20% = 0.125 16MVA 100% Transformer Impedance = 10MVA_ x60% = 0.15 45MVA 100% Total impedance = 0.125 +0.15 = 0.275 pu Fault Level =10/0.275 = = 36.4MVA4.5 Motor Fault Level During a fault on a distribution system induction motors that are in service and connected to the system will contribute to the fault current. At the moment the fault occurs the supply current and the back EMF from the motor will supply current to the motor. The initial value will be approximately equal to the motor starting current (approx. 6 times full load), but this will rapidly fall to zero. These currents are of interest to switchgear designers to ensure that the MVA rating of switchgear is not exceeded during a fault. The effect on differential protection is small since the current decays rapidly to zero. 46 Earth Faults Earth faults are the most common faults which occur on a distribution system. Earth fault relays are found at every change in voltage, distribution point and every final circuit. Current flows from one phase to earth thought the shortest or lowest impedance circuit possible, back to the source of supply. Fuse R. —» a a 230V => Ht Re Figure 4-6 Path of Earth Fault Current BS7671 states that on portable equipment, the protective device must operate in 0.4 seconds. On Fixed equipment the fuse must blow in 5 seconds. For the fuse to blow in the time specified in BS7671 the current flow in the circuit must be large enough to operate the protective device.The current will depend on the impedance in the circuit, where . Z, = transformer impedance, R.= Cable impedance, R. = earth impedance. Fault current = 230V_ 27+ Ret Re By checking the time for the protective device to operate on the characteristic curves for the protective device, it is a simple process to check if the circuit will be isolated within the time specified. Check if the following circuits are acceptable by checking the fuse operating time 1, Fixed equipment fitted with a 20A BS88 fuse, supply voltage 230V, loop impedance including the supply is 3.8 ohms. 2. Fixed equipment fitted with a 50A BS88 fuse, supply voltage 230V, loop impedance including the supply is 1.0 ohm0004 ‘SAUSdWV “8 Ws 'LNABUND BALLIAdSOUd ovo voor _vacs vow vos, vie oot 9 vaeg pun z jeg £88 SH OF sosng, wo vo e001 SQNOO3S ‘SWLLSection 5 Protection DiscriminationUNIT AND TIME CURRENT PROTECTION The function of power system protection is to minimise the damage in the event of a fault and ensure that a fault causes the minimum disturbance to the rest of the power system. Protection Requirements The protection on any power system is required to do two things: * To disconnect any equipment which is faulty * Not to disconnect any equipment which is not faulty At first sight it appears that the two objectives are similar but a little thought will show that they are very different. A typical power distribution system is shown in Fig, 5-1(a). A transformer provides the incoming supply to substation A. Substations B and C are each supplied through two interconnectors: substation B by interconnectors AB and CB and substation C by interconnectors AC and BC. Each interconnector has a circuit breaker at each end and each circuit breaker has a protection relay, designated A1, A2, B1 etc. {fa fault occurred on, say, interconnector BC, as shown in Fig. 5-1(b) then fault current will be detected by relay B2 and by relay C2 and they would be required to operate to trip the associated circuit breakers. But. the trip current flowing in relay B2 is also flowing in relay B1 and relay A1 and the trip current flowing in relay C2 is also flowing in Telay C1 and relay A2. To ensure that equipment which is not faulty remains in service Telays A1, B1, A2 and C1 must not operate. To achieve the disconnections of the faulty interconnector and maintain supplies through the healthy interconnectors requires discrimination by the protection. Figure 5-15.1 Discrimination There are three ways in which protection can discriminate * By current level which relies on the fact that the fault current varies with position of the fault because of the difference in impedance values between the source and the fault. * By time in which an appropriate operating time interval is given to relays to ensure that the circuit breaker nearest the fault opens first. = By comparison, a development of the Merz and Price fundamental differential current systems, based on the concept of protecting a system by treating it as a series of units to be protected, or Unit Protection, Of these, discrimination by comparison and discrimination by time are the most important. 5.2 Discrimination by Current Level This method can only be used where there is a large change in fault level, for example, from the low voltage side to the high-voltage side of a transformer. A fault on the low- voltage side would result in a fault current of around 15 times the transformer full load current, whereas a fault on the high-voltage side could result in a fault current of say 100 times the full load current. A relay on the high-voltage side set to say, 20 times full load current would not operate for any fault on the low-voltage side but would operate for a fault on the high-voltage side. For example, such a relay on the high voltage side of the transformer in Fig. 5-1 would not operate for the fault in interconnector BC or on any of the other interconnectors. A fault on the transformer high voltage side would be disconnected immediately and so limit the damage. Limitation of damage is not the only advantage of rapid fault clearance. Fast disconnection means that the effect of the fault causes less interference with the supply to the healthy parts of the system. 5.3 Discrimination by Time Consider the simple power system in Fig. 5-2. For a fault on interconnector BC, the relay at B is required to operate and the relay at A not to operate. To achieve this discrimination using time would require the relay at B to operate in say, 0.5s and the relay at A in say, 1s. Both relays would respond to the fault but the relay at B would operate first and the fault would be cleared before the relay at A was required tooperate. Should the relay at B fail to clear the fault for any reason, such as a damaged relay, circuit-breaker failure, or low tripping battery voltage, then after 1s the relay A would operate and the fault would be cleared. This is known as non-unit o back-up protection, Incoming “* Faule current Brault current e Supply ee fnsnaensat Fault Figure 5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages A protection scheme using discrimination by time has two disadvantages. . The relay current settings must be greater than those for the maximum load current + Because of the time grading, operation is slow. 5.4 Di rimination by Comparison In Fig. 5-1b the current flowing into interconnector AB al At is the same as the current flowing at B1. Similarly the current flowing into interconnector AC at A2 is the same as the current flowing out at C1. In the faulty interconnector, however, the current is flowing in at both ends. Therefore if the protection is arranged to subtract the current flowing out from the current flowing in the result will be zero if the interconnector is healthy and not zero if it is faulty. If there is a difference, the relays are arranged to ‘operate so that the circuit breakers disconnect the circuit. Discrimination by comparison schemes are more commonly called differential protection. A protection scheme using discrimination by comparison has two advantages, a low felay setting and fast operation. . The relay operation depends on the difference between the current flowing in and the current flowing out so that during normal load conditions the current differenceis zero. ‘This means that a relay setting can be used which is a fraction of the normal load current, * The relay can operate quickly as it is concerned only with the unit which it is protecting. There is no need to wait for the operation of any other relay. The disadvantages are that some method of passing information between the input and output of the unit to be protected is necessary. In the case of a feeder this is between the two ends, The passing of information is usually accomplished by wires which can be expensive, depending on the length of the feeder to be protected. As this form of protection is concemed only with the unit it is protecting, it does not provide back-up protection. It is often referred to as Differential or Unit Protection. Discrimination by current level and discrimination by comparison schemes use relays which operate instantaneously whereas a discrimination by time scheme uses relays with a time delay. Now let us look at these methods of discrimination in more detail a) Unit Protection (Discrimination By Comparison) Practically all unit protection schemes are based on the Merz-Price principle. Two basic systems are employed, the circulating current system and the balanced voltage system. In the circulating current system two identical current transformers are connected as shown in Figure 5-3(a), one either side of the unit to be protected. Voltage along lead AB ¢ along lead CD c Voltage Voltage across across CT cT2 Fig. 5-3 If the connection from A to B, and that from C to D, are uniform and identical, then the lead A to B will be the burden for CT1 and the lead C to D the burden for CT2. This means that if the current in CT1 is the same as the current in CT2, then all the voltageproduced across CT1 will be dropped across the lead A to B and all the voltage produced by CT2 will be dropped across the lead C to D. This is shown in Fig 5-3b. With identical current transformers and leads, there will be, at the centre point of the leads, equipotential points, and a relay connected between these points will receive no current when the current flowing into the protected unit is the same as the current flowing out. The relay will not operate therefore under load and through fault conditions. v2 oltage V1 0.01A 0.011A 0.044, 0.07A Magnetising Currents Figure 5-4 ‘The difficulty is that current transformers are rarely identical. ‘There is usually a difference in excitation current values. Fig. 5-4 shows the magnetising characteristics of two very similar current transformers. ff each produced a secondary voltage of V1 then the difference in excitation currents of the two CT’s would be 0.001A. This difference, which is known as ‘spill, would flow in the relay but would not cause it to trip, as it is, usual for the relay setting to be about 0.024. if however, the voltage was V2, then a current of 0.03A would flow through the relay and cause it to operate. The fact is, that when a fault occurs, it is usually accompanied by a transient which drives the currenttransformers into saturation and produces a high spill current. The transient disappears in about 20 cycles and therefore, if @ time delay, or say 0.5s (or 25 cycies), was introduced the probiem would be resolved. There is however a better solution which solves this fundamental problem which arises because of the difference between the current transformers. The question is how different? If one current transformer was perfect in that the excitation current was zero, then there would be no saturation, and the primary current would be accurately produced even up to the maximum fault level. If the other current transformer saturated at zero voltage then the entire input current would be excitation current. These would represent the two theoretical extremes of current transformer characteristics. Two current transformers could not differ more. Fig. 5-5 shows the idealised characteristics of two such current transformers. Voltage CT 2all input is used as magnetising current Magnetising Current Figure 5-5Consider Figure 5-6, which shows the equivalent circuit of a circulating current system under transient conditions, where the relay is situated midway between the two CTs. cTl | (ee) 2a Za Rs| hn Figure 5-6 Za: is the excitation impedance of CT1 Za. is the excitation impedance of CT2 Re: _ is the secondary winding resistance of CT1 Rez _ is the secondary winding resistance of CT2 Ri _ isthe total lead resistance of CT1 to the relay Riz _ isthe total lead resistance of CT2 to the relay Ry _ isthe resistance in series with the relay is the resulting relay spill current is the CT secondary current under transient conditions e.g. due to motor starting current. A short circuit is shown across the secondary of CT2 to simulate saturation of the CT due to the transient flux addition.Applying Thevenin's theorem, the voltage developed at the relay connection point is given by: V = h (Rit Re) Discharging this voltage through the relay gives a current In where, k= v Re + Ra + Rez If the relay resistance Re is small compared to Riz + Res, the relay spill current may attain the value of the total secondary fault current, which is unacceptable. However, if Re is high compared to Riz + Ree then the above equation approximates to: Ik = h (Ro + Rs) = Vv Re Re This shows that the spill current can be reduced to a value below that of any given relay setting by suitable choice of Re The maximum voltage that can be applied to the relay is: vos I (Re + Re) This can be now compared with the CT knee voltage so a value of relay resistance Re can be chosen which will ensure stability under initial transients whilst permitting sensitive operation. Resistance added to self-resistance of the relay is known as “stabilising resistance”. The conversion of the relay into a voltage relay by the addition of a resistor means that it has high impedance. {t is by the name “high-impedance relay" that the relay is known. Because the voltage is the determinate quantity, normal current settings can be lower than the relays we have previously encountered. The high-impedance relay has either a variable resistor or a bank of resistors inside the relay to allow a range of voltage settings to be used. A typical range is 15 to 185 V. The coil also has @ capacitor in series to tune it to 50 Hz so that the relay is less sensitive to the dc component of any transients. There is, of course, a difficulty in using high impedance devices in CT circuits as very high instantaneous voltages can be produced. To limit these voltages a non-linear resistor is connected across the CT secondary windings. The non-linear resistor hasnegligible effect at the relay setting voltage but limits the maximum peak voltage which can be produced. This type of protection is ideally suited to protect motors, generators and busbars. A typical application is as follows: 3000 kW, 11 kV induction motor Full Load Current = 195A Starting Curent == — 5xFL Current CT Ratio aa 200/1 ‘The relay and one set of current transformers would be mounted in the switchgear and the other set, at the motor (which may be some distance away) as shown in Fig. 5-7. Mowe CTs £@) 4 @ an KK Fig. 5-7 ‘The CT secondary circuit for one phase is shown in Fig. 5-8. If the current transformers at the motor saturated, then the voltage produced at the relay under motor starting conditions would be the product of the starting current and the resistance of the CT secondary winding circuit49 189 4.8754, > Read CTres jer € & =) Figure 5-8 For transient stability the relay must not operate during the starting period, taking the worst case i.e. one CT saturates then voltage across relay is Vo = Is(Ri + Rer) ‘The motor takes 5 times full load current during starting period, the CT ratio is 200:1 and the motor full load current is 195 A therefore, lb = 495x5 = 4875 200 Therefore V = 4,875 (1.8 + 4) = 283V This is the maximum voltage which can appear across the relay, therefore if we set the relay to 30 volt it will not operate during the starting period. The CT knee point voltage would be twice the relay setting voltage i.e. 2 x30 = 60 V. The stabilisingresistanceRe = = -V Ik Typical value of relay operating current is 0.02 A. Therefore: 30V = 1500 Q In 0.02AAssume the relay requires 0.5 VA to operate at setting. Therefore relay resistance = VA = 05 = 125092 Ie 0.02 x 0.02 Stabilising resistor Ra = 1500 - 1250 = 2500 At relay setting voltage of 30 V CT1 requires 0.011 A magnetising current and CT2 requires 0,01 A then: ls = relay operating current + magnetising current Is 0.02A + (0.011A + 0.01A) = 0.041A or 4.1% (since rated CT secondary current is 1A) Itis usual to express this value in CT primary current values: Primary Operating Current (POC) = 0.041 x200 =82A This is the minimum difference between input and output primary current which would operate the relay. In some cases it is considered necessary to desensitise the scheme. This is achieved by the connection of a resistor across the relay/stabilising resistor For example, if a 10% setting were required then the additional current would be: 0.1 -0.041 =0.059A at 30V Resistance = 30V/0.059A = 508 ohm connected across the relay/stabilising resistor. 5.5 Interconnecter and Feeder Protection The Merz-Price principle is also used as the basis for interconnector and feeder protection. As far as the feeders are concemed there are two problems:4) ‘The distance between the current transformers at the two ends means that the CT circuit resistance would be very high and that would resutt in impossibly high CT knee point voltages. In a feeder differential protection scheme the connections between the current transformers are referred to as pilots. 2) The relays must be mounted at the switchgear that is some distance from the mid-point of the CT circuit. The CT cirouit resistance can be effectively reduced by the use of an auxiliary current transformer at each end to reduce the circulating current to provide bias in a similar manner to the transformer differential protection scheme. Figure 5-9 shows the arrangement that is known as a CIRCULATING CURRENT scheme. “Bo ‘Aux. transformer Voltage across relay operating coil Bias is provided by the circulan current in the Relay Bias Coils Fig. 5-9 Circulating current protection under balanced conditions The drawback to this scheme is the current, which circulates even under load conditions. This current can cause interference on telecommunications circuits and therefore the BALANCED VOLTAGE scheme is preferred.5.6 Balanced Voltage System. The balanced voltage scheme is shown in Figure. 5-10 | cr2 End of interconnector Voltage across rely bis cal ‘As the voltage at each end is the ‘same, no current circulates Figure 5-10 Balanced voltage protection under balanced conditions This is similar to the circulating current scheme but, in this case, the pilot wires are cross-connected. This means that, as the voltages at the two ends are the same, no ‘current will circulate under balanced conditions. If then the relay operating coil is connected in series with the pilot circuit, it will receive no current under balanced conditions, whereas the bias coil, connected across the pilot circuit, will be energised Under internal fault (unbalanced) conditions the voltages at each end differ and the circulating current in the operating coil will produce an operating torque in the relay which easily overcomes the bias torque. The circuit shown in Figure 5-10 is for one phase. To protect all 3-phases, independent protection for each phase could be provided but this would require a corresponding number of feeder pairs which is usually economically prohibitive. An alternative is to combine the separate phase currents into a single quantity for comparison over a single pair of pilots. Direct summation of the currents on a perfectly balanced three-phase system would result in a sum of zero, and other arrangements are used to obtain an ‘output under all practical conditions. The summation winding on the auxiliary transformer is arranged as shown in Figure 5-11 connected to the three-phase set of current transformers. Two interphase portions of the primary winding will have equal numbers of tums and the third, to the common, a greater number of tums.= () Yellow i () a Figure 5-11 Three-phase connections, Balanced voltage protection With this system, only one pair of pilot wires is required but the sensitivity of the scheme depends on the type of fault. It is most sensitive to red-to-yellow and yellow-to-blue phase faults. This does not present a problem as there is usually ample current under phase fault conditions and the low earth-faullt settings ensure operation where the fault current may be limited. Now let us consider an example of discrimination by time The principle relay used for this application is the inverse definite-minimum time (IDMT) relay in which torque is proportional to ?. This relay has a range of current settings, usually 50 to 200% of nominal current. The setting is usually selected by the position of a plug in a plug bridge which determines the number of active tums on the operating coil and, therefore, the current setting. The relay operating time can also be varied, At the maximum setting the disc has to travel through 180° before contact is made. Reducing this angle by moving the disc reset position closer to the contact making position, the ‘operating time can be reduced. There is an adjuster, known as a time multiplier, with a calibrated scale of 0.1 to 1, which is used to set the angle. BS142 requires that the relay should reset at 70% and operate at 130%, these affect the choice of plug setting in two ways: 1 It is important that, under normal full condition the relay remains fully reset. To ensure this, a setting must be chosen 10% higher than the full load current. This will ensure that the relay resets, having reverted to full current after a through fault condition has caused some movement of the disc. 2. When the circuit is subjected to a temporary moderate overload condition, the relay should remain in the reset position. A setting should be chosen so that the overload current does not exceed 1.1 times relay setting.Electronic/microprocessor based relays have much closer reset and operate values (90% reset, 110% operate). Therefore a setting should be selected in excess of all overload conditions. This is not as drastic as it appears because these types of relay current settings are generally in 5% steps compared with 25% steps of the electromechanical types. Finally when determining current settings it is important that the setting is as high as, or higher than the current setting of the preceding relay. This should ensure, in the event of a fault to which a number of relays respond, the relay closest to the fault will operate first. SIS SIS SS 4 B Cc ratio Current transformer 80011 Figure 5-12 Figure 5-12 shows a radially fed power system, that is, the substation C is fed from substation B which in tum is fed from substation A. This method of supply is one of very low integrity because, ifthe circuit breaker at A trips, say for a fault on the feeder from A to B, then the supply is lost to both substation B and substation C. However, let us consider the protection requirements for this power system. The relays at A and B must have a current setting which is higher than any current which can flow through the relay circuit under normal healthy conditions. In Figure 5-12 the current in the feeder between A and B is 500A + 200A = 700 A. The CT ratio in both cases is 800/1.Since there is no overload conditions Then the setting of the relay at B > 110% x 500/800 = 69% Set to 75% (to next available higher setting) Setting = 75% x 800 = 600A And the setting of the relay at A> 110% x 700/800 = 97% Set to 100% Setting = 100% x 800 = 800 A To discriminate by time it is necessary for the relay at B to operate in, say, 0.4s and the relay at A to operate in 0.8s when a fault occurs, Let us assume that, if there is a fault, the current will be 6000 A. This is: 6O00A/600A = 10 times the setting of relay B 6000A/800A = 7.5 times the setting of relay A ‘The relay characteristic is derived from the equation time= __3 _ where M is the multiple of the plug setting. Logm For a fault current of B000A, Time forfulltravel= ___3 = 3 =3sec togi0 1 Amount of travel required to operate inO.4sec = O.dsec = 0.1333 or 13.33% Ssec The relay at B is required to operate in 0.4s, from the equation M = 10 times setting, would operate in 3.0s ifit was set at the maximum travel. So, for it o operate in 0.4s it would have to be set to travel only one sixth of maximum travel, (0.133). Thats, it would require a time-muttiplier setting (TMS) = 0.4/3.0 of 0.133s (ie. one sixth of the time for maximum travel). It can be seen that the Time Multiplier Setting is: Required operating time Time of operation on characteristic for multiple of setting current.The relay at A is set in exactly the same way to give a time of 0.88. For the multiple of setting current of 7.5, the calculated operating time is 3.4s, The time-multiplier setting (TMS) = 0.8/3.4 = 0.245, Now, if a fault occurs on the feeder between B and C, both relays will start to operate. But the relay at B will operate first to open the circuit-breaker at B, and the fault will be cleared before the relay at A can operate opening the circuit-breaker at A. Relay A automatically resets on clearance of the fault. Note that the discriminating period, i.e. the difference in operating time between the two relays, is 0.4s. This is the minimum time difference which must be allowed, to cater for relay errors, circuit-breaker operating time and relay overshoot. For example, when the fault occurs on the feeder between B and C, relay B should operate in 0.4s. However, owing to relay errors, it may take a little longer than this to operate, say 0.18 longer. When the relay at B operates it energises the trip coil of the circuit-breaker so that another 0.15s would elapse before the fault were cleared. Although the fault has been cleared the disc of the relay at A continues to move towards operation. This is because of the momentum of the disc. This stored energy is equivalent to a time of 0.05s. Finally, to ensure that the relay at A does not operate, an extra 0.1s is allowed to provide a contact gap. To summarise: Relay error 0.10s Circuit Breaker Operation 015s Overshoot 0.05s Contact Gap. 0.10s Total 0.40 sec 18Using electronic/microprocessor relays then the times can be reduced to: Relay error 005s Circuit Breaker Operation 0.158 Overshoot 0.03 Contact Gap 0.10s Total 0.33sec The 0.15 seconds is for an il circuit breaker therefore if another type of circuit breaker is used, the operating time could be reduced to 0.07s. If the relay is discriminating with a fuse then the breaker time is neglected completely. ‘There are two rules, which must be met if time grading is to be successful These are: 1) The current setting of the relay with the longer time setting must be at least as high as the current setting of the relay with which it is to discriminate. 2) The time setting must be calculated at the maximum fault current which can be carried by both relays. If discrimination is achieved at the maximum fault level then discrimination is guaranteed at all other fault levels. These rules are illustrated by the following example. 1) The current setting of the relay at B is 600A. The current setting of the relay at A must not be less than 600A. 2) The maximum fault current which would affect both relays would be the fault current for a fault on the feeder from B to C at a point just beyond the relay at B. In the example above, it is assumed that the fault current is the same irrespective of the fault position, and that the relay at B operates in 0.4s to discriminate with relay fed from Cwhich operates in 0.18. Suppose now that the fault level of 6000 A relates to a fault Just beyond the relay at C and that if the fault was just beyond the relay at B it was equivalent to 7200 A. At 7200 A the relay at B would operate in a time less than 0.4s since Muttiple of setting relay B = 7200/600 =12Operating time for full travel = 28sec = 2.8 x original TMS Operating time of relay at B = 2.8 x 0.133 = 0.37sec So that the operating time of the relay at A can be reduced to 0.37 + MIN TIME DISCRIMINATION = 0.37 + 0.4 = 077s. Although this is not a great reduction in operating time, it is a reduction. In some cases, shorter time margins can be achieved which may be important when many relays are involved, Note that the fault level was described as “just beyond the relay at B”. This would also bbe the fault level at the busbar at B. The point is that fault levels are usually specified as being at the substation busbars so that, if the fault level at any busbar is taken for the purposes of relay settings, this is also taken to be the fault level for the relays in that substation covering outgoing feeders. For example, if the fault level at busbar A was said to be 8000 A, then the fault level just beyond the relay at A would also be 800A.Section 6 Transformer Protection6 Transformer Protection Overview The function of any protective equipment is to detect a system fault condition and to disconnect the faulted plant from the power system by the operation of the appropriate circuit breakers. In order to limit damage to faulty plant and to preserve system stability particularly on the 400 kV and 275 kV systems fault clearance times of 80 ms to 140 ms are a requirement and as the installed capacity of the system is increased the former becomes of greater importance. it is equally important that healthy sections of the system remain in service when parts of the system become faulted The Transformer is an essential piece of plant in the power system and it is the various types of protection schemes in use that are discussed here. 6.1 Typical Transformer Faults * Insulator flashover - due to lightning strike, or voltage surge, or pollution. + Winding to core insulation failure. * _Interwinding insulation failure. + Interturn insulation failure. Core bolt insulation failure, * Winding over heating. * Arcing or overheating of tap changer contacts. + Breakdown of insulation due to contamination, deterioration, or loss of oil Its as well to remember that the majority of internal faults on a transformer are earth faults, phase faults usually occur extemally. Intertum faults are not unknown and there are usually difficult to detect early enough to enable rapid isolation of the transformer. It is expected that the majority of earth faults will develop on the lower voltage winding, since the latter is placed adjacent to the transformer core as shown in figure 6-1IRON CIRCUIT — LVWINDING ~~ HV WINDING Fig.6-1 Section of Three Phase Transformer showing winding position a) Tap Change Faults ‘On transformers used on transmission systems, tap changers are fitted to vary the overall ratio of the transformers. Connections from the windings to tapping switches must be provided and in the single potentiometer type tap changer with, say, 2 19 tap selection, a large number of tapping connections would come together at the tapping switches, presenting very obvious insulation problems and possibility of breakdown Trouble can also develop through bad contact on the tapping selector switches. ‘When diversion of the transformer load current is made through resistors, during tap change, then special thermal devices must be set within the transformer to detect overheating of the resistors. An uncompleted tap change, leaving the resistors in service, could cause this type of fault. b) Core Insulation Failure The iron circuit of a transformer is composed of many laminations clamped together by means of core bolts. Between the clapping points there exists a potential difference, induced from the transformer windings, into the iron circuit. The core bolts, if un-insulated, would provide a path for currents circulated by this potential difference. Hence core bolts are insulated otherwise these currents would cause overheating and local hot spots which could, in turn, cause breakdown of the oil or insulation. c) Winding Overheating Overheating can occur through placing excessive overioad on the transformer, deliberately ignoring winding temperature indications. If repeated too frequently theend result would be a fault due to insulation failure, as overheating can have a marked ‘ageing’ effect on the insulation. 6.2 Biased Differential Protection There are difficulties in using @ discrimination by comparison scheme for the Protection of transformers. Firstly there is the difference between the primary and secondary currents, For example, in the case of an 11 / 3.3 kV, 4 MVA transformer, the full load current on the 11 kV side is 210 A and the full load current on the 3.3 kV side is 700 A. This difference could be corrected by using current transformers with different ratios. For example, on the 11 KV side the ratio could be 240 / 1 and on the 3.3 kV side 8800/1. The second difficulty is that there is usually a 30° phase shift between the 11 kV and 3.3 kV currents because the 11 KV side is usually delta connected and the 3.3 kV side usually star connected. This phase difference can be corrected by connecting the current transformers on the delta side in star and those on the star side in delta The ratio of the delta connected current transformers would have to be changed to 800/0.577 to give a secondary line current of 1 A.This would appear to satisfy the conditions. There are, however, two further problems to overcome. The first of these is that if there is tap changing, the overall ratio of the transformer is changed. In the example, 11/3.3 kV could be 11 10% / 3.3 kV which means that instead of the primary and secondary currents being 210 A and 700 A respectively, the primary side current could be from 189 A to'241 A when the secondary side current was 700 A ‘Current transformer taps are not feasible. Under full load conditions on the 10% tap the CT outputs could be: 11 kV side, 241 / 240 = 1A and on the 3.3 kV side, 700 / 800 = 0.875 A. A difference of 1 - 0.875 = 0.125 A. This current, shown in Figure 6-2 would flow in the relay. This is known as spill current. (Note that as the primary voltage is reduced, the primary current increases for the same energy throughput }11KV 10% 3.3KV 2AtA a 700A —> CT RATI CT RATIO. 24011 800/0.577 star connected delta connected Figure 6-2 Current Distribution with Primary Side Tap at -10% The situation is, of course, much worse under through fault conditions. A through fault is a fault outside the zone of protection and should not cause the transformer protection to operate. The situation is worse as the current through the transformer, and therefore through the relay, is much greater. For example, if the current flowing to the through fault on the 3.3 kV side is 7000 A, then the current in the two sets of current transformers will be 10 A and 8.75 A. The relay spill current will be 1.25 A. Although the current through the relay is high, the current circulating in the loop is much higher and use is made of this to overcome the problem of unbalance and large spill currents, caused by tap-changing. The circuit for this type of relay is shown in Figure 6-3. The element that measures the spill current is called the operating element and the one measuring the circulating current is called the bias element.TRANSFORMER 3.3KV 11/3.3kV 11k Operate 875A Fig. 6-3a TRANSFORMER 11kV Fig. 6-3b Under through fault conditions, Fig. 3a, the current in the operating element is low and the current in the bias element is high. The result is that the relay restrains, ie. tries to move the contacts further apart. Under internal fault conditions, i.e. for a fault in the protected zone, Fig 3b, the nett current in the bias element is low and the current in the operating element is high. The result is that the relay operates. The scheme is known as BIASED DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION. On any biased differential system, it is usual to have more turns on the operating element coil than on the bias element coil. Typically there will be 2.5 times more, so that 0.4 A in the operating element coil produces the same torque as 1 A in the bias element coilThe relay would be said to have 40% bias. Fig. 6-4 shows the bias line. If the intersect of the operating current and bias current is above the line, there is an excess of operating torque and the relay would operate. Operating Current (amps) & 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Biasing Current (amps.) Figure 6-4 % Bias Curve If the intersect is below the line i.e, an excess of bias torque, the relay would restrain. (Note that the slope of the line x 100% gives the bias). 100% bias would mean the operating current values would be the same as the biasing current values. Check this with the figures in Figures 6-3a and 6-3b. a) Operate current = (Iy - Ip) = 10 - 875 = 1.258 Bias current = Aly + lp) = 410 + 875) = OB75A The intersection of operating and biasing currents is below the bias line, therefore the relay restrains b) Operate current = =10 + 875 = 1875A Bias current =%A(10 - 875) = 0.625A The intersection is above the bias line, therefore the relay operates.In the manufacturers’ leaflets, the axes are usually specified as: 14 - I for the operating quantity and %4(I1 + 12) for the biasing quantity which = (theoretical bias current + half minimum operating current). Figure 6-5 shows this and also the actual bias characteristic. The actual characteristic differs from the theoretical bias line because even with zero bias some current is required in the operating element coil to overcome friction, disc inertia, etc. to close the relay contacts. Operating Current (amps) 11-12 fm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 @ 10 0.5 (I1+12) _Biasing Current (amps.) Fig. 6-5 Typical Bias Curve for a Relay with 40% Bias 30% Setting The final problem to be overcome is that of magnetising inrush current. The normal magnetising current of a transformer is very low and, although it is a current that is flowing in and not flowing out, it would not be high enough to unbalance the protection. Magnetising inrush current is initially many times the full load current of the transformer and decays to zero in about 0.4s. It must, therefore, be catered for by the protection. The solution to the problem is to increase the relay contact gap so that a time delay in operation is introduced. This is the usual method employed for overall differential protection of transformers associated with industrial power systems. On the large transformers on transmission systems where a time delay cannot be tolerated, use is made of the harmonics present in the magnetising inrush current to prevent relay operation on energisation of the transformer. This is known as harmonic bias figure 6-6 shows a typical relay.Bias Winding Operate Winding Harmonic Bias| Unit Fig.6-6 Biased Differential Relay with Harmonic Bias6.3 Transformer Earth Fault Protection Earth fault protection using residually connected current transformers is a form of differential protection in that, in the absence of an earth fault, the currents in the current transformers must always sum to zero, and therefore no current flows through the relay. When there is an earth fault the sum of the currents do not equate to zero and therefore the residual current will flow through the relay. Hf @ relay was connected to residually connected current transformers on the secondary side of a transformer the protection would be unrestricted. That is, any earth fault on the power system connected to the secondary side of the transformer would be detected by the relay. To have restricted protection or to restrict the zone of the protection to the transformer requires a current transformer in the transformer neutral, connected across the other three. Earth fault current flowing to a fault on the power system is balanced by the current returning to the neutral. The setting of the relay can be a fraction of the transformer full load current and it can operate without any time delay. A high-impedance relay can be used Figure6-7 shows the arrangement. Transformer Secondary Windings Relay Figure 6-7 Restricted Earth Fault Protection of a Transformer Example A). Restricted earth protection is to be applied to a 4MVA, 11/3.3kV transformer. CT details are: HV side, ratio 250/1, CT resistance 0.4 ohms. LV side, ratio 800/1 CT resistance 2.0chms, neutral lead resistance 0.Sohms. If the fault level is 55.6MVA, determine the voltage setting of the relay and the overall primary current setting. CT Magnetising characteristics are shown in Figures 6-8a and 6-8b. 10Volts Volts 100: 100: 80: Bt 60: 6 20/1 CT 800/1 CT 40 40 20: 2 Teale Teegeaeeereleeeel 20 40 60 mA oO 20 40 60 mA Fig.a Fig. b Figure 6-8 (a) To determine the 3.3 kV fault current; I; = Fault MVA = 55.6 MVA = 9.73kA 3x Viine 1.732 x 3.3kV (b) CT and lead resistances at 70°C. = (20+05)x1.2=3.00 (c) Secondary fault current, = S73KVA x1000 = 12.16A 800 (d) To determine relay setting voltage ; Voltage across the relay = Secondary fault current x (CT + Lead resistances) = 1216 x3 = 365 Volts Therefore the relay is set to 40 volts. (e) To determine the overall primary current setting; From Figure 6-8b at 40 volts the magnetising current is 0.02 A, and the relay operating current is 0.02A. Then the overall setting is = (4x0.02) + 0.02 =01AIn terms of primary current = 800 x 0.1 = BOA. 6.4 Transformer Balanced Earth-Fault Protection ‘The transformer and protection connections are shown in Figure 6-9 Residually connected High CT's Impedance C= Primary Winding Delta connected ‘Secondary Winding Star connected o | ‘CRAWLEY. le sussex : ee | suscex B swe || oe Ed ToL : q F Da a EM 23 4 “Tas RATED RELAY CURRENT 7 3456 Tes naTeD Reza CURRENT ed [NAMEPLATE CURVES FOR 2D MINUTE TYPE MW RELAYS NAMEPLATE CURVES FOR 20 MINUTE TYPE Ma RELAYS. NAMEPLATE CURVES FOR 1 MINUTE TYPE M RELAYS. Figure 7-7 Thermal Performance Curves Saturating current transformers are normally provided so that heavy overloads do not cause damage to the heaters or bimetal elements. P&B relays are manufactured to an accuracy of better than +3%, this being expressed as a percentage of full scale deflection both for the overload setting and the running load scale reading. The repeatability of the relays is better than +0.5% and for stalling relays better than +1% The relay is fully compensated for changes in ambient temperature normally over the range of -10°C to +60°C. The normal thermal contacts on the relay movement are slow break self reset and must not be used for load breaking. If a contactor is used then the normal means of opening the circuit is to break the supply to the operating coil. This requires a normally closed contact in series with the coil that opens under these conditions, Thus an auxiliary relay is needed, this being switched by the thermal contacts. Let us now consider the relay's operation under single phasing conditions. If a machine is started with only two phases, let us say that only Yellow and Blue are available (which means the Red phase is open circuit) then the Red contact staysstill, but the multiple contact driven by the Yellow phase closes on the stationary Red contact. Obviously, Blue has moved in unison with Yellow. If a phase fails while a machine is running, then the appropriate element is de-energised, and the contact starts to reset to the zero load condition until it meets one of the energised element contacts. The load on a motor when it loses a phase determines the level to which the current will rise in the two remaining healthy phases, this can be as high as 245% of full load current. The standard single phasing cradle fitted to the P & B Gold's relay will rip on a load unbalance of approximately +12% of full load current, and will respond to the loss of one phase with sufficient speed to prevent damage to the motor. 7.7 Correlation of Protective Devices. The level of protection fitted on motors will be determined by their importance in the process. For example at a large power plant motors can be supplies at 480V, 4.16KV and 13.8kV. Which voltage is chosen will depend on the motor kW rating, for example, up to up to 200kW motor may be supplied at 480V, up to 2000kW at 4.1BKV and above 2000kW at 13.8 kV. The level of motor protection will also be decided on the voltage level and the importance of the drive unit. Examples of the types of protection are: a) Phase Unbalance Any unbalance in the currents will result in negative phase sequence components which produces a rotating field in opposition to the field produced by the stator. This produces double frequency currents in the rotor resulting in increased (mainly copper) losses which could lead to possible damage/failure of motor. In the situation where one phase is lost to motor this will produce the worst possible case of unbalanced condition. Since, in an induction motor the value of the resistance is normally small compared with the reactance, the negative sequence impedance at normal running speed can be approximated to positive sequence impedance at standstill The ratio of these impedance’s can be approximated to the ratio of the starting current to the full load current, and the negative sequence current will approximatelyequal the product of the negative sequence voltage and the ratio of the starting current to the full load current, For example, in a motor the starting current is approximately 6 times the full load current, a 5% negative sequence component in the supply voltage would result in a 30% negative sequence current. Overload and unbalanced load are conditions associated with the situation external to the motor. Overload is caused by an increase in the mechanical load whereas unbalanced currents are caused by the supply. If tripping has been initiated by either of these conditions, indicated by operation of the flag relay marked “Thermal”, it is usually in order to restart the motor. Only one restart should be attempted and during the starting period the relay should be used to diagnose the type of fault, overload or unbalanced current if it is still present. b) Stalling of Motors. If a motor fails to start or stalls when running it will draw a stator current equal to the locked rotor current in order to prevent damage the motor must be disconnected from the supply very quickly. It is not possible to distinguish between the healthy start and stall condition on current magnitude alone. The way to overcome this problem is to provide a protective device which will disconnect the motor should the high current continue for a time longer than the start time. The majority of loads require a starting time of less than 10 seconds while the typical allowable stall time for an induction motor is better than 20 seconds, therefore it is relatively easy to discriminate between these two conditions on a time basis. Where a motors’ starting time is long, due to high inertia loads, the starting time may equal the allowable stall time making the problem of discrimination between the two conditions more difficult. In these cases it may be necessary to use a relay initiated from the starting device or some form of speed monitoring. Whether or not additional stalling protection is required in any application will depend on the ratio of the normal starting time, to the allowable stall time. in addition the closeness with which the overload relay can be set to match the stalling timefcurrent curve without the possibility of mal-operation on healthy start (see Figures 7-8a and 7-8b).é 2 ‘srt iio ae tancrenie paecrowune tron Sanermene comer (@)_ RELAY OPERATION TIME LESS THAN STALL (®) RELAY OPERATION TIME GREATER THAN STALL WITHSTAND TIME:RELAY GIVES STALL PROTECTION WITHSTAND TIME:RELAY DOES NOT GIVE STALL PROTECTION Figs. 7-8a and 7-8b Stall protection principle. Direct-on-line start current ~ stall current The most likely cause of stalling in induction motors is the loss of one phase of the supply, possibly caused by a fuse blown by inrush current when the motor is started In this condition the motor fails to start. The motor can also stall if one phase is lost while running, depending upon the load on the motor at the time of the open circuit The current drawn by the motor under these conditions will equal 0.866 x the locked rotor current. Excessive overheating of parts of the rotor is likely to occur. With a balanced three phase supply applied to the motor, the rotating flux is induced in rotor causing symmetrical heating of the rotor winding. When unbalanced voltages are applied, as in the case of the loss of one phase, there is a pulsating flux induced in the rotor due to the positive and negative sequence currents. This causes unequal heating in the rotor winding depending upon the position of rotor bars. This condition can cause severe damage to the rotor bars and it is essential that the motor be disconnected from the supply as quickly as possibleThe P & B Stalling Relay This relay is designed to supplement the P & B Gold Relays and cannot be used in place of it. Whereas the thermal elements in the P & B Gold Relay give protection against overload and single phasing, the stalling relay does not operate on either of these faults but only when a motor stalls during either starting or running Principle of Operation In its simplest form the relay consists of a contactor and a thermal overload unit. The contactor only closes during the starting of the motor or if the motor stalls whilst running. As long as the contactor is open the thermal unit is short circuited, and so cannot operate, but when the contactor closes it switches the thermal unit into circuit and after an interval the thermal unit operates disconnecting the motor. {f however, the motor current falls to normal before the thermal unit operates, which happens during a healthy motor start, the contactor trips and cuts out the thermal unit again. The control contactor has two windings so that it functions not only as a contactor, but also as a current transformer to supply the correct current to the thermal unit, (see figure 7-9) CONTROL 2 RESISTOR —_— MAIN TERMINALS! CONTROL 6 e " CONTACTOR ALARM 1 THERMAL circuit Tate SREAKER RESISTOR 7 . Figure 7-9 Schematic Diagram for a P & B Stall RelayThe contactor has an attracted armature operating against the action of a spiral spring that controls the setting. The armature actuates one pair of normally closed and one pair of normally open contacts. The normally closed pair switch the thermal unit into and out of circuit, the normally open pair of contacts switch a resistance that takes the place of the thermal unit when this is cut out, providing a suitable secondary burden when the contactor is open. The rating of the relay is determined by the primary winding of the contactor, which has a high overload factor, and by saturating on heavy currents when the armature is closed, it protects the thermal unit. Control Contactor Setting ‘The standard setting for the contactor ‘pick-up’ is three times the relay rating, ‘drop off setting is twice the relay rating. The Thermal Unit The thermal unit consists of three bimetal coils mounted co-axially, and is sketched in Figure 7-10. conract con 3, ZERO ADJUSTMENT sudatine ‘BUSHES Figure 7-10 Thermal Unit for a P&B Stall RelayThe centres of coils 1 & 3 are free to rotate, the centre of coil 2 is fixed, and the outer ends of all three coils are connected together. Current from the contro contactor passes through coils 2 and 3 and by heating them causes them to rotate around their centres. As coil 2, which is the actuating coil, rotates, it carries coil 1 round with it via the yoke, coil 1 being the ambient temperature-compensating coil Thus the moving contact "a" which is fixed to the centre of coil 1, travels over the scale and makes with the fixed contact "b" unless the current is switched off Changes in ambient temperature merely rotate coils 1 and 2 equally, leaving contact “a” stationary and thus the timing is not affected by changes in ambient temperature. Similarly, as the same current heats both coils 2 and 3, the centre of coil 3 remains stationary during operation of the relay, consequently coil 3 relieves the necessity for a highly flexible current lead to the movement. The AC circuit through coils 2 and 3 is insulated from the contact system by a bushing and a mica insert in the yoke between coils 1 and 2. Due to the fact that the bimetal coils are directly heated the movement has a completely "dead heat” characteristic, and consequently fine discrimination can be obtained. Also, the unit has inverse time current characteristic so that during a healthy motor start, and the extent to which the current is below the stall current, the relay closes more slowly than it would on a stall The result is that the time setting can safely be very close to and sometimes even less than the starting time, ensuring rapid clearance of the motor on a stall. After clearance of a stall the unit slowly cools to room temperature, until this is reached the time setting on a subsequent stall is automatically shorter than normal. Due to this effect the operator cannot restart the motor immediately after a stall, and also thermal heating in the motor will tend to even out before a restart can be attempted. ¢) Insulation Failure In most cases motors are switched by means of a contactor or a circuit breaker. Circuit breakers are capable of making and breaking fault current, but contactors are only capable of making, not breaking the fault current. Therefore contactors must only trip when the current is within the contactor capability i.e. overload, unbalance or stalled conditions.The contactor cannot clear fault current caused by insulation failure; protection for this condition is generally by fuses. An earth fault relay can be used as it will detect low value earth faults and trip the contactor, but a high level fault must be cleared by the fuse. A time delay is applied to the earth fault relay to ensure fuse operation for high values of earth fault currents, For 400 volt systems where moulded-case circuit breakers are used instead of fuses, these MCCB's are fitted with instantaneous overcurrent devices. On 6.6 kV and 11 KV motors switched by circuit breakers, instantaneous overcurrent relays are used, these comprise of a residually connected earth fault relay with a typical setting of about 10% to 20%. The setting will mean that practically all the stator winding is protected If the motor is tripped on instantaneous overcurrent or earth fault no attempt should be made to restart the motor until the appropriate test/investigation has been carried out. Figure 7-11 shows the composite protection characteristic for an induction motor (120A FLC) using a 200A fuse, thermal relay (110% setting) and earth fault relay with 10% setting. Earth fauit relay set to 10% Thermal relay set to 110% / 1000 200A Fuse 100 10 1.0 ‘Time (Seconds) 1 with 2 sec delay O01 0.005, 10 100 1000 10,000 Current (Amperes) Figure 7-11 Composite characteristic, thermal relay and 200A fused) — Solid State Relays These are available for all sizes of motor and include very simple relays with overload protection to microprocessor based relays which are able to monitor all the motor parameters. Generally as the size of the motor, and its replacement cost, increases then more features are included in the relay. On large motors the relays are generally microprocessor driven and have characteristics which match the motors. The three important parameters are, the full load current, the locked rotor current and the locked rotor current withstand time From these three parameters the relay infers the heating time constants of the motor and therefore monitors the motors thermal condition, Relays may also limit the number of starts a motor can make (very important on some machines). Information concerning the running state of the motor can be Obtained from a digital display whilst some relays are capable of interrogation from a remote location. e) Synchronous Motors The protection applied to these motors is the same as for induction motors, but additional protection applied depends on location, load and importance of machine. Additional protection can include: 1) Pull Out Protection Normally applied to motors which are subject to sudden instantaneous overload. The overload could exceed the motor’s pull out torque: this would cause the motor to fall out of step (i.e. lose synchronism) The relay used for this protection is sensitive to the power factor of the stator current. The relay will detect the above condition within the first half cycle of slip frequency. 2) Damper Winding Thermal Protection This would be applied if there was the possibility that the motor may run for a long period out of synchronism, or a prolonged start or succession of attempted starts.The relay current is proportional to the slip frequency, which will give graded protection to the damper winding, 3) Field Thermal Overload Protection This is a normal thermal overload relay applied to a motor with automatic field forcing. A failure in the field excitation control circuit could lead to an overload condition. f) Protection Against Sudden Restoration of Supply If the supply to a motor is lost, it is essential that the motor circuit breaker is tripped as quickly as possible, if there is any chance of the supply being either automatically restored or restored without the knowledge of the motor operator. This is necessary to prevent the supply being out of phase with the motor voltage. There are a number of forms of protection available which attempt to prevent this condition, some are more preferable to others and are decided according to the motor usage, but none give a completely satisfactory solution to cover all possible conditions. 9) Under Power and Reverse Power Protection These can only be used where power reversals do not occur under normal operating conditions. Under power is used where there is no possibility of any other electrical load being connected to the busbars on the failure of supply. If there is always an electrical load connected to the busbars then reverse power is used incorporating a small time delay. h) —_ Overvoltage and Under Frequency Protection Overvoltage protection will operate with the loss of supply, provided there is very little load connected to the busbars. Under these conditions the voltage could rise instantaneously due to the open circuit on the motor and could be in the order of 20- 30%. Under frequency protection will operate in the event of supply failure with the motor ‘on load, this would cause the motor to slow rapidly. These two forms of protection can be instantaneous in operation making them useful when the supply circuit breaker is fitted with an auto reclose facility.Section 8 Generator Protection8.0 Generator Protection Overview During abnormal operating conditions the generator stator, rotor, and conductors are subjected to increased stress and therefore could fail, Due to high voltages and currents within the generator, faults can cause enormous damage in a very short space of time. To reduce the risk of damage to a minimum, but avoiding unnecessary tripping of the generator, a system which is able to detect faults must be provided to protect the generator and also the power distribution system. Faults or abnormal operating conditions can be of an electrical or mechanical nature e.g. insulation failure or vibration. 8.1 Abnormal Operating Conditions ‘When one or more of the generator operating parameters move outside a specified limit this is an abnormal operating condition. The system will give an alarm warning to the operator who should restore normal operating conditions. If normal operating conditions are not restored within a specified time limit the protection system should be set to trip the generator. Faults can be either intemal to the generator, or external, i.e. on the system to which the generator is connected. Some faults will call for immediate tripping of the generator to prevent greater damage. Other faults may only require load reduction or monitoring operation of the generator until an outage can be arranged (e.g. a rotor earth fault). In summary the protective system should: a) Be able to detect abnormal conditions or a fault condition b) __Limit the damage, by switching where possible to isolate the faulty plant. c) _ Inform operators (alarms). d) Unload and/or trip the generator immediately ifthe fault is serious.8.2 Protective Devices Selecting generator protection equipment requires a knowledge of the stresses to which the generator is subjected in service; preventive measures are devised to avoid excess. stressing of the generator. However intemal faults can occur and we must understand what form these faults can take, so they can be detected. Also the generator protection must be integrated with the protective system of the distribution system to which the generator is connected. The main stresses are voltage, mechanical forces and effect of temperature rise. A generator is designed to withstand normal operation conditions over its working life and can tolerate overload conditions for limited periods. It should be understood that in operation these limits can be exceeded and suitable protective devices must be provided. Despite good design, correct operation and preventive measures we cannot rule out the risk of internal faults in a generator, Therefore any generator protection ‘system must be able to detect these faults and disconnect the generator immediately. 8.3 Stator Faults Breakdown of winding insulation results in a fault to earth, a short circuit between turns or @ short circuit between phases, Other faults, originating from defective joints, or inadequate or defective bracing of end-turns or terminals, will, undetected, reach the stage where there is a breakdown of insulation. A fault to earth is most likely to occur in the slot portion of a winding, with consequent arcing to the core at the point of the fault. In addition to conductor damage, burning and welding of the laminations occurs, and while replacement of a conductor bar is serious enough, extensive damage to the laminations may result in having to rebuild the core down to the fault. To limit the damage as much as possible it is almost universal Practice to connect an impedance or earthing resistance between the generator winding neutral point and earth. Practice varies somewhat in the value of impedance used, ranging from the passage of rated current on the one hand to a low value on the other. Phase-phase or three-phase short-circuit currents are not limited by the earthing impedance, Because of the severity of the shock both to machine and system, extra care in maintaining the quality of the insulation at the end windings, terminals, and associated copper work is more than justified,8.4 Unbalanced Loading A three-phase balanced load produces a reaction field, which, to a first approximation, is constant and rotates synchronously with the rotor field system. Any unbalanced condition can be resolved into positive, negative and zero sequence components. The positive sequence component is similar to the normal balanced load. The negative sequence component is similar, except that the resulting reaction field rotates counter to the DC field system and produces a flux, which cuts the rotor at twice the rotational velocity. Double-frequency currents are thus induced in the field system and in the rotor body. The resulting eddy currents are very lange and so cause severe heating of the rotors. So severe is this effect that a single-phase load equal to the normal three-phase rated current can quickly heat the rotor slot wedges to the softening point, resulting in their extrusion by centrifugal force to the point where they may strike the stator iron, Concentration of heating also occurs on portions of end-belis, and surface fusion has been known to occur, The amount of negative sequence current, which can be carried for a given period of time by typical designs of turbo-generator, is indicated in Figure 8-1 ‘COOLING MEDIUM ERMESSIBCE I ryrea_| tyPEb AIR 2 : HYDROGEN 05 PSIG. 20 B 4 15 PSIG. 6 10 PSIG. ee 7 ‘TYPEa MACHINES WITHOUT DIRECTLY-COOLED ROTOR COPPER ‘TYPE b MACHINES WITH DIRECTLY-COOLED ROTOR COPPER NEGATIVESEQUENCE CURRENT PER UNIT CONTINUOUS MAXIMUM RATING 1 2 3 4 MULTIPLY BY FACTOR FROM TABLE ‘t= PERMISSIBLE TIME IN SECONDS Fig. 8-1 Typical negative sequence time/current curve for turbo-generators8.5 Rotor Faults The field system is not normally connected to earth, so an earth fault does not give rise to any fault current and is not in itself a danger. If a second earth fault should occur, however, a portion of the field winding may be short-circuited, resulting in an unbalanced magnetic pull on the rotor. This force may cause excess pressure on bearings, with consequent failure of the bearing surface or even displacement of the rotor sufficient to bend the shaft. In addition to the possibility of mechanical trouble there is a further danger of overheating the field windings and excitation system. This is due to the action of the voltage regulator attempting to maintain the rotor flux in spite of the loss of the turns that have been short-circuited by the double earth fault 86 Stator Winding Protection and Stator Earthing The most satisfactory method of protecting an AC generator stator is by the application of a differential scheme using the Merz-Price circulating current principle. For simplicity, a single phase of a three phase scheme is shown in Figure 8-2. With ideal ourrent transformers @ through primary current would produce in each transformer the same value of secondary current which would circulate as shown, and no current would pass through the relay. If a intemal fault develops on the protected winding as indicated, the CT currents are no longer equal, and the difference passes through the protective relay to causing it to operate. (See Figure 8-2b) GENERATOR GENERATOR WINDING iw Pepe pn EQUI-POTENTIAL, POINTS (a) (b) Figure 8-2 Basic circuit of circulating current schemeStator Earthing On industrial applications where the generator is connected directly to the power system without a transformer, the neutral point is earthed using a low value resistor. This limits the earth fault current within a range of 50% to 200% of rated full load current. Where the earth fault current is to be limited to a very low value to prevent core burning, then the neutral point is earthed through an impedance, so that under earth fault conditions the current is limited to a very low value typically 5 to 10A. 8.7 Stator Earth Fault Protection When the maximum earth-fault current is restricted to a fraction of the generator rating earth-fault protection, it is essential to fit additional protection to the differential protection scheme. ‘Typically earth-fault protection frequently consists of instantaneous relay and IDMT relay connected to a CT with a primary rating equal to that of the earthing impedance. The settings of the instantaneous relay are typically 10% to 20% and the IDMT are 5% to 10%. Earth faults will be detected in 90% to 95% of the generator winding even with the maximum fault current as low as 5% of the generator rating. ‘When it is considered that the differential protection gives adequate protection for earth- faults, an IDMT relay connected to @ CT in the generator neutral will provide back up Protection. Should the generator be connected directly to the distribution system (no generator transformer) then the IDMT relay will provide back up protection for the whole system. In this situation the relay would have a very long time delay and is considered as the last line of defence.8.8 Overcurrent and Overload Protection Overcurrent and overload relays should not be confused as they perform completely different functions. An overcurrent relay operates in the one to ten second range whereas the overload relay operates in the order of several minutes. On older protection schemes overcurrent protection usually consists of an IDMT relay and is generallly used as back up protection. In industrial installations, a setting for the relay must be selected to ensure positive operation since the relay is acting as back up protection to the system, New protection schemes use either voltage controlled or voltage restrained overcurrent relays Where a generator is continuously monitored, overload protection is generally not provided. On large generators, it is normal practice to install thermocouples within the stator winding and core, thus giving indication to operator of overload conditions. With small unattended generators where there is a possibility of overload due to MVAr loading, then if overload protection is installed, it is more than likely to be thermal type matched to generator thermal capacity. 8.9 Overfluxing Protection The generator voltage is proportional to the product of the flux density and the frequency or speed Vio = 444xfXNX® . © = — ¥ (Constant) f It can be seen from the above equation that if the frequency falls for a constant terminal voltage V then the flux must rise. This not only applies to the generator but also to the transformers. Therefore the complete generator/transformers unit must be protected against excessive flux, which would result in the saturation of magnetic circuits and high core losses. Overfluxing is most likely to occur during run up conditions, due to possible failure of the AVR or incorrect manual operation. Protection to prevent overfluxing can be achieved by using:a) Minimum frequency relay to trip and de-excite the unit b) —_Voltage/frequency relay to trip and de-excite the unit. ©) ©) A frequency dependant set point in the voltage regulator, by which the voltage set point is reduced in proportion to the frequency, if the frequency falls below a set level. 8.10 Rotor Earth Fault Protection The rotor circuit of generators normally operates earth free. Should a single earth fault ‘occur then it would not adversely affect the operation of the generator, but should a second earth fault occur it could cause magnetic unbalance resulting in serious vibration within the generator. There could be sufficient magnetic unbalance to cause rotor/stator contact. It is therefore important that every rotor earth fault is indicated, and the reason for the fault found at the earliest opportunity. The type of excitation system used determines the type of protection provided. On excitation systems which use rotating exciters (which are almost completely free of harmonics), rotor earth leakage current can be monitored by injecting DC voltage as shown in Figure 8-3. A.C SUPPLY 3 E awauary fe 3On static excitation systems where thyristors are used, coded signals are injected into the rotor circuit via a measurement relay. If an earth fault occurs, then it completes the Circuit for the measuring relay, which operates an alarm for the earth fault condition. 8.11 Overvoltage Protection The winding insulation system of the generator is designed on its operating voltage, taking into account voltage surges caused by switching and earth faults. There are three possible overvoltage conditions, which also require preventive Measures, these are: a) Voltage Surges Where it is considered necessary suitable lighting arresters are placed at the appropriate location depending upon the generator connections. Most overhead line systems use co-ordinating gap across transformer bushings. 4) Overvoltage (Self Excitation) This can occur when a generator is connected to a long transmission line, which is delivering leading VAr's to the generator. Under these conditions the generator may draw magnetising current from grid. In an extreme condition the generator excitation current will fall to zero and the AVR is unable to cope with this condition and overvoltage will result ©) Overvoltage (AVR Failure) A fault in the AVR could produce a condition where the excitation is taken to maximum ‘output. This could result in the generator nominal terminal voltage being exceeded, should the generator be running as a single unit or on no load. 8,12 Low Forward/Reverse Power Protection There is a need to protect the generator and its prime mover from the risk of over- speeding or being motored when the generator is disconnected from the system under fault conditions. With steam driven turbo altemators there is a risk that the steam inletvalves to the turbine may not fully close. In this condition and with the electrical load removed from the machine, there may be sufficient steam admitted to drive the machine into overspeed. To prevent this overspeed risk some of the fault conditions trips are routed via a low forward power relay, which prevents tripping of the generator circuit breaker until the electrical power is at a very low level. Engine driven generator sets must be protected against motoring and in these situations normal practice is to install a reverse power relay. 8.13 Asynchronous Operation There are two conditions when the generator runs asynchronously which are to be considered. The first is when it's rotor is still excited and the other is when the rotor is not excited. Failure of the DC excitation causes the machine to behave as an induction generator, the stator drawing magnetising current from the AC system with the rotor running at a speed slightly above normal. Owing to non-uniformity in reluctance of the magnetic circuit of the rotor, the magnitude of the stator current will oscillate appreciably at the slip frequency. Operation under these conditions should not be allowed to continue, because of the risk of overloading the stator by operating at low power factor, and overheating the rotor due to induced currents in the rotor body. When the generator runs asynchronously with its rotor excited, then the generator is said to be “pole slipping” and will cause severe voltage, power and reactive power surges. 814 Excess Temperature Operating a generator above its design temperature limits will result in the degrading of its insulation system. The result of this degrading will be a reduction in the life of the insulation system. Another concern due to excess temperature is the result of different thermal expansions of different materials close to one another. For example copper in the winding, the insulation and the iron core. Excessive temperatures result either from an increase in the intemal losses of the generator (above full load values), or from a reduction in the efficiency of the generators cooling system Reasons for increased losses are: a) Overcurrents in rotor or stator windings, b) Rotor iron losses increased by unbalanced loads or asynchronous running ©) Harmonics in stator currents (due in general to converter loads), must develop into an earth fault before it is detected.8.15 Typical Protection and Tripping Schemes ‘The power station generating system basically comprises four main plant areas (Figure 8-4) 1 Steam raising plant (steam generator). 2 Asteam turbine. 3 Agenerator. 4 ‘Step-up and step-down transformers, switchgear and connections Tripping System Send and Receive Trip Signals, 4 1. Steam 3. fi ‘Transmission Generator Generator) | 2 switehgear System connections Station Auxiliaries. Fuel Supplies, Lub Oil Supplies Rectifiers, Heaters, Motors and Valves Station Auxiliaries. Electrical Supply System Figure 8-4 Overall Generating Protection SchemeThe last equipment connects the generator to its loads. A small percentage of power (5 to 10%, approximately) provides services inside the power station; the remainder goes into the transmission network. It can be seen from Figure 8-4 that a power station system is very closely interconnected, so that a single failure requires more than the disconnection of the faulty plant, both electrically and mechanically a) Design Considerations Before describing the individual protective systems, certain design considerations should be reviewed. Generally the protection system is designed so that if faults occur, the faulty plant is disconnected, whilst continuity of supply from the generators is maintained, consistent with system stability. Listed below are major requirements on which protection selection and settings are based: ™ Faults on plant items must be disconnected as quickly as possible to minimise damage, and maintain system stability ™ The protective systems shall be stable for faults outside the protective zone. = Faults which are not cleared by the faulty item's own protection, will be cleared by secondary or back-up protection ™ Protection of plant is designed to match as closely as possible the plant operating characteristics, e.g. negative phase sequence protection is designed to match the generator thermal withstand to negative phase sequence currents. b) _Large Steam Driven Turbo Alternator Protection/Tripping System All generator protection devices will either act immediately or after some specific delay to disconnect the generator from the power system, however, it is not always necessary to de-excite the generator and bring it to a complete standstill. Therefore various schemes have been designed to provide the optimum operating sequence for each type of generator unit and each type of electrical or mechanical fault condition. The sole aim of these schemes should be to give adequate protection to the generator, while avoiding unnecessary disconnection. With a large turbo-altemator one of the main concems is, in the event of an electrical trip with the machine on-load, there is the possibility of excessive overspeed situation,due to the steam inlet valves failing to close because of water carry-over distorting the valve ducts. This risk is minimised by a protection interlock which ensures that the power output from the alternator is reduced to a low level before the main circuit breaker is opened. This method relies on the fact that machines cannot overspeed whilst the alternator output is being absorbed by the power system. If the altemator remains synchronised until such time as the steam flow to the turbine has reached a safe level, then the danger of excessive overspeed is removed. In fact the same argument could be used for the majority of the mechanical protection systems on the turbine and boiler, so a scheme was designed where energy trip was considered and placed into one of the following categories: 1) Those protecting against fault conditions which cannot tolerate a trip delay until a low power condition is reached or 2) Those protecting against fault conditions which could tolerate a trip delay until a low power condition is reached. A typical system is shown in Figures 8-5 and 8-6. The systems shown would be generally applied to any modem large steam driven generator. With the improvement in relay design and the trend towards the complete modular generator protection package, some of these systems then give the option to vary the tripping sequence by use of a protectionttripping criteria matrix. Table 1 provides typical protection relay requirements for different applications. Table 2 provides standard ANSi relay numbers.H.V. OVERCURRENT ——*-———} 400 KV CB BREAKER FAIL BUS BAR PROTECTION =—T BB TRI BACK TRIP => BB TR GEN TRANS OVERALL GEN TRANS REF ot GEN TRANS BUCHHOLZ >} GEN TRANS BUCHHOLZ. ~~ (TAP CHANGER GAS & SURGE) | GEN STATOR EF. (INST) =~} TUR. STOP VALVES GEN STATOR EF. (IDMT) >| UNIT TX 11KV ACB NEG PHASE SEQ =e 1» FIELD BREAKER LOW VACUUM | meen |» FGD FEEDER 11KV AC UNIT TRANS OVERALL ~~ [= SPRAY ISO RELAY UNIT TRANS (UNIT AX) REF. |» GEN TRANS OIL PUMP UNIT TRANS (F.G.D) REF —-»—| Lm INTERTRIP TO FGD UNIT TRANS BUCHHOLZ med (FEEDER END) F.G.D. FEEDER CCR... UNIT TRANS OCTTR onvws-onte GAS TURBINE # Low FORWARD | POWER RELAY LOSS OF STATOR WATER LOSS OF BOILER FIRE~ ‘TUR. STOP VALVES EMERGENCY P.S~ LOSS OF RELAY» HV CB jer erTR FLUID PRESS LEVISOL PF BETRO-—!- LOSS OF BOILER — WATER -—--P BOILER FIRING TRIPS UNIT TRANS LV S.B.EF. UNIT TRANS F.G.D. S.B.EF. eye TRI TRO > UNIT TRANS 11KV ACB eoeeee OQVERFLUXING RELAY —! 400 KVHV L—— cBOPEN | | ae > FIELD BREAKER AVR Figure 8-6Trip to other rout breakers —-Taremncnaar >] — (CauseanaorecTon Weer > ‘VavONG TEPERATORE TT TH OVERCURRENT Ber on Feeaer Sy "owen wiekoek Sreounwattn} Waa TAP ry Teamanuersraeee FH FELD FAURE — be FSFRTOR RT FAOTT Figure 8-5Trp to other creut breakers Th —— vy ¥ foo WRONG THAERATIRE Warmomamecr | f———) TYRES ROO RRRDER ‘SRO Neawranrous Feeder Figure 8-5BUS BAR PROTECTION BACK TRIP GEN TRANS OVERALL GEN TRANS REF ——~ GEN TRANS BUCHHOLZ ~~ GEN TRANS BUCHHOLZ ~~~: (TAP CHANGER GAS & SURGE) GEN STATOR E.F. (INST) i GEN STATOR EF. (DMT) >! NEG PHASE SEQ —~ oe LOW VACUUM ne ac UNIT TRANS OVERALL UNIT TRANS (UNIT AX) REF. PUMP _ UNIT TRANS (F.G.D.).REF. ig UNIT TRANS BUCHHOLZ, geen ¥.G.D. FEEDER CCR UNIT TRANS OCTTR LOSS OF STATOR WATER LOSS OF BOILER FIRE,_ UNIT TRANS LV S.B.E.P. ise UNITTRANS F.G.D. SBE, ! 1 OVERFLUXINGRELAY | 400 KV. [—>———— RIR3-» TUR. STOP VALVES (»—__ IRIR¢ tm UNIT'TX LIKV ACB |= FIELD BREAKER be TR2etmFGD FEEDER 1IKV [= SPRAY ISO RELAY Ly—GEN TRANS OIL INTERTRIP TO F.G.D. (FEEDER END) TUR. STOP VALVES ae UNIT TRANS 11KV ACB _ FIELD BREAKER, AVR‘Steam and gas turbine : : Water turbine driven 15 svat -5 MV ar 1. A engine Above Above Schemes. 5MVA Schemes smva | oven 1 2 1 2 Differential o : 0 - 0 - Restricted earth fault e e - : o i: ° Overcurrent x Q 0 x 0 0 0 Phase unbalance |__X x 0 7 7 zi Rotorearthfautt | - - 0 - 7 zi : Reverse power x x X x x : Under power and reverse power : x 7 7 ‘ i interlock Overvottage 7 E - o o 0 : Field failure undercurrent 7 x fi x - x Field failure impedance é 7 ° : 7 9 : Pole slipping 7 - x : 7 x : Rotor temperature - - 2 : - 9 : Stator earth fault | 0 o Q Q o o ° © General applications X Where required Table 1‘Table 2 ANSI Standard Device Function Number No. 1 eo erenreNn 10 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2 2 B 25 Function ‘Master Element Time-Delay Starting or Closing Relay Checking or Intertocking Relay Master Contactor Stopping Device Starting Circuit Breakers ‘Anode Circuit Breaker Controt Power Discomnecting Device Reversing Device Scaring Circuit Breakers Reversed for future application ‘Over-Speed Device Synchronous-Speed Device Under-speed device Speed or Frequency Matching Device Reserved for future application Shunting or Discharge Switch Accelerating or Decelerating Device ‘Starting +o-Running Transition Contactor Electrically Operated Valves Distance Relay Equalizer Circuit Breaker ‘Temperarure Control Device Reserved for furure application Synchronizing or Synchronism Check. Device Apparatus Thermal Device Undervoltage Relay Flame Detector Isolating Contactor ‘Anmunciator Relay Separate Excitation Device Directional Power Relay Position Switch/Celt Switch Master Sequence Device Brush-Operating or Slip Ring Sbor.- Cireuiting Device Polarity or Polarizing Voltage Device Undercurrent or Underpower Relay Bearing Protective Device Mechanical Condition Monitor Field Relay Field Circuit Breaker Running Circuit Breaker Manual Transfer or Selector Device Unit Sequence Starting Relay Atmospheric Condition Monitor RReverse-Phase or Phase-Balance Current Relay No. 50 BUVASS SIRARASASBByREasS ESSSSSBVRR & BBKSse asyaa Function Instantaneous Overcurrent or Rate-of-Rise Relay AC Time Overcurrent Relay ‘AG Circuit Breaker Exciter or DC Generator Relay Reserved for future application Power Factor Relay Field Application Relay ‘Shon-Circuiting or Grounding Device Rectification Failure Relay Overvoltage Relay ‘Voltage or Current Balance Relay [Reserved for future application ‘Time- Delay Stopping or Opening Relay Pressure Switch Ground Protective Relay Governor ‘Noiching or Jogging Device ‘AC Directional Overcurrent Relay Blocking Relay Permissive Control Device Rheostat Level Switch DC Circuit Breaker Load- Resistor Contactor Alarm Relay Position Changing Mechanism DC Overcurrent Relay Pulse Transmitter Phase-Angle Measuring or Out-of- Sep Protective Relay AC Reclosing Relay Flow Switch Frequency Relay DC Reclosing Relay Automatic Selective Control or Transfer Relay ‘Operating Mechanism ‘Carrer or Pilot-Wire Receiver Relay LLocking-Out Relay Differential Protective Relay Auxiliary Motor or Motor Generator Line Switch Regulating Device Voltage Directional Relay Voltage and Power Directional Relay Fielé-Changing Contactor ‘Tripping or Trip-Free Relay47 48 49 Phase-Sequence Voltage Relay Incomplete Sequence Relay Machine or Transformer Thermal Relay BS RE ‘Used only for specific applications in individual insallaions where none of the sssigned numbered functions from 1 0 94 are suitableSection 9 Bus Bar Protection.9. Busbar Protection The risk of a busbar fault on modern switchgear is uncommon, however it cannot be ignored. The damage resulting from an un-cleared busbar fault could have serious results. {f the busbar is divided into sections then a fault on one section will not result in the other sections being disconnected. 9.1 Types of Busbar Faults. The types of faults possible depend on the switchgear design, but the majority of busbar faults are phase to earth faults. On modern high voltage switchgear the phases are often segregated by cylindrical housings filled with dry air or SFe. On this type of equipment it is almost impossible to suffer a phase-to-phase fault. If there is a possibility of any other type of fault then protection should be provided to detect the fault. Bus bar faults can be any of the following: a) 3:phase fault b) _ phase to phase fault ¢) phase to earth fault d) S-phase fault to earth ) phase to phase fault to earth For each type of fault, the current flowing into the busbars is different to the current flowing out of the busbars and the differential relay will detect this and trip the associated circuit breakers. 9.2 Zoning Faults Busbar protection is arranged to detect and clear faults within the busbar zone. Faults outside that zone will not be cleared by the busbar protection, see Figure 9-1. For simpicity the CT’s are shown connected on one half of the busbar. Under healthy conditions the total current in all phases into the bus bars flows out on any combination of circuits and the relay will not operate. If an earth fault occurs on the busbars, the current into the busbar no longer equals the current out, under fault conditions the relay will operate, The protection on the second half of the busbar is identical.