Political Theories

Duke Dolorical
 Politics according to the Ancient Greeks
• Western political philosophy, which is heavily influenced by Aristotle,
argues that politics has a social dimension.
• i.e. The popular expression/saying ”No man is an island” follows. One cannot be
involved in politics alone. WHY?
• This social dimension suggests that politics govern our social relations and
our relationships to goods and resources in society.
• Socratic idea of politics that man do not merely want to survive but to live
well.
• Therefore, this perspective presents politics as a tool of social betterment.
Politics according to the Ancient Greeks
• To Socrates, the goal of politics is to make the citizens as good as possible
so that they live the best lives.
• By making the citizens “good” he means that the politicians should instill
virtuous characteristics such as self-control, bravery, piety and justice in his
citizens.
• In order to practice this craft, politicians should start by first making
themselves and the people they associate with virtuous.
• In the process of making people virtuous, good politicians must not aim for
satisfying every appetite of the citizens.
• Instead, they should act like doctors who know what is good or bad, and
aim at only giving the citizens what is good.
Politics according to the Ancient Greeks
• Aristotelian view of politics
• For Aristotle, politics is central to what it means to be a human being.
• To him, the highest virtue is living a life of politics.
• Aristotle said:
• “For as a human being is the best of animals when perfected, so when
separated from law and justice he is worst of all.”
• To Aristotle, the heart of political activity is the regime or the
constitution (or the politieia).
• Etymology: “polis” (city or state) and ”politeuomai” (“I am living as
an active citizen of the polis”).
• Politieia includes everything that concerns the “way of life of a city.”
• Everything that concerns values, practices, customs, and form of
government of a political community.
• As a form of government: politieia establishes the principle upon
which (a) the laws are laid down; and (b) distribution of magistratures
and offices, including the sovereign office responsible for governing.
• Politieia also arranges the citizens of a polis by organizing the political
offices they fill/occupy.
• Such an arrangement establishes the distributive principles for full
citizenship; the eligibility conditions for each office; and the end
(telos) or goal of the polis itself.
• In short, the politieia is:
• The arrangement of offices in a city-state
• The values, practices, and customs of a city-state
• The form of government of a city-state
• The "soul" of an organism, or the organizing principle of a community
• Aristotle believed that the constitution of a community determines
whether it remains the same over time.
• He believed that politeia is the unifying quality that connects actions
that are motivated by a common purpose.
• He believed that discovering and describing the politeia involves
identifying and explaining the actions that converge towards a chosen
end.
What is politics? What can be considered political?
• Harold Laswell: “Politics is who gets what, when, and how.”
• Andrew Heywood: “The process by which people negotiate and
compete in the process of making and executing shared or collective
decisions.”
• To Heywood, politics is comprised of three distinct aspects:
a.) It is a collective activity, occurring between and among people.
b.) It involves making decisions regarding a course of action to take, or a
disagreement to be resolved.
c.) Once reached, political decisions become authoritative policy for the group,
binding and committing its members.
• Heywood adds: “politics can be defined idealistically as the process of
making and executing collective decisions based on the pursuit of a
group’s common interest, or at least on seeking peaceful
reconciliation of the different interests within a group. ”
• Political scholars also argued that understanding politics begins with
looking at it as either: (a) arena, or a (b) process.
Politics as an Arena Politics as a Process
Narrow Conception of Politics Broad Conception of Politics

Identifies politics WHERE politics happen, that is, Considers HOW politics happens, that is, the activity
the venue [ARENA]. [PROCESS].
politics, or the political, is centered on or defined Politics, or the political, is defined by its nature as a
by the locus of its operations, process
Formalistic conception of politics. Comprehensive view of politics in the sense that it
considers both the political arena and the informal
processes surrounding it.
This view of the political considers what is political More than the activities of those in the formal
as limited to the activities revolving and operating institutions of the state, politics is a process on how
within the institution of the state. This gives us a people interact with each other, inside and outside a
view that anything outside the state, the particular arena, in this case, the state.
government and the institutions has no political
value or has no politics in it. Essential in the understanding of politics as a process is
the notion that politics is about power relations: it is how
power is distributed in the society and how agents with
different levels and amounts of power interact.
Conflict and Cooperation
• Politics can also be viewed as a phenomenon and process that is
observed via or conducted through conflict or cooperation.
• Cooperative: collective goals attained through collective action
• Conflict: competitive and yields winners and losers.

• HOW DO WE KNOW THESE THINGS? WHAT PROCESS DO WE

UNDERTAKE?
 What is Political Theory?
• It is a core area of Political Science.
• It reflects upon political phenomena, processes, institutions, and on actual
political behavior by subjecting it to ethical or philosophical criteria.
• It is a subfield of Political Science that studies the history of political thought
and contemporary political ideas (University of Illinois Chicago).
• Concerned with the philosophical principles that structure these ideas while
considering the historical and cultural contexts in which they emerge.
• Explores and seeks to understand basic questions about man’s nature, his
place in society and his political agency, the political nature of society etc.
• It also seeks to answer questions about political concepts such as power,
justice, freedom, authority, legitimacy, etc.
Definitions of Political Theory
• “a network of concepts and generalizations about political life
involving ideas, assumptions and statements about the nature,
purpose and key features of government, state and society, and about
the political capabilities of human beings.” (David Weld)

• “a combination of a disinterested search for the principles of good

state and good society on the one hand, and a disinterested search
for knowledge of political and social reality on the other.” (Andrew
Hacker)
Definitions of Political Theory
• “a sub-field of political science which includes: (i) political philosophy
- a moral theory of politics and a historical study of political ideas, (ii)
a scientific criterion, (iii) a linguistic analysis of political ideas, (iv) the
discovery and systematic development of generalizations about
political behavior.” (Gould and Kolb)

• A study of the “political” in philosophical and empirical terms.

• Political theory is often mistaken for (although related to) political
philosophy and political ideology.
Convergence of Political theory, political
philosophy and political ideology
• All of the three converge along the following points:
(a) All three involve varying levels of intellectualization, abstraction, and
generalization.
(b) All three involve simplification of the universe of discourse with which they
deal.

• However, there are major divergences between Political Theory,

Political Philosophy, and Political Ideology:
Divergences between Political Theory, Political
Philosophy, and Political Ideology
Characteristics/Attributes

-embodies value assumptions about the nature of the ultimate good.

Political Philosophy
-serves to delineate the goals for a society. It establishes a set of
ideals against which reality may be measured.

- a type of intellectualization or abstraction without assuming a

preemptive posture by subsuming theory and ideology under it. It
uses political theory to express theoretical conceptualizations of
politics.

-Addressed to the individual

-Introspective.
-Intellectually profound.
Divergences between Political Theory,
Political Philosophy, and Political Ideology
Characteristics/Attributes
-emotional, programmatic, and mass in character.
Meaning it is oriented toward the masses and is
simplistically stated.
Political Ideology
It is materialistic in nature.
-a body of beliefs supporting the existence of a
political system. It holds a society together by
generating social solidarity and individual identity.

-utilizes theory to express theoretical

conceptualization of politics.
Divergences between Political Theory, Political
Philosophy, and Political Ideology
Characteristics/Attributes

refers to dispassionate analysis and understanding of

political life.
Political Theory
provides the analyst with an abstract statement of
the perimeters of his intellectual activity. It
provides the scholar with the necessary
apparatus for approaching his work

Is an important aspect/part of political ideology and

political philosophy.
Political Philosophy Political Theory Political Ideology

• Means literally “love of wisdom”. •Formulation of propositions that •The first two fields involve
•Detached and often solitary causally link variables to account for or
contemplation, organization of ideas &
contemplation & search for truth. explain a phenomenon, & such whenever possible demonstration.
•Seeks final and complete explanation linkages should be empirically •consists of a system of beliefs that is
of man and the universe. verifiable as they are in the natural held as a matter of emotional
•It asks final questions, and seeks final sciences. commitment and habitual
answers. •Political theory is a set of interrelated
reinforcement.
•It wants to know the highest good, propositions, abstractions, or •IDEOLOGY shapes belief that incites
the best state, the ultimate criterion generalizations about that aspect of people into action.
of justice. •Men and women organize to impose
reality which is distinctively political.
•It seeks to “relate political life, and certain philosophies or theories & to
the values and purposes pertaining to • Political theory is a mental image, a realize them in a given society.
it to the entire conception of the summary sketch, a symbolic •Involves action & collective effort
world that belongs to a civilization.” representation of what the political •It also involve elements of distortion
(Oakeshott) order is about. or myth
• it is expository, analytical, • they are value-laden and
explanatory. It seeks to give order, • embody programs of action
coherence, and ''meaning" to
political reality.
• It is proposed.
Nature of a Political Theory
• It is based on a particular hypothesis which may or may not be valid and
may be open to criticism.
• It is a model of political reality (it offers a mental image of a political order).
• It is based on and is an offshoot of intellectual disciplines—be it philosophy,
sociology, or economics.
• It can be conservative, critical, or revolutionary.
• While political theory seeks to explain similar issues, phenomena, and
human behavior as political philosophy, the former can explain them both
from philosophical as well as empirical points of view.
• It is supplemented and interlinked with political philosophy and ideology.
Sometimes, a political theory can also be the basis for a whole ideology.
Nature of a Political Theory
• It can be both normative (prescriptive) and empirical (descriptive).
• NORMATIVE PART:
• It is not only concerned about the behavioral study of the political
phenomena from empirical point of view but also prescribing the goals which
states, governments, societies and citizens ought to pursue.
• It also aims to generalize about the right conduct of political life and about
the legitimate use of power. Thus political theory is neither pure thought, nor
philosophy, nor science.
 Key Components of a Political Theory
• Central Concepts:
Core ideas like freedom, equality, justice, legitimacy, authority, power, and citizenship, which
are examined and defined within the theory's framework.
• Normative Analysis:
Evaluating political systems based on moral and ethical principles, asking questions about
"how things ought to be" and proposing ideal political arrangements.
• Empirical Analysis:
Studying real-world political phenomena and institutions to understand how power operates
and how political systems function in practice.
• Historical Context:
Understanding the historical development of political ideas and how they relate to
contemporary political issues.
• Philosophical Foundations:
Drawing on philosophical concepts and arguments to support the theoretical framework,
such as ideas about human nature, social contracts, and the role of the state.
Significance of Political Theories
• Understanding political realities. Some even use or formulate theories
to change political realities.
• Such understanding lies in political theory providing a description of
political phenomena which are based on non-scientific or scientific
explanations.
• Proposals for the selection of moral goals and political action.
• Moral judgment. This is most evident in prescriptive or normative
theories.
Significance of Different Approaches to
Political Theory
• What is “approach” as a concept?
• can be understood as a lens through which we view things, working to
deepen and magnify what we see or distort them. It can also be thought of as
a frame, serving to both include and exclude certain things from our view.
• refers to a method of understanding or analyzing a subject based on abstract
concepts, principles, and models rather than empirical observations or
practical applications. This approach is often used in disciplines such as
philosophy, mathematics, and social sciences, where researchers develop
theories to explain phenomena, predict outcomes, or guide future research.
Approaches to the study of Political Theory
• Normative Approach
• Poses questions based on “norms” or “standards” in the study of social
sciences with an aim to appraise values.
• Answers or satisfies the questions: “what should have happened and why?”
• It isa highly subjective way of understanding the world.
• a political theory that evaluates political systems and behaviors based on
moral, ethical, and philosophical standards.
• May be based on empirical postulations.
• Analyzes and studies what comprises the social value system or moral
standards widely observed/endorsed in a particular society. This is where the
normative approach sets up and bases its questions to understand political
realities and phenomena.
• Normative Approach….
• Normativist approaches to political theory is inclined towards a
specific order (arrangement of things) and interactions emanating
from a moral standard or universal necessity.
• The normative approach tend to take into account inquiries that take
the views of history in the process of inquiry or drawing conclusions
in relation with a social phenomenon.
• Linear view of history—assumes that the world is marching towards a better
and positive future.
• Entropic view of history—presupposes that the world is constantly in a state
of regression.
• Cyclic view of history—assumes that nothing of significance ever changes
except persons at the top and the ways through which these persons get to
the top.
• Normative Approach…
• Normative statements are difficult to empirically test. WHY?
• Political theories that are idealist in nature must be understood
according to the norms or ethical standards.
• E.g. Justice can be explained by multiple theories developed by different
theorists/philosophers.
• Different theories developed by different theorists/philosophers explaining
what justice have varying assumptions.
• These varying assumptions also propose different sets of value-judgment of
the philosopher/theorist based on their own moral and ethical standards.
• These stand beyond the purview of scientific or empirical methodologies.
• IS IT THEREFORE TRUE THAT ALL NORMATIVE ASSUMPTIONS ARE NOT
EMPIRICALLY VERIFIABLE?
• For example, this assumption: “Extra-judicial killings weaken
democratic systems and must therefore be stopped.”

• The normative approach is prescriptive in nature.

• It is focused on the standards and conditions created by human
beings and that are likely to change depending on social
requirements.
• Normative approaches often look at the moral validity of an issue or
phenomenon and prescribe the “right course of action”.
Approaches to the study of Political Theory
• WHAT DO NORMATIVE THEORIES ASK?
• Questions about the nature of man?
• Is man by nature bad? Or good? Or both?
• Is man rational? Is man irrational?
• Is gender equality an absolute value? Or are there gender differences that
need consideration?
• Example: Wars.
• Empirically: how can you say that there is a war? What are its indicators?
What are its effects?
• Philosophically: what are the causes of war? Is war necessary in resolving
international disputes? Is it justified?
Institutional Approach
• Study of “political institutions.”
• The object of analysis are institutions (i.e. rules) that shape or pattern
political behavior.
• It includes the analysis of how these institutions regulate power,
influence decision-making and provide order within a society.
• Institutions shape political outcomes.
• Traditionally restricted to the study of state and government.
• It analyzes the state’s institutions, e.g. government branches and its
bureaucracy.
• It does not make use of other social sciences such as: philosophy, history, or
law to analyze political phenomena.
Institutional Approach
• New institutionalism. Veered away from traditional perspectives and
focus of old institutionalist theories.
• Vernon Van Dyke: “An institution is any persistent system of activities
and expectations, or any stable pattern of group behavior.”
• DOES NOT LOOK OR ANALYZE PHYSICAL ORGANIZATIONS AS
INSTITUTIONS.
• Historical Institutionalism
• Rational Choice Institutionalism
Behavioral Approach
• Modern approaches to the study of political science.
• Focuses on the factual (objective) character of politics.
• makes an attempt to study politics in entirety, which means it pays
little attention to the formal aspects of the discipline and brings into
focus such other aspects that influence and also get influenced in the
political processes.
• seeks to provide an objective, quantified approach to explaining and
predicting political behavior.
• is mainly concerned to examine the behavior, actions, and acts of
individuals rather than the characteristics of institutions such as
legislatures, executives, and judiciaries.
Behavioral approach
• underscores the systematic inquiry of all exclusive expression of
political behavior.
• behavioralism implies the application of meticulous scientific and
statistical methods in order to standardize means of investigation.
• It is also an exercise in ensuring a value-free study of the discipline of
politics. it is usually argued by the adherents of behavioral approach
that political science should be studied in manner similar to the study
of natural sciences.
• the main role of a political scientist is to collect and analyze factual
data in an objective manner.
Behavioral Approach
• behavioralists recommended the application of exacting methodology
and empirical studies to make the discipline of political science a true
social science → Political Science as an inquiry of research-supported
verifiable data.
• In order to understand political behavior of individual the supporters
of behavioral approach prescribe the methods like sampling,
interviewing, scoring, scaling and statistical analysis.
 Behavioral Approach
• Easton’s Eight (8) “Intellectual Foundation-Stones” of Behavioralism.
1. Regularities: It refers to identifiable similarities in political behavior which help generalization and explanation of
regularities in political theory.
2. Commitment to Verification: It necessitates that the soundness of theoretical statements must be subjected to
verification tests with reference to relevant political behavior.
3. Techniques: It calls for experimental attitude in matter of electing techniques. In other words political behavior must
be observed, recorded and then analyzed.
4. Quantification: In order to make a precise expression of conclusions based on collected data it is necessary to
quantify the recording of data wherever possible.
5. Values: The behavioral approach demands a clear distinction between ethical assessment and empirical
explanations. The behavioralists insist on this separation to make political inquiry as far as possible value-free or
value-neutral.
6. Systemization: It draws attention to establishing linkages between theory and research because research data
without the support of theory is likely to become inconsequential while theory in the absence of verifiable data may
become an exercise in futility.
7. Pure Science: It recommends postponing the attempts to convert politics into a pure science for the purpose of
making it an applied science. It is necessary because on account of the study of political behavior we can use the
knowledge of politics to find practical solutions to the pressing problems of a polity.
8. Integration: It suggests integration of social sciences with their respective values in order to develop an all-inclusive
outlook of human affairs.
Marxist Approach
• represents a shift from the liberal approach according to which the individual is
atomized, insular and self-contained.
• “Society is not merely comprised of individuals but expresses the sum of
interrelationship and relations within which individuals stand.”
• All societies in history have been characterized by the presence of classes.
• The nature and stature of the classes at different stages of economic
development kept changing with the changes in mode of production.
• All societies are exemplified by domination and conflict which are the result of
particular features of their mode of production.
• Class domination is a historical process → epitomized constant striving on the part
of dominant class to maintain its domination within the society.
• political process can only be properly comprehended if the nature of societal
conflicts and struggle for domination are thoroughly considered.
• Politics as a process of class struggles.
Marxist Approach
• The Marxist approach to politics argue that the political process itself
cannot resolve class conflict because politics itself is used as tools of
the dominant class in oppressing the dependent class or working
class.
• Politics is not an original but a derivative process.
• Political realities are viewed dialectically, taking the form of a dynamic
process.
• Conflict and opposition are considered necessary conditions for the
occurrence of change and legitimization of the social order.
• Hegelian Dialectic and Unity of Opposites.
Marxist Approach
• Key ideas
• Historical materialism: The theory that economic conditions are the
foundation of social institutions and thoughts.
• Class struggle: The conflict between social classes, especially the
working class and the ruling class.
• Economic inequality: The uneven distribution of wealth and
privileges in society.
• Communism: A system of government based on public ownership of
property.
Post-Marxist Approaches
• A reinterpretation of Marxism.
• Rejection of Marxism’s association with economism, historical
determinism, and class reductionism.
• It remains committed to the construction of socialism, focusing on
building radical democracy.
Core Features and Influences:
• Rejection of Classical Marxism:
• Post-Marxism critiques classical Marxism's perceived limitations, including
its focus on economic determinism, historical inevitability, and the primacy
of class struggle.
• Influence of Poststructuralism and Postmodernism:
• Post-Marxism draws heavily on poststructuralist and postmodernist
thought, particularly in its rejection of grand narratives and essentialist
notions of identity and history.
• Anti-Essentialism:
• Post-Marxists reject the idea of fixed, universal categories like "class,"
"society," and "history," arguing that these are socially constructed and
fluid.
 Core Features and Influences:
• Focus on Discourse and Power:
• Post-Marxism emphasizes the role of discourse and power relations in
shaping social reality and identity, drawing on thinkers like Foucault and
Laclau.
• Multiple Subject Positions:
• Post-Marxists argue that individuals and groups occupy multiple, often
contradictory, subject positions shaped by factors like class, gender, race,
and nationality.
• Emphasis on Hegemony:
• Post-Marxist theory has been influenced by Gramsci's concept of hegemony,
which emphasizes the role of cultural and ideological domination in
maintaining power structures.
• Relative Autonomy of Culture and Ideology:
• Post-Marxists argue that culture and ideology are not simply reflections of
the economic base, but have a relative autonomy of their own.
POST-STRUCTURALISM
• challenges traditional notions of power, knowledge, and truth,
emphasizing the role of discourse and language in shaping political
realities and identities, rather than viewing them as objective or pre-
given.
• It challenges “foundationalism.”