Lecture 1: Introduction to Aircraft Design
The design process of a new aircraft usually starts with g interaction between the buyer, y , or final user, , a strong and the manufacturer in some particular cases it may also have its origin within the design group; The design process of an aircraft is mainly the compromise p between different aspects p and opposing pp g constraints; It is of the outmost importance to recognize those aspects and constraints and understand their influence in the design and aircraft performance.
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What is Aircraft design?
Aircraft design is a sequence of studies in different aircraft related subjects that lead to obtaining a viable aircraft configuration.
Multidisciplinary Design
Aircraft design is multidisciplinary. All the disciplines converge to a common objective.
Steps on the Design Process
1. Define the problem, define the mission of the aircraft, transform this objective in performance parameters and establish measuring , manufacture difficulties and p performance goals; g ; methods for cost, Gather data about requirements, problem boundaries, existing p , available technologies g and analysis y methods; ; concepts, Create and synthesize one or more concepts and describe them in a text, parameters, diagrams, drawings, etc.; Select the analysis types necessary to evaluate the different concepts; Analyze, register and communicate results; Take decisions: Will it work? What is the best idea? What should be changed? Decision methods are suited to the final objective? If changes are necessary then go back to point 1, or 2 and repeat the 4 cycle.
2.
3.
4. 5. 6.
Design Steps
Conceptual design:
The final objective of this phase is to select a viable concept and optimize it as much as possible;
Preliminary design:
Aft After a concept t is i chosen, h f further th it iterations ti of f th the design d i process are necessary to select materials, define dimensions and structures. Computational simulations are run and physical models are built and tested;
Detailed design:
In this step the final aircraft is prepared for production. The project is described in detail and the manufacture processes are prepared. D t il d d Detailed drawings, i material t i l li lists t and d cost td detailed t il d estimations ti ti are prepared. Usually, at least, one prototype is built for testing.
Design Steps
Design Steps
Mission Definition Conceptual Design Performance Objectives and Cost Analysis
Wind Tunnel Testing
Preliminary Design
Computational Simulations
Detailed Design CAD/CAM & Prototype Manufacture
Flight Tests
Computational Simulations
Manufacture 7
Design Steps
Design Steps
The different design phases are not perfectly sequential.
Conceptual Design
The design is developed from the initial requirements/aircraft specs, these are the base for all the decision making processes; The conceptual design may start with a comparison study of existing aircrafts in the same segment, with identical mission goals; The comparison studies allow to decide what is the best configuration to fulfill the initial. Following the comparison there are three possibilities: Relatively small modifications to an existing aircraft; Deep modifications to an existing aircraft; Completely new design; A completely new design is usually the best solution to fulfill the requirements - if these represent also a new set of requirements, different from all previous sets. This also requires an higher investment; The conceptual design is an important guidance for the rest of the project.
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Conceptual Design
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Conceptual Design
It might be a good decision to maintain active more than one configuration, so that the differences between them might be better analysed, compared and understood; I iti l drafts Initial d ft allow ll to t transmit t it ideas id and d compare different diff t concepts. t
Conceptual drafts on the initial design phase of Lockheed P-38 by Kelly Johnson, 1937
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Conceptual Design
Perspective drawings allow a better understanding of the aircraft shape and relative dimensions; Recording the dates of the different sketches allow to understand the evolution process of a design.
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Conceptual Design
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Conceptual Design
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Conceptual Design
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Conceptual Design
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Conceptual Design
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Preliminary Design
Preliminary design starts when significant changes are no longer needed; The aircraft configuration will not change significantly until it will be finally frozen; In this step p more in deep p analysis y are p performed on the different disciplines: Aerodynamics; Structure; Propulsion; Landing Gear; Control C t lS System; t Electrical System; Hydraulic System.
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Detailed Design
Tests are performed in models:
Aerodynamic y tests; ; Propulsion tests; Structural tests; Stability and Control tests;
Definition of the aircraft component shapes (mathematically).
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Detailed Design
The detailed design starts with the real scale development, where all the parts are defined in detail; Component details:
Structure total definition; S Systems total l definition; d fi i i Execution of manufacturing drawings; Weight and CG calculations;
More in deep testing of real scale components and systems:
Structure; Mechanisms; Simulations;
One or more prototypes of the complete aircraft may be manufactured; Preparation for manufacture.
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Design Groups
All the design process is iterative in its nature, with the final objective to obtain an optimized solution with conflicting requirements; The optimum solutions for one of the design groups (for one discipline) are usually inappropriate solutions for other groups; Changes performed in a specific area/discipline of the design usually have a negative effect on other design areas. Although inevitable, the design process must overcome these difficulties and converge to a compromise/solution; An effective coordination and management of the different design groups are critical for the success of the project.
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Aerodynamics
Methods and theoretical, empirical and experimental data Geometry data and weight of the aircraft
AERODYNAMICS GROUP
Configuration Analysis
Lift, drag and Lift performance analysis
Weight and load analysis
DESIGN GROUP
PROJECT EVALUATION GROUP
WEIGHT GROUP
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Propulsion
Methods and theoretical, empirical and experimental data Geometry and engine data, and weight of the aircraft
ENGINE AND ENGINE INSTALLATION GROUP
Engine geometry, installation and systems
Engine performance
Engine and systems details
DESIGN GROUP
PROJECT EVALUATION GROUP
WEIGHT GROUP
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Weights
Statistical methods and data from previous designs Data from other technical groups and from the design group
WEIGHT GROUP
Weight and CG data
DESIGN GROUP
TECHNICAL GROUPS
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Controls
Stability and control methods and theoretical, empirical and experimental data Aircraft geometry data, tail geometry, weight and CG position
STABILITY AND CONTROL GROUP
Control systems
Tail geometry and control surfaces
DESIGN GROUP
WEIGHT GROUP
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Structures
Methods and theoretical, , empirical p and experimental data Aircraft geometry data, mission, , legislation, g , weight and CG position
STRUCTURES GROUP
Structural design and d component t detail
Structural design and d component t detail
DESIGN GROUP
WEIGHT GROUP
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Multidisciplinary Optimization
What is multidisciplinary optimization in the aircraft design process (MDO)? It is a method to improve the design of engineering systems where every discipline interferes and influence all others others.
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Multidisciplinary Optimization
Integrated Optimization and Design: First optimization p g generation: Ideal for simple projects; Attention is focused on optimization efficiency.
Opt. p
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Multidisciplinary Optimization
Distributed Analysis and Optimization: Second optimization p g generation: Modular analysis focused in interdisciplinary optimization.
Coordination Optimization
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
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Multidisciplinary Optimization
Divided Project and Optimization: Usually y such division is achieved through g non formal architectures: sequential and iterative.
Coordination Optimization
Subtask Project
Subtask Project Subtask Project
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Subtask Project
Multidisciplinary Optimization
Divided MDO: Presently the engineering design process is divided divided.
Control
Propulsion
Structures
Aerodynamics Sistems 32
Multidisciplinary Optimization
Divided design process objective: Team effort. effort
0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
Aerodynamics
Structures
Minimization Boom
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Multidisciplinary Optimization
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Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
Conceptual Design
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Customer/User Specifications
Earth Observation: Fire Monitoring
Payload Loiter time Operational Ceiling Weight W i ht Max Speed (@SL) Max Wing Area Range Maximization
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4.5 kg / 5.5 dm3 1 hora 2000 m 25 k kg 20 m/s 5 m2
Mission Profile
Phase Warm-up and roll Take-off Climb Cruise Surveillance Ceiling Surveillance Time Climb for Return Return Cruise Descent with or w/o Loiter Landing Roll Duration[min] 15 required i d -60 required 10 / 0 5 Altitude [m] 0 15 2000 2000 200 200 2000 2000 15 0 0
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Configuration
Conventional Fuselage redundant Empennage redundant
Flying Wing
Problem: stability Cm0 < 0 Solution: Wing Torsion
Manufacturing complexity
Alternative? Wing with Empennage
2 stabilizers
Better aero and structures
Problem: Static margoi Solution: Trapezoidal Wing Forward view clean (pusher) Sweep moves C.A. back
Propeller p mismatch with wing g Sweep not possible
Move CG forward More space
Configurao Final
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Initial Weight Estimates
Aircraft with 24.9 kg (imposed) Landing with ~19 kg (calculated) Fuel ~5.5 kg
Fuelmin Payload Engine Structure
5.5kg 4.5kg ~2kg ?
Fixed Fixed Fixed variable
Solution:
less structural weight + Fuel + Range (?) Use Composites p High strength, low weight, high cost
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Wing Loading
W/S:
W/S [kg/m2]
Variao de W/S
16 15 15,47 15,08
15,05
S=1.6
m2
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 Descolagem Subida Inicio Cruzeiro Final Cruzeiro Aterragem 9,76 11,24
AR AR=10 10 b b=4 4m
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Aerodynamics
Cl
0.04
15 1.5
Airfoil NACA 632415
Clmax=1.6 Cd0=0.0055
-10 -5
C Cd
0.03
1 Re = 4.54E5 (voo lento) Re = 5.55E5 (cruzeiro)
0.02
0.5
0 01 0.01 0
0 -0.5 5 10
Re = 4.54E5 (voo lento)
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Re = 5.55E5 (cruzeiro)
20 Alfa ()
0 0 0.5 1 1.5
-1
-0.5
-1
Cl
Main Wing
Trapezoidal (=0.4) CLmax=1.48 CD0=0.0067
CD
CL
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 5 10 15
-10
0,3 0,25 0,2 0,15 0,1 0,05 -5 0 0
Re=5.55E5 (cruzeiro) Re=4.54E5 (voo lento)
-0,5
-0.5 -1
0,5
CL
1 Re=555000 Re=454000
1,5
Alpha ()
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Aerodynamics
PSW Analysis
Top View
Bottom View
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Flight Segments
Flight Segment Altitude [m]
speed [m/s]
Climb 0 16 12 1.37 0.21 246 346 65 6.5
Cruise 2000 20 4 0.77 0.044 227 253 17 5 17.5
Surveillance
200 14.5 7 1.13 0.12 218 229 94 9.4
CL (total) CD(total) Weight [N] Lift [N] L/D
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Empennage
A
Lower horizontal stabilizer (vertical as winglets) Structures supported in boom
C
Reduction Wetted Area
Horizontal stabilizer sits on vertical stabilizers
Coupled controls
Vertical Stabilizer outside propeller wake
Propeller wake
Horizontal Stab Stab. In Prop. Prop Wake
Hor Stab outside Prop wake
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Empennage
Horizontal stabilizer
NACA N C 66 66-006 006 Sth= 0.16 m2
CD0=0.0044 Vertical stabilizer
NACA 66-006 Stv= 0.05 m2
CD0=0.0029
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Control Surfaces
Ailerons
Conventional Marginal Vortex effect
Increases induced drag Larger Hinge moments
Elevator and Rudder
conventional Surface axis Boom length
Rudder R dd out t of f wake k 46
Propulsion
Engine Fugi BT-50SA Starter motor electric Spring Starter BT-50 Propeller APC 20x10 Spinner Rotational speed =7300 rpm Re-start in flight
Eficincia (%) 80 70 60
Max thrust =124.55 N Efficiency y of 70% for V=20 m/s (cruzeiro)
50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 Velocidade (m/s)
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Avionics (AV-1 Militar)
Automatic pilot (MICROPILOT) Giroscpios , Barmetro, Pitot Actua A servos d das S Sup. C Controlo l Receptor de GPS Radio Modem (Warwick X8200)
T Transmisso i de d dados d d com terra
vdeo e telemetria
Antena de RF
RC for manual control Cmara (videolink pro 100)
Codificador Unidade de memria (1 hora ) Multiplexado com dados de navegao
Sistema de energia
Baterias SANYO CP-2400 SCR NiCd 2 10 (2400 Ah) 48 Ah 2x10x(2400mAh)=
(1 mdulo para reiniciar motor)
Autonomia ~17 horas Sem reiniciar motor
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Avionics (AV-2 Civil)
Modular A Automatic i pilot il (PICOPILOT) ( CO O ) GPS receiver R di Modem Radio M d (9XSTREAM)
Data transmission RF antennae RC for manual control
Camera (videolink pro 100) Battery (AV1) Main Characteristics Functions range Cost(Controlador +GPS+Modem) d ) AV 1 *** 70 Km 5000 AV 2 * 13 Km 900
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Static Stability
Static margin
Xcg = 29 cm Xca(PSW)= 33 cm
Load Type Magnitude (kgf) Fuel Payload [Link]. Engine(s) Wing Struct. Horiz. Tail Vert. Tail Other L 5,474 4,499 0,000 6,078 4,133 0,094 0,305 2,804 23,385 0,250 0 0 0,4 0,214 3,286 3,314 0,0 0,550 0,2 1 0,550 1,0 3,714 3,614 0,200 x/L_start x/L_end
Kn ~ 3% (baixa)
Constant through mission
Cm0>0 e Cm<0
Cm0w= -0.075 < 0 Cauda t=-5 Cm0=0.305 Cm= -1 1.34 34
Stability derivatives (AAA e CTLG) Statically stable
WT tests validation
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Dynamic Stability
Longitudinal Modes
Short Period nvel 1 Phugoide nvel 2
Lateral Modes
Roll nvel 1 Dutch Roll nvel 1 Spiral nvel 2 / 3
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Flight Envelope
Load Factor
n 9 7 5 4.05 3 1 -1 0 -3 -5 -7 -5.71 V [m/s] 5 10 15 20 -1.00 25 -1.31 30 35 1.37 8.45 6.36
W/o gusts
nMax = 1.37 Gs
With gusts
nMax = 8.45 Gs
Design Point
Factor de segurana = 1.5 15 nproj = 12.68 Gs
Envelope de Voo (sem Gust)
Envelope de Voo (com Gust)
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Landing Gear
Fixed for low speeds Quad configuration
Good for rough strips Low weight hind wheels Landing at high angles of attack
Higher aero drag Lower distance landing
Low drag during flight Directionally y unstable on the g ground
Difficult to control
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Landing Gear
Test for 8g impact on one wheel Al i Aluminum
Yield Stress (ced) = 400 MPa Density = 2800 kg/m3
Deformation
Max displ
At the wheel ~ 34 mm
Principal Stresses
Max 41.2 MPa
At the wing attachment
Von Mises Stresses
Max 247.7 MPa
Wing attachment
ced > VM No plastic behaviour
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Structures
Main Wing
2 spars
High Strength carbon I Beam + 1 reinforced central rib
6 ribs along half span
Tail booms
High strength carbon
Tail
Horizontal
3 ribs 1 spar 3 ribs 1 spar
Vertical
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Structures
Main Wing
Distributed Loading
n = 12.68 Gs Deformation
Horizontal
Displ max. = 0.75 mm Displ max. = 84.7 mm
Planta
Vertical
Stress analysis
Frontal
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Performance
Take-off
SG SR STR SCL STO
19.9 m 13.4 m 25.2 m 37.7 m 96.2 m
Landing
SA STR SFR SB SL 88 9 m 88.9 12.9 m 11.5 m 14 9 m 14.9 128.2 m
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Performance
Range
Breguet Equation
Operational Radius = 610 km Range = 1220 km
Wi R= ln gC D Wf
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Cost Estimates
Structures/Materials Engine Avionics
AV1-Military AV2-Civil A 2 Ci il
551.0 572.0
7 353.5 2 753.5 3
Total:
AV1-Military AV1 Milit AV2-Civil
8 476.5 476 5 3 876.5
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Final Configuration
Main Characteristics: WTO = 24 24.9 9 kg Wempty = 14.9 kg Kn = 3%
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Conclusions
Requirements Surveillance ceiling payload Video acquisition Video transmission Range Autonomy surveillance Altitude Loiter Climb time Engine Landing Loads Landing Loads Landing Gear Regulations Restrictions 200 m Minimum 4.5 kg minimum 1 hour minimum Required Added Value 1 hr minimum 2000 m minimum Added Value 1 min max Electric preferred Landing strip minimum 10 G Gs s minimum 4 Gs minimum retractable JAR 22 UAV ~ 600 m 5 kg 1 hr 13km (AV2) / 70 km (AV1) 1200 km 1 - 8 hrs ~ 3500 m High (L/D=17.5) 1 min Gas Landing Strip 11 G Gs s 8 Gs fixed JAR 22 / JAR VLA ( (excepto t autodestruio) t d t i )
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