Advanced

Maintenance Planning
15 19 December 2008

Carlton Conference Centre

Kuala Lumpur

By:

Ashraf Labib

Senior Consultant
Delegates Name

E-mail: [email protected]

Website: www.euromatech.com

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PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

Page 1

SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION
- Delegates introduce themselves, saying
what they want to achieve during the
course.
- Instructor introduces himself.
- Description of Workshop - Interactive,
participation is essential.
- Course objectives.

Page 2

Seminar: Introduction & Objectives

Participants attending the program will:
Gain an understanding of the critical contribution to be made
by maintenance to the achievement of business objectives.
Learn how to establish a strategic framework effective
maintenance management.
Understand the roles, processes and procedures to ensure
organisational effectiveness.
Learn to establish parameters for the measurement of
management and technical performance on all organisational
levels.
Improve overall equipment performance, while ensuring
long term asset health.

Page 3
Page 3

Methodology
The course is designed to benefit
delegates through :

lectures,
discussions,
practical testing,
exercises and
case studies.
Page 4

Professor Ashraf W. Labibs Profile

Ashraf is a Senior Associate Consultant with EuroMaTech specializing in Maintenance and
Asset Management.
He holds a PhD and MSc from Univ. of Birmingham, an MBA from the American
University in Cairo, and a BSc in Mechanical Engineering from Univ. of Cairo. He is a
Fellow of the Operational Research Society (ORS), a Fellow of the IEE and a Chartered
Engineer.
He has acted as a consultant to a number of industries in the U.K., and the Middle East.
In the Middle East, he has been involved in teaching modules to various industries such as
Qatar Gas, Ras Gas, GAPCO, ADNOC, DEWA, ARAMCO and SABIC. He has also been
invited to give key-note lectures in the USA, Germany, Brussels and Mexico. He has
collaborated with the NSF funded IMS Centre in running industrial/research workshops on EMaintenance/E-Manufacturing in both the UK and USA.
He has also been involved through collaboration and consultancy on Maintenance Best
Practice with companies including; Rolls Royce (Aero engines); Intel, the Royal Mail;
Rockwell, Meritor Light Vehicle Systems, and Proctor and Gamble.
He has been involved in the design, development, and implementation of Computerised
Maintenance Management Systems (CMMSs), Stock Control Spares and Ordering Systems
for major companies in the automotive sector such as Land Rover, Rockwell, Peugeot Talbot
and Federal Mogul Ferodo.
He supervises a strong team of PhDs in the area of intelligent operations and asset
management systems
Page 5

Companies and Organisations with whom

collaboration has been established
Page 6

Seminar Introduction, Objectives and Activities Planned

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

(Day 1)

(Day 2)

(Day 3)

(Day 4)

(Day 5)

Page 7

Seminar Introduction, Objectives and Activities Planned

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

(Day 1)
Introduction
Introduction to Maintenance (Asset) Management
Definitions of key terms
Types of Maintenance - Reactive, and Proactive
Maintenance in the Business Process
Evolution in Maintenance Management
The Principle of Prioritisation
The Concept of Best and Worst Practice
Why Systems Fail?
Cases of Failures From Different Industries
Failure Analysis and Technical Causes of Failures
Generic Lessons Learned and Improvements

Page 8

Seminar Introduction, Objectives and Activities Planned

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

(Day 2)
WORLD - CLASS STANDARDS - COMPARING
YOUR PLANT WITH THE BEST
Benchmarking and Maintenance Performance Assessment
Maintenance Self-Assessment
Managing and Measuring progress to Excellence
Overall Equipment Effectiveness

Page 9

Seminar Introduction, Objectives and Activities Planned

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

(Day 3)
IMPLEMENTING NEW MANAGEMENT APPROACHES
Failure Management Programme (RCM)
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)
Life-Cycle Costing
GETTING THE BEST FROM YOUR CMMS
Computerised Maintenance Management
Why CMMS Implementation Fail

Page
10

Seminar Introduction, Objectives and Activities Planned

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

(Day 4)
OPTIMISING MAINTENANCE ORGANISATION
Operations Excellence
Operations + Maintenance = Production
Can Operations Manage Maintenance?
A Driving Lesson for Operations and Maintenance
Maintenance Management Legends

Page
11

Seminar Introduction, Objectives and Activities Planned

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

(Day 5)

A Framework for Achieving Best Practice in Maintenance

Case Studies

Page
12

Day 1
Introduction to Maintenance (Asset) Management

Definitions of key terms

Types of Maintenance - Reactive, and Proactive
Maintenance in the Business Process
Evolution in Maintenance Management
The Principle of Prioritisation

The Concept of Best and Worst Practice

Why Systems Fail?

Cases of Failures From Different Industries
Failure Analysis and Technical Causes of Failures
Generic Lessons Learned and Improvements

Page
13

Contents of 1st Unit Section

Fundamentals of Maintenance.
Importance of Maintenance.
Categories of Maintenance.
A Comprehensive Control System.
Approaches to Prioritisation.

Page
14

Learning Outcomes of the

Section
At the end of this section you will be able to:
define and discuss the 4 main characteristics
of maintenance practice
discuss maintenance categories and how
they are applied in different industries
identify techniques for proactive maintenance
discuss priorities for proactive maintenance.

Page
15

Fundamentals of
Maintenance

Page
16

Exercise 1.1: Before beginning this section

remind yourself of the 4 fundamental reason
for maintenance.
Note that by fundamental we mean that no one reason can be derived
from the other. For example; breakdown, productivity, and availability
are related and hence counted as just one fundamental reason not three.

Page
17

1. .?
2. .?
3..?
4. ..?
Page
18

Additional text after exercise

as a feedback comment
Note that when we consider the strategic
issues of maintenance, we call it asset
management, or asset care instead.
This is analogous to the quality movement
from a mere inspection activity to a more
strategic Total Quality Management (TQM)
concept.
So, from now on we use the term
maintenance, and asset management to
mean strategic aspects.
Page
20

Maintenance Definition
.. the management, control,
execution and quality of those
activities which will ensure that
optimum levels of availability and
overall performance of plant are
achieved, in order to meet business
objectives...
Page
21

10

Courtesy: Joanna Kosk-Bienko

What is Maintenance ?
Working on something
to keep it in a working
and safe state and
preserving it from failure
or decline
The something
includes workplaces,
work equipment, or
transport (e.g. ships). It
is not exclusive.

Maintenance includes
proactive and reactive
activities:

Inspection
Testing
Measurement
Replacement
Adjustment
Repair and upkeep
Fault detection
Replacement of parts
Servicing
Page
22

Importance of Maintenance
(or lack of it!!)
Most maintenance departments in the UK, US
and Canada operate between 10%-40%
efficient.
70% of equipment failures could have been
prevented.
This means that we are 60%-90% in efficient.
In other words, there is a great room for
improvement and design plays an important
role, as we will see later.
Page
23

11

Introduction to Characteristics
of Maintenance Practice
These are unique characteristics of
the maintenance function, which
make it differs from any other
function in the
business/manufacturing
environment.
An example is given after each one
to explain each characteristic.
Page
24

Characteristics of
Maintenance Practice
Conflicting Objectives.
Group Decision Making.
Multiple Criteria.
Gaps Between
Advancements in
Technology & Maintenance
Practices.

Page
25

12

Characteristics of
Maintenance Practice
Conflicting Objectives.
Group Decision Making.
Multiple Criteria.
PM Schedules:
Gaps Between
Production Vs.
Advancements in Maintenance Personnel
Technology & Maintenance
Practices.
Page
26

Characteristics of Maintenance Practice:

Conflicting Objectives.

PM Schedules: Production Vs. Maintenance Personnel

Proactive Maintenance Schedules are a good
example of a natural conflict between Production and
Maintenance Personnel.
The next slide explains this issue in more detail.

Page
27

13

Conflicting Objectives

Production personnel desire minimum preventive maintenance

in an effort to increase production capability.
Maintenance personnel desire to maximise preventive
maintenance in an effort to reduce breakdowns to the zero
probability level..
This is a practical demonstration of what is meant by the term
"conflicting objectives" in the maintenance contest.
Performing preventive maintenance tasks can increase the
costs and reduce the perceived profit margin.
Not controlling the incidence of breakdowns can lead to a loss of
plant output and low productivity.
A preventive maintenance programme can reduce breakdowns
to some break-even point.
Page
28

Characteristics of
Maintenance Practice
Conflicting Objectives.
Group Decision Making.
Multiple Criteria.
Gaps Between
Maintenance,
Advancements
in
Production, Finance,
Stock
TechnologyQuality,
& Maintenance
Practices. Control,

Page
29

14

Characteristics of Maintenance Practice:

Group Decision Making.

Maintenance, Production, Finance, Quality,
Stock Control,
This means that the maintenance function is not an
island but rather it interacts with many functions in the
business such as the ones mentioned above.
This means that maintenance, as a function, has
many stakeholders.

Page
30

Characteristics of
Maintenance Practice
Conflicting Objectives.
Group Decision Making.
Multiple Criteria.
Gaps Between
Ten: Maintenance,
Advancements in Top
Production, Finance,
Quality, Stock
Technology & Maintenance
Control,
Practices.
Page
31

15

Characteristics of Maintenance Practice:

Multiple Criteria.
Top Ten: Maintenance, Production, Finance,
Quality, Stock Control,
An experiment was carried out in the automotive industry where
different managers in charge of the above-mentioned functions
where given the same list of 100 machines and asked to select
the 10 most critical machines from their point of view.
The results were of course different lists of worst machines.
The reasons is that each manager has a different factor of
importance. Note that no one is wrong.
Therefore, the maintenance function is a classical multiple
criteria problem.

Page
32

Characteristics of
Maintenance Practice
Self evident!!
Conflicting Objectives.
Group Decision Making.
Multiple Criteria.
Gaps Between
Advancements in
Technology & Maintenance
Practices.

Page
33

16

Characteristics of Maintenance Practice:

Gaps Between Advancements in Technology & Maintenance
Practices.

Self evident!!
Although technology has advanced tremendously and
innovations in technology is an every-day affair. This has not
been matched by much change in the maintenance practice
itself.
We are still responding to problems when they occur, possibly in
the same manner as the Pharaohs used to carry out
maintenance practice, many years before.!!
Why?! Because of the status of maintenance as Cinderella of
production. This is not the case now and maintenance is
currently regarded by World Class companies as the last
goldmine.

Page
34

Courtesy: Dr. D.J. Petty

Fundamental Maintenance Strategies

Repairs are Undertaken in Response to Problems

Breakdown
Maintenance is Undertaken Routinely Based
Upon Usage or Elapsed Time

Preventative
Condition Based

Equipment is Monitored and Maintenance takes

Place When Certain Conditions are Detected

Page
35

17

Maintenance
Terminology

The European standard

CEN EN 13306, Maintenance
Terminology

MAINTENANCE

Preventive Maintenance

Condition Based
Maintenance

Predetermined
Maintenance

Scheduled,
continuous
or on request

Scheduled

Corrective Maintenance

Deferred

Immediate

Page
36

Maintenance Categorisation
In a simple manner, maintenance is usually
categorised on a time basis.
Emergency maintenance denotes that the
work must be done in the immediate future.
Routine maintenance normally denotes that
the work must be done in the finite,
foreseeable future.
Preventive
maintenance
denotes
maintenance that is carried out in accordance
with a planned schedule.
Page
37

18

Exercise 1.2: Draw an equivalent diagram

to show where you think your own
company (industry) lies relative to the
previous mentioned range of different
industries:
- Do you tend to be more proactive or
reactive?
- Where do you want to be in the future?
Explain your argument.

Page
38

The Breakdown Event

Breakdown
Event

Pro-Active

Reactive

Time
Page
39

19

The Breakdown Event

Breakdown
Event

Nuclear Industry

Pro-Active

Time
Page
40

The Breakdown Event

Breakdown
Event

Aircraft Industry

Pro-Active

Reactive

Time
Page
41

20

The Breakdown Event

Breakdown
Event
Railways

Pro-Active

Reactive

Time
Page
42

The Breakdown Event

Breakdown
Event

Automotive

Pro-Active

Reactive

Time
Page
43

21

Tools / Techniques for the

Pro-Active Side of Breakdown
Events

Effective CMMS System.

Motivated and Skilled People.
Predictive Maintenance Tools.
Appropriate Maintenance Strategy and
Integration.
Preventive Maintenance Schedules

The Whole Course Structure!!

Page
44

Comments:
1. All the previous items are tools and
techniques that can improve the shift towards
more proactive than reactive regimes in the
maintenance function.
2. The whole course (unit) is constructed in
order to learn how we can design systems that
incorporate those techniques to improve the
maintenance function towards being more
proactive.
Exercise 1.3:
Can you add to the above-mentioned list?
Page
45

22

15th 19th December 2008, KL

Tools / Techniques for the

Pro-Active Side of Breakdown Events
Effective CMMS System (IS).

Motivated and Skilled People (People).

Predictive Maintenance Tools (CBM).

Appropriate Maintenance Strategy and Integration (Strategy and Integration).

Preventive Maintenance Schedules (PM).

Where can you assign ** and * ?

Page
46

23rd 27th November 2008

Tools / Techniques for the

Pro-Active Side of Breakdown Events
Effective CMMS System (IS).

*/

Motivated and Skilled People (People).

**/*/**/**
/**/*/*/**/
**/**/**/*
*/**/**/**
/**

Predictive Maintenance Tools (CBM).

*/**/*/**/

Appropriate Maintenance Strategy and Integration (Strategy and Integration).

**/*/*/*/*/
*

Preventive Maintenance Schedules (PM).

*/*/**/*/*/
*/*/

Where can you assign ** and * ?

Page
47

23

23rd 27th November 2008 Dubai

30
25
20
15

Actions

10
5
0
Actions

CMMS

People

CBM

Strategy

PM

29

8
Page
48

07-11 July, 2008

Tools / Techniques for the

Pro-Active Side of Breakdown Events
Effective CMMS System (IS).

**/*/**/*/
**/*/*

Motivated and Skilled People (People).

*/**/**/*/
**/**/**/*
*/**/**

Predictive Maintenance Tools (CBM).

*/

Appropriate Maintenance Strategy and Integration (Strategy and Integration).

*/*/

Preventive Maintenance Schedules (PM).

*/*/

Where can you assign ** and * ?

Page
49

24

07-11 July, 2008

20
15
10

Actions

5
0
Actions

CMMS

People

CBM

Strategy

PM

10

18

2
Page
50

17 to 21 May, 2008

Tools / Techniques for the

Pro-Active Side of Breakdown Events
Effective CMMS System (IS).

*/*/*/*/*/*
/**/*

Motivated and Skilled People (People).

**/**/**/*
*/**/**/**
/*/*/*/**/*
/*

Predictive Maintenance Tools (CBM).

*/**/**

Appropriate Maintenance Strategy and Integration (Strategy and Integration).

**/

Preventive Maintenance Schedules (PM).

*/**/**/*/
**

Where can you assign ** and * ?

Page
51

25

17 to 21 May, 2008

25
20
15
Actions

10
5
0
Actions

CMMS

People

CBM

Strategy

PM

21

8
Page
52

24 to 28 December, 2007

Tools / Techniques for the

Pro-Active Side of Breakdown Events
Effective CMMS System (IS).

*/*/*

Motivated and Skilled People (People).

**/**/**/*
*

Predictive Maintenance Tools (CBM).

Appropriate Maintenance Strategy and Integration (Strategy and Integration).

**/

Preventive Maintenance Schedules (PM).

*/**/*

Where can you assign ** and * ?

Page
53

26

24 to 28 December, 2007

8
7
6
5
4

Actions

3
2
1
0
Actions

CMMS

People

CBM

Strategy

PM

4
Page
54

09 - 12 December, 2007

Tools / Techniques for the

Pro-Active Side of Breakdown Events
Effective CMMS System (IS).

*/*/*/*

Motivated and Skilled People (People).

*/**/**/*/**
/*/*/**/*/**
/*/**/**/*/*
/**/**

Predictive Maintenance Tools (CBM).

**/**/**/*/*
*/**/*/**/*/
*/*/**

Appropriate Maintenance Strategy and Integration (Strategy and Integration).

**/*/*/**/**
/**/*/*/**/*
*/**/**

Preventive Maintenance Schedules (PM).

*/**/*/*/*

Where can you assign ** and * ?

Page
55

27

09 - 12 December, 2007

30
25
20
15

Actions

10
5
0
Actions

CMMS

People

CBM

Strategy

PM

27

19

20

6
Page
56

12 - 16 November, 2007

Tools / Techniques for the

Pro-Active Side of Breakdown Events
Effective CMMS System (IS).

**/*/*/*/*
*/*/*/*/*

Motivated and Skilled People (People).

**/**/**/*
*/**/**/**
/**/**/**/
**/**/**/*
*

Predictive Maintenance Tools (CBM).

*/*/*/*/*/*
/*/*/*/**

Appropriate Maintenance Strategy and Integration (Strategy and Integration).

*/**/*/**/
*

Preventive Maintenance Schedules (PM).

**/*/*/**

Where can you assign ** and * ?

Page
57

28

12 - 16 November, 2007

30
25
20
15

Actions

10
5
0
Actions

CMMS

People

CBM

Strategy

PM

11

28

11

6
Page
58

9 13 July, 2007

Tools / Techniques for the

Pro-Active Side of Breakdown Events
Effective CMMS System (IS).

**

Motivated and Skilled People (People).

**/**/**/
*/*/*/*/*
*/*/**/*
*

Predictive Maintenance Tools (CBM).

Appropriate Maintenance Strategy and Integration (Strategy and

Integration).

*/**/**/*
*/**/*/**

Preventive Maintenance Schedules (PM).

**/*/*/*

Where can you assign ** and * ?

Page
59

29

9 13 July, 2007

16
14
12
10
8

Actions

6
4
2
0
Actions

CMMS

People

CBM

Strategy

PM

16

12

5
Page
60

Explanation to next slide

This is a Comprehensive List of related
issues that helps to Control the
Maintenance function.
It is also used as a check-list to identify
items that need to be addressed in the
design of a Computerised Maintenance
Management System (CMMS).
Page
61

30

A Comprehensive Maintenance
Control System
Plant
information

Inspection
Predictive
maintenance
Purchases
Trouble
shooting
Spare parts
materials
Skills
Matrix

Work
requirement
Preparation
planning
setting
priorities
Instructions
drawings
documentation,
photos

Work
order

Preventive
maintenance
Page
62

Explanation to next slide

This was an award winning paper for prioritisation
related to maintenance functions.
The main idea is that columns and rows correspond
to nouns and verbs respectively.
Each noun is ranked (prioritised) from right to left.
Also, each verb is ranked from bottom upwards.
Using this method, one can prioritise any action by
looking at the multiplication of corresponding rows
and columns.
Companies tend to prioritise their maintenance
actions using a similar, but not the same,
methodology.
Page
63

31

Inspection

Pred Maint

Prev Maint

By Kenneth P. Stachon, L. D. Piggott &

Associates

A numerical priority system can provide

objective insights into the concept that
maintenance is a profit center.

Benefits of a Numerical Priority System

Breakdown
ts

Car W
Mach ash
Air ine
CEolm
ecptrriess
Guag c Aoirr
e

All li
gh

Dispe
nsis
Auto
m
Syste ation
ms

Gene
rator
Subm
e
pump rsible
s

Page
64

ADNOC
Distribution,

Abu Dhabi

Shut down

Page
65

32

By Kenneth P. Stachon, L. D. Piggott &

Associates

A numerical priority system can provide

objective insights into the concept that
maintenance is a profit center.

Benefits of a Numerical Priority System

ng
Bl d
&C
ntrl

Adm

htin
Dra
inag
e

Lig
Plan
t

Aut
oma
tion
erru
pted
Pwr
Loa
.
ding
Pum
ps
Met
eri n
g Eq
pt.
Loa
ding
Arm
s
Uni
nt

Plan
t

ADNOC Distribution,
Abu Dhabi

81

72

63

54

45

36

27

18

72

64

56

48

40

32

24

16

63

56

49

42

35

28

21

14

54

48

42

36

30

24

18

12

Corrective Maintenance

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

Preventive
Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance

36

32

28

24

20

16

12

Efficiency

27

24

21

18

15

12

18

16

14

12

10

Plant Breakdown
Breakdown

Safety/ Regulatory
Quality

Environmental
Aesthetics

55
to
81

Immediate

37
to
54

Within 72 hrs

10
to
36

Within 2
weeks

1
to
9

Within 3
months

Work Prioritisation Product Depots

Page
66

Priorities when implementing a

systematic PM-program1
Begin the PM-work with
The essential equipment
(expensive, rare, hard to repair).
Bottle-necks.
Machines for important
products (price, in stock,
important customer etc.)
Page
67

33

Priorities when implementing a

systematic PM-program2
Perform PM-measures when machines
are stopped
While the machine is down for another
reason (maintenance window).
While the machine is being repaired (if
possible).
Work in process are available after the
machine in question in the line (No loss
of production).
Page
68

Paper: ADVANCE MAINTENANCE

PLANNING AND SCHEDULE
Question 1: What is Advanced
Maintenance Planning and Schedule
(AMPS)?

[Dreyer, SL, ADVANCE MAINTENANCE PLANNING AND SCHEDULE,

2006 IEEE]

Page
69

34

ADVANCE MAINTENANCE
PLANNING AND SCHEDULE

Question 1: What is Advanced Maintenance Planning and

Schedule (AMPS)?
Answer:
AMPS is a systematic approach for implementing a planning and
scheduling capability focused on a system mission context.
Planning is the function of defining how to do the job, while
scheduling is the function of determining when to do the job.
The vision of planning is simply to increase labour productivity. The
mission of planning is to prepare the jobs to increase labour
productivity. The mission of scheduling is to allocate the jobs
necessary for completion. Scheduling forms an integral part of
planning.
Scheduling is the function of determining when to do the job.
Scheduling is the assignment of many planned jobs into a defined
period of time in order to optimize the use of the resources within
their constraints.

Page
70

Paper: ADVANCE MAINTENANCE

PLANNING AND SCHEDULE
Question 2: What are the benefits of
maintenance planning?

[Dreyer, SL, ADVANCE MAINTENANCE PLANNING AND SCHEDULE,

2006 IEEE]

Page
71

35

Paper: ADVANCE MAINTENANCE

PLANNING AND SCHEDULE

Question 2: What are the benefits of maintenance planning?

Answer: Benefits of maintenance planning:
Technicians benefit from a continuously improving process that is
committed to avoiding maintenance interruptions identified on past
work.
The maintenance planner provides technicians a head start on the
task as well as data on anticipated problems that may be
encountered.
Planning and scheduling gives the supervisors more control over
work by knowing how many jobs they can assign to which skilled
technicians.
The supervisors have the confidence of knowing that the schedule
includes both proactive and reactive tasks. With the implementation
of the maintenance planner, management has the means to
increase productivity by knowing how much work a maintenance
crew should execute and how to allocate it.
The organization realizes increased availability of the assets
required to complete missions.
[Dreyer, SL, ADVANCE MAINTENANCE PLANNING AND SCHEDULE,
2006 IEEE]

Page
72

Paper: ADVANCE MAINTENANCE

PLANNING AND SCHEDULE
Question 3: What is the maintenance
planner's job?

Page
73

36

Paper: ADVANCE MAINTENANCE

PLANNING AND SCHEDULE
Question 3: What is the maintenance planner's job?
Answer:

To interpret health management data during flight.

To identify maintenance requirements.
Identify backlog work to be completed.
Prepare and analyze documentation to establish a
maintenance approach for the vehicle in flight.
Review feedback and historical records of previously
executed maintenance approaches.
Set in motion resource requests.
Schedule all ready backlog work.
Resolve resource conflicts.
Page
74

The Revenue of a Company

can be Improved by:
Higher prices on
products or reduction
of raw material cost.
Reduction of
production and
maintenance costs.
Increased productivity.
High quality products.
Maintenance
Page
75

37

Recent Related
Publications
1. .Sudiarso, A and A.W. Labib, A Fuzzy Logic Approach to an Integrated Maintenance / Production Scheduling Algorithm, International Journal
of Production Research (IJPR), Vol 40, No 13 pp 3121-3138, 2002.
2. Exton, T. and Labib, A.W., Spare Parts Decision Analysis The Missing Link in CMMSs (Part II), Journal of Maintenance & Asset
Management, ISSN 0952-2110, Vol 17 No1, 2002..
3. Labib, A.W., and T. Exton, Spare Parts Decision Analysis The Missing Link in CMMSs (Part I), Journal of Maintenance & Asset
Management, ISSN 0952-2110, Vol 16 No 3, pp 10-17, 2001.
4. Alvi and A.W. Labib, Selecting Next Generation Manufacturing Paradigms An AHP Based Criticality Analysis, Proc. Of IMechE, Journal of
Engineering Manufacture - Part B, Vol 2 No 5, pp 1773-1786 (December), 2001.
5. .Labib, A.W., and J. Shah, Management Decisions for a Continuous Improvement Process in Industry Using the Analytical Hierarchy
Process", Journal of Work Study, ISSN 0043-8022, Vol 50, No 5, pp 189-193, 2001.
6. Labib, A.W., A Framework for Benchmarking Appropriate Productive Maintenance, Journal of Management Decisions, Vol. 37, No. 10, pp
792-800, 1999.
7. Labib, A.W.; World Class Maintenance Using a Computerised Maintenance Management System; Journal of Quality in Maintenance
Engineering (JQME); MCB Press; Vol 4, No 1.; pp 66-75; ISSN: 1355-2511; April 1998.
8. Labib, A.W., OConnor*, R.F., and Williams*, G.B.; An Effective Maintenance System Using the Analytic Hierarchy Process; Journal of
Integrated Manufacturing Systems (IMS), Vol 9; No 2.; pp 87-98; ISSN: 0957-6061; April 1998.
9. Labib, A.W., Williams*. G.B., and OConnor*, R.F.; An Intelligent Maintenance Model (System): An Application of A.H.P. and a Fuzzy Logic
Rule-Based Controller; Journal of Operational Research Society (JORS); Vol 9, No 7,pp 745-757, ISSN: 0160-5682, July, 1998.
10. Labib, A.W. A Logistic Approach to Managing the Millennium Information Systems Problem, Journal Logistics Information Management
(MCB Press), Vol 11, No 5, pp 285-384, ISSN: 0957-6053, 1998.
11. Labib, A.W., OConnor*, R.F., and Williams*, G.B.; Formulation of an appropriate maintenance strategy using multiple criteria decision
making; maintenance Journal, 11, No. 2 pp 14-21, ISSN:0952-2110; April 1996.
12. Labib, A.W., OConnor*, R.F., and Williams*, G.B.; Deriving A Maintenance Strategy Through the Application of a Multiple Criteria
Decision Making Methodology; Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems; No. 448; Gunter Fandel, Thomas Gal (Eds.),
Springer-Verlag, pp 481-490; ISSN:0075-8442, ISBN:3-540-62097-4; 1997.

Page
76

Q&A

Page
77

38

PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

Page 1

The Concept of Best and Worst

Practice

Why Do Maintenance
Systems Fail?

Page 2

Presentation Overview
Culture: Maintenance from Design.
Fire Fighting.
Case Studies:
Piper Alpha Disaster.
Challenger Disaster.
Concorde Disaster.

Why Maintenance Systems Fail?

Page 3

Management Culture
Different cultures different results!
If it isn't broke dont fix it vs. Kaizen

Maintenance from Design

Page 4

Interesting Story
A driver fell asleep for eight minutes at
the controls of a Japanese bullet train
travelling at almost 300 kilometres (186
miles) an hour.
Story from BBC NEWS

Colin Broom, Mike Chandler, Toshiaki Fujii, Chris Murray, Surath Ovitigama, Nigel Wong
Page 5

JAPANESE SHINKANSEN
Japanese Bullet Train
Highest average speed
Excellent safety record
no fatal crashes in the
past.
Closed every night for
maintenance

Page 6

Fire Fighting
Frequent number of breakdowns
Few resources left for planning
Quick fixes cover underlying
problems
No time for long term planning
Page 7

Case Study 1: Piper Alpha

Disaster

Page 8

The Technical Cause of

Failure
A Propane condensate backup pump
was switched on after the primary pump
failed
Safety valve was removed on a
maintenance job the previous shift
Resulted in a major leak of propane
Ignited, exploded and destroyed the oil
platform
Page 9

Consequences

Loss of Life: 167 people

Loss of money: $ 1billion for the platform
Page
10

The Permit to Work' System

Maintenance Job
Permit to Work
Form
FAILURE

Operator installations
Manager
Communication of
WIP

Cross reference and

track job
Page
11

The Failure
The system had become very relaxed
and informal
Communication between different shifts
was bad
Resulted in operators on the next shift
not knowing about the missing safety
valve
Page
12

Improvements

Tiered authorization
Central organisation of permits
Computer based permit tracking system
Clear visibility of the status of work
Training for workers using the system

Page
13

Case Study 2: Challenger

Disaster

Page
14

Page
15

Page
16

Page
17

Challenger Disaster
Joints in the rocket motor were not
properly sealed
Hot gases escaped
Broke up the joints
Poor sealing due to the O-rings not
being flexible enough as they were too
cold
Page
18

Challenger Disaster
Problem could be solved by
Replacing O-rings
Delay take-off to allow O-rings to get
warmer to take up their design space

NASA management wanted to keep to

schedule
Page
19

Lessons Learned
Greater recognition of engineers
Safety personnel now on management
board

Increase in budget for safety

Improvements in communications
A greater understanding of engineering
safety criteria.
Page
20

10

From Video

Boss is always right !

Lack of data !
Quantitative Vs Qualitative !
Cannot fool the laws of physics (nature)!
Safety scarified !
Lack of communication !
28.42 min

Page
21

No Blame Culture

Page
22

11

Other Examples

Page
23

Exercise 2.1: Read this Related Reading Paper Learning from Failures and summarise its main points

Davidson, G., and A.W. Labib, "Learning from failures: design

improvements using a multiple criteria decision making process",
Journal of Aerospace Engineering, Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers Part G, Vol 217, pp 207-216, 2003.

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to propose a new concept of decision analysis based on a
Multiple Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) process. This is achieved through the
provision of a systematic and generic methodology for the implementation of design
improvements based on experience of past failures.
The proposed model uses the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) mathematical model as
means of investigation. In this paper, the AHP method has proven to be an invaluable
tool for decision support since it allows a fully documented and transparent decision to
be made with full accountability. In addition, it facilitates the task of justifying
improvement decisions.
A case study based on the Concorde accident will concentrate on the implementation of
the model and its subsequent evaluation to ensure that the decision made is robust. In
this case it will be possible to compare the decision made from this analysis with what
has actually happened. This should prove to be the first acid test for the validation of
Page
the model.
24

12

The Concorde Crash

Page
25

The 20th Century Design Classic

Page
26

13

Page
27

Page
28

14

The runway after

Concorde took off
[BEA, 2000]

Page
30

Page
31

15

 It crashed 60 seconds after take off after suffering

tyre blow out that caused a fuel tank to rupture.

All 109 people (100 passengers and 9 crew) on
board were killed.
4 people in a local hotel on the ground were also
killed.
Page
32

Page
33

16

To choose the correct action after the Concorde crash

Safety

Line fuel
tank

Practicality

Change
tyres

Image

Plate
bay

Economic

No
changes

FMEA

Ground
The A/C

Page
34

Page
35

17

Sensitivity Analysis What if?

Page
36

Sensitivity Analysis What if?

Page
37

18

Dynamic Sensitivity Analysis

Page
38

Page
39

19

Feedback

iv
at
lit
a
u
Q

Conclusion: Features of the proposed method

R&KT
Proposed
Method
Strategy

t
en
r
ffe its
D i un

Trade-off

3.
Allows
Multi
levels
of
1.
Reflects
the
8.6.
Can
include
Can
deal
with of
5. Provides
sensitivity
7.4.
Can
take
account
Consistency
criteria
and
subdifferent
2.
Allows
stakeholders
multi
actual
analysis
short
andjudgement
long term
intangibles.
and
objectives
measure.
criteria
scaling.
ortheir
value.

What-if
D

Dynamic

ea k rs
St lde
ho

im M
en ult
i
s
io
na

Page
40

07

Concluding Remarks
Not only have we captured and
simulated the decision making process,
but we were also able to predict the
next steps.
This has validated the proposed model
which gives it a generic applicability to
wide range of cases.
Page
41

20

Exercise: Learning from

Failures
Carry out a brief search and make brief
notes/slides on a disaster (or a failure), showing
lessons learnt, if any.
- The logic cause of failure.
- Consequence of failure.
- Design improvements / lessons learned.
Learning means:
1. Feedback to design.
2. Use of advanced tools/techniques.
3. Multidisciplinary (teamwork) approach.
Page
42

Summary

Disasters
Lessons Learnt
Improved Maintenance
Why Maintenance Systems Fail?

The answer:
Next Lectures
Page
43

21

Thank You..Any Questions?

Page
44

22

PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

The unfolding of Bhopal

disaster
T.R. Chouhan*
Ex-MIC Plant Operator, Union Carbide Plant,
Bhopal
Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process
Industries 18 (2005) 205208

23 min

Abstract
As an employee of Union Carbide India at the Bhopal
plant, I know how the disaster happened. The merciless
cost-cutting severely affecting materials of construction,
maintenance, training, manpower and morale resulted in
the disaster that was waiting to happen.
Significant differences between the West Virginia, USA
plant and the Bhopal, India plant show the callous
disregard of the corporation for the people of the
developing countries.
The narrative below, if given a proper thought by the
management and governments, should help in
significantly reducing industrial accidents.

Fig 1. Four quench filters and RVVH

isolation valve (with wheel, top right).

The toxic gas that leaked into the Bhopal atmosphere that night was due to water
(along with catalytic material :iron, rust, etc.) entering the storage tank 610 of the
Union Carbide MIC plant. The phosgenes stripping still and the quench filters
safety valves downstream (four in numbers) were connected to the relief valve
vent header (RVVH). These lines were badly choked with solid sodium salts
deposition. The exercise of washing these filters started at 8:30 PM on 2nd
December 1984. Because of the choking of these lines and malfunctioning of
RVVH isolation valve, the water entered the RVVH main header (Fig. 1).

Fig. 2. Jumper line was connected to PVH line

(left) and RVVH line (right, larger diameter).

This header was connected to the MIC storage area. The RVVH
header of storage area was also connected to the process vent
header (PVH) with a jumper line (Fig. 2 shows where the jumper
line was connected. It was removed when the remainder MIC was
utilized on December 16, 1984).

The Disaster
As the 42 tons of MIC in tank 610 got
contaminated with water and the catalytic
material, the exothermic reactions began and
within an hour, turned into violent runaway
reactions resulting in high pressure and
temperature in the tank.
The reaction products and the unreacted MIC
started coming out through PVH/Jumper
line/RVVH/VGS and finally to the atmosphere
through the atmospheric vent line and overflow
vent line of scrubber, between approximately
12:15 and 2:30 AM.

Series of failures
The safety equipment provided
for the Bhopal plant were as
follows:

1. Fig. 3. Vent Gas Scrubber. MIC came out

from the tall pipe left of centre.

The Vent gas scrubber (VGS, Fig. 3). It was designed

to neutralize the toxic release material released from
various equipment of MIC plant. However, it was not
capable of controlling the runaway reaction. (Further, it
was not operational that night).

2. Fig. 4. Flare tower

Flare tower (Fig. 4). It was designed to burn out

excess CO and MIC vapours at a controlled rate
and was not capable of burning the huge amounts
released that night. (Further, it was under
maintenance that night).

3. The refrigeration system

MIC storage 30 tons refrigeration
system. It was installed to keep the
storage tank material below 5 C.
(However, the system had been
shutdown in May 1984 to save power,
approx. $ 20/day).

4. The water spray

This could be used to knock out the toxic
chemical vapour by spraying large amount
of water.
But, while the toxic gases were released at
30-m (100 ft) above ground, the water
spray could not reach that height and
hence could not knock out any gas.

5. Danger alarm (siren).

Installed for warning the community people, was
switched off after 5 min as per the revised
company policy.
Thereafter, only the muted siren for the plant
personal was sounded.
No plant person died due to the gas.
If the loud alarm for the community had been
sounded for long, many would have escaped
before the gas overpowered them.

6. Evacuation plan.
It was only made for the plant personal,
not for the community.

Comparative designs of Union Carbide MIC production plants in West

Virginia, USA and Bhopal, India

The management had told the workers that the Bhopal

plant was designed and built on the basis of 20 years
experience in making MIC in the West Virginia, USA
plant.
We felt excited knowing that we were going to work in a
modern, sophisticated and automatic chemical plant.
After the disaster, I came to know of a lot of differences
between the MIC plants in W. Virginia and Bhopal (Table
1).
It is evident from Table 1 that the Bhopal plant was not
designed to handle emergencies that the West Virginia
plant could have.

Causes behind the Bhopal gas disaster

The order for water washing was
given without
Placing slip blinds
Checking related lines
Disconnecting various lines.

Causes behind the Bhopal gas disaster:

Disconnecting various lines

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution, in the VGS unit and field storage tanks,
was insufficient for neutralization of such a large amount of gas.
The pressure control valve for the MIC storage tank (610) had not been
functioning for over a month. Water entered through this route.
The temperature sensor and alarm for the MIC storage tank had not been
working for almost 4 years. Therefore, regular recording of temperature in
the log sheets was not done. According to the officers this parameter was
not important. However, it could have warned of the runaway reaction
occurring much earlier.
The refrigeration unit (30 tons capacity) had been down for over an year,
and was totally shutdown in May 1984. As a result, the MIC tank was at
ambient temperature while the MIC manual had strongly recommended
keeping MIC below 5 C.
The vent gas scrubber was not operating at the time of the accident.
The flare tower had been under maintenance since November 25, 1984 and
maintenance was not completed until the accident. The job could have been
completed within 8 h but for the shortage of staff.
Manpower was reduced in all categories (Fig. 5)
Fire and rescue squad (emergency squad) members were not qualified and
trained to handle such an accident.
There was no maintenance supervisor for the night shift.

Causes behind the Bhopal gas disaster

Nobody was aware of such types of
runaway reactions in the storage tank and
therefore proper emergency steps were
not taken.
MIC plant operating personnel did not
have the qualifications and training that
were necessary.
Training had been reduced over the years
(Figs. 6 and 7).

10

Causes behind the Bhopal gas disaster

The agreement between the union and the management was completed in 1983 bypassing the safety rules.
Improper behaviour of management with the operating personnel.
Incorrect modifications of the relief valve vent header (RVVH) and process vent
header (PVH) by providing interconnection with a jumper line in the MIC storage area
(Fig. 2).
The design and technology given by the Union Carbide Corporation was not safe and
sufficient for preventing contamination and controlling runaway reaction.
The loud siren did not start at the proper time and was shut down after 5 min since
the siren policy had been modified.
There was no evacuation plan for the neighbouring area/communities. Even after the
accident the neighbouring communities were not informed.
The Plant superintendent did not inform outside agencies about the accident. Initially,
he denied the accident, and then stated that MIC gas was like a tear gas and the
effects would be temporary. No effective antidote was told.
The civic authorities did not know the treatment since they had not been informed of
the extremely hazardous nature of the material stored.
Keeping all the above developments in mind, no one should be surprised that such a
major accident took place. It was waiting to happen (Fig. 8).

11

Conclusion
My objective in this presentation is to see
that such disasters are averted all over the
world. I do hope that MNCs while investing
in such projects in developing countries
would be as concerned and careful of the
safety and wellbeing of the recipient
country people as they would be of their
own.

12

PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

DAY 2

WORLD - CLASS STANDARDS COMPARING YOUR PLANT WITH

THE BEST
1.
2.
3.
4.

Benchmarking and Maintenance

Performance Assessment
Maintenance Self-Assessment
Managing and Measuring progress to
Excellence
Overall Equipment Effectiveness
2

BENCHMARKING & WORLD

CLASS PERFORMANCE

FORMAL DEFINITION

Dictionary: Reference to a standard by which others

may be measured.
Xerox: Continuos process of measuring our products,
services, and practices against our toughest
competition or those companies recognised as world
leaders.
Ford: A structured approach for learning from others
and applying that knowledge.
3M: A tool used to search for and allow a company to
perform at a best-on-class level.
4

What is Benchmarking ?

A process of continuously measuring and comparing

an organisation against business leaders anywhere n
the world to get information that will help the
organisation take action to improve its performance.
[APAC, 1993]
A process which can be characterised by a standard
(an excellence point obtained) and variables
(expectations, performance and measurements).
In short:


THE PROCESS OF LEARNING FROM OTHERS

5

HISTORY OF
BENCHMARKING
STRATEGIC
VALUE
PROCESS
BENCHMARKING

COMPETITOR
ANALYSIS

PERFORMANCE
BENCHMARKING

FINANCIAL
ANALYSIS

1960s

1970s

1980s

1990s TIME
6

DEFINITION OF
BENCHMARKING (1)

Benchmarking dismisses existing practices of target chasing and

the focus on short term business results.
It emphasises the need to build process capability and
robustness by focusing on the How, What, Why, and Where.
It gives organisations the opportunity to focus externally and
constantly.
It instigates continuous learning and dismisses the myth of not
invented here.
It reinforces the point that people are an asset and encourages
innovation and creativity.
Most importantly of all, it constantly reminds people of the
customer, because of focuses on critical processes and value
adding contribution.
7

DEFINITION OF
BENCHMARKING (2)

It makes the wheel of continuous improvement run

faster and ensures that newness and learning is
implemented on a regular basis.
It helps prevent complacency and constantly makes
people measure, check against the benchmark and
take appropriate action.
It gives strategic planning for a new perspective as
benchmarking is the best process for objective
setting, based on clear understanding of the
market/customer and internal processes capability.
8

Goals and Objectives of Benchmarking

(Maintenance Perspective)

To review levels of performance, benchmarks,

and standards.
Identify steps and processes for
benchmarking.
Establish a continuos comparison, feedback,
and learning process.
Total elimination of Breakdowns.
To automate to add value NOT to add cost.
9

THE EFFECT OF MALCOLM BALDRIGE NATIONAL

QUALITY AWARD ON BENCHMARKING

The award is given annually to companies in the USA that excel

at quality management and achievement.
The introduction of MBNQA was significant to benchmarking in
two ways:
1. The award recipients were expected to share their
successful quality strategies and information with other
organisations.
2. The award has influenced benchmarking through the
requirement that organisation applying for the award maintain
trend data and make competitive comparisons.

10

Types of Benchmarking

Benchmarking

Internal
Competitive
Functional/
Generic

11

INTERNAL BENCHMARKING
Benchmarking against other units within
one large corporation.

Access to partners is easily gained and
information is readily available.

The activity can be broad or as detailed
as desired.

Less expensive to conduct than other
types of benchmarking.

12

COMPETITIVE
BENCHMARKING
An external activity that involves the
investigation of a direct competitor.

Competitive
benchmarking logically
follows an internal benchmarking
activity. This is because internal
information must be documented and
analysed before it can be compared to
external data.

13

GENERIC BENCHMARKING
Most common type, where one identifies
and learn from the best practice,
regardless of industry.

It is often a benchmarking based on
relationship such as a supplier or a
customer.

Advantageous to all parties concerned.

Difficult to standardise and manage.

14

Steps to Benchmark

Steps

Identify the
measurement.
Identify the industry
leader.
Establish exactly
how the processes
are being carried
out.

Be sensitive in asking for information from other companies.

The Golden Rule:
Dont ask any question that we would not like to be asked ourselves
16

REASONS FOR
BENCHMARKING

Improving and striving for excellence.

Finding ideas and sources for improvement outside ones own
framework or box.
Initiating an active learning process.
Creating a better understanding of ones own process.
Establishing effective strategic goals and objectives.
Establishing a reference point for performance measurement.
Creating a sense of urgency.
Understanding and meeting changing customer requirements.

17

Available Options
Cost-Driven Benchmarking.
 Cost reductions

Process Driven Benchmarking.
 Great cost reductions.
 Superior performance.

18

Without / With Benchmarking

Objectives

Without B/M With B/M

Becoming
Competitive

Internally
focused.
Evolutionary
change.
Few solutions.
Frantic catch
up activity.
Lacking
external focus.
Reactive.

Industry best
practices
Establishing
effective goals
and objectives.

Understanding
of competition.
Ideas from
proven practices.
Many options.
Superior
performance.
Credible,
unarguable.
Proactive. 19

EXAMPLE OF COMPARISON BETWEEN A

WORLD CLASS COMPANY AND A NORMAL
COMPANY
Lead time
from
suppliers
Order
reception
time
Too late
deliveries
Number of
out-of-stock /
year
Suppliers /
customers

Company A

World Class

150 days

8 days

6 minutes

on-line

33 %

1%

400 times

4 times

34

5.3
20

Xerox Case Study..1

Document and imaging company, which

created the original market for copiers ( verb
to xerox!! )
Its virtual monopoly almost became its
undoing when the emerging Japanese copier
companies began to threaten its market
share.
The company ordered an indepth study.
To evaluate itself externally (competitive
benchmarking).
21

Adapted from Slack, 2004

10

Xerox Case Study2

The results of the study shocked the company:







Its Japanese rivals were selling machines for about what it cost
Xerox to make them !
The company had nine times more suppliers than its Japanese
rivals !
The company was rejecting 10 times as many machines on the
production line !
It was taking twice as long to get products to the market !
Benchmarking showed that productivity would need to grow 18 %
per year over 5 years if it was to catch up with its rivals !

Xerox saw benchmarking a helping it achieve two objectives:




At a strategic level: set standards of performance.

At an operational level: Understand best practice and operations
methods that can help it achieve its performance objectives.
22

Adapted from Slack, 2004

Benchmarking Against
Industry Leaders

To be as good as
or
To be better than

23

11

Is maintenance efficiently executed?

Many companies say that the maintenance activity is
under control and ok.
Our experience indicates something else. Following
is quite typical:

Half of the work orders should be executed a.s.a.p.

 Most of the work is reactive
 Work planning is done after issuing the WO (work order) to
the technician ( our technicians are skilled and trained.
They know what they are doing )
 PM is inefficient (100% WOs issued out to techs  60%
signed off as having been done  30%actually done)


24

Common misunderstandings about

benchmarking

It is a one-off projectactually it should be a

continuous process of comparison.
It provides obvious and simple solutions to operations
problemsactually it provides information not
answers.
It involves copying or imitating other
operationsactually it is a process of learning and
adapting from others in a pragmatic manner.
It can be done quickly and easilyactually it is often
time consuming and labour intensive to conduct a
disciplined benchmarking study.
25

12

Thank You..Any Questions?

26

13

PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

Page 1

Maintenance Performance
Measures

Page 2

Challenges of
Performance
Measurement
Class of inter-dependent and
synchronised production systems.
Ex.: Reliability, Effectiveness, MTBF,
MTTRetc.

Quantitative and qualitative

measures.
Scaling and units of measurement.
Multiple criteria.
Page 3

The problem with traditional

management accounting systems
Kaplan (1989) points out that the numbers
produced by traditional management accounting
systems are:
too aggregate to provide relevant information for operational
control;
available too late for corrective action to be taken; and
too distorted by the standard overhead absorption method.

In other words:
Too general.
Too late.
Too bad.

Page 4

Performance Measures as a
Continuous Improvement
Process
Create a sense of urgency for improvement.
Help to identify weak areas and indicate the
improvement required.
Establish the need for change.
Provide realistic and achievable targets.
Create an atmosphere conductive to
continuous improvement.
Allow employees to visualise improvement
which can be a motivator for change.
Page 5

The Main Problems with

Maintenance Performance
Measures

Most of these indices are of

limited value to the decision
maker.
They only indicate that some
action may be necessary, but
seldom, if ever, indicate what
this action should be.
Page 6

The Main Problems with

Maintenance Performance
Measures

The true value of maintenance

is given in terms of events that
do not occur (like a machine not
breaking down),
This makes the assessment of
the value of these measures a
pure speculative task.
Page 7

Classifying maintenance
performance measures

measures of equipment performance e.g.

availability, reliability, overall equipment
effectiveness;
measures of cost performance e.g.
operation and maintenance (O&M) labour
and material costs; and
measures of process performance e.g.
ratio of planned and unplanned work,
schedule compliance.
Page 8

Maintenance contribution to the

organizations business success can be
analysed as a function of four variables:
the cost of the action;
the effect of disruption caused by the required
maintenance actions;
the effect of equipment performance between
maintenance actions; and
the ability of the action to affect the life of the
asset.

Page 9

Desirable Properties in Maintenance

Performance Measures
There are a number of desirable properties that a
measure of performance should possess and these
are listed below:
i. The measure should be relatively easy to calculate
and use.
ii. The
measure
should
accurately
reflect
management's' subjective notions of what
constitutes maintenance performance especially
with respect to the organisational objectives as a
whole.
iii. Ideally the measure, in addition to indicating that
something has gone wrong, should indicate what
remedial action is necessary to correct the error
which has been observed.
Page
10

Summary
EASY.
RELEVANT.
DECISION SUPPORT.

Page
11

Overall Equipment
Effectiveness
(OEE)

Page
12

What Is O.E.E.?
O.E.E. is the equivalent percentage of time
the equipment is being used to produce
saleable product at the maximum machine
rate.
O.E.E. is an all-inclusive measurement of
equipment productivity.
O.E.E. is a tool to drive equipment
performance
improvements
through
measurement and reduction of the Major
Losses of capacity.
Page
13

O.E.E. Concept

Valuable
Running
Time

Defect Losses

Net
Running
Time

Speed Losses

Running Time

Bdown Losses

Available Time
O.E.E = Valuable Running Time / Available Time

Available Time

Valuable
Running
Time

Page
14

OEE

Losses
Time

Breakdown

Availability

Available Time

Running Time

Bdown Losses

Changeover

Idling and
Minor Stoppages

Speed Losses

Productivity
Net
Running
Time

Defects in
Process

Defect Losses

Valuable
Running
Time

Reduced
Speed

Quality
Reduced
Yield
Page
15

Losses
Time

Breakdown

Available Time

Availability =
(Available Time - Downtime) * 100
Available Time

Running Time

Bdown Losses

Changeover

Idling and
Productivity =
Minor Stoppages Ideal Cycle Time *Processed Amount * 100

Defect Losses

Valuable
Running
Time

Speed Losses

Running Time

Net
Running
Time

Reduced
Speed
Defects in
Process

Quality Rate =
(Processed Amount - Defect Amount) * 100

Processed Amount

Reduced
Yield
Page
16

T.P.M. Performance
Measure: The O.E.E.

Page
17

Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)

Companies are aiming for:
Equipment that is available for longer periods of time.
Equipment producing first time quality product.
Equipment at full capacity fully utilised.
The measure of this is Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)
The OEE formula is as follows:

Availability

Performance Rate

Breakdown
Losses

Idling and minor

stoppage losses

Setup and
adjust losses

Reduced speed
losses

SIX

BIG

Quality Rate
Quality defect
and rework
losses
Start up losses

LOSSES
Page
18

The Six Big Losses

Losses affecting Availability:

Breakdowns (Consequences)

You cant make Products

Production schedules impacted as there is a Knock on effect
further down production line
Increased workload on maintenance personnel
Working overtime or weekends (expensive)

Set up and adjustments

Time consuming (Result in Inefficient Production losses)

Low volume High diversity is the norm today
Many changes being carried out monthly or even daily
Delicate adjustments of dimensions Needs training. New people
take time to train up

Page
19

The Six Big Losses (continued)

Losses affecting Performance:

Idling and Minor stoppages

Smallest thing can shutdown a machine

Such minor stoppages often add up to substantial losses
Keep Operators busy and frustrated
Increase the risk of accidents
Elimination will make work much easier

Reduced Speed

Running equipment faster causes defects

Running equipment slower impacts the cycle time for the
product.
No One knows the design specification.
No one knows the actual speed.
Design changes in materials could have an effect on the speed.

Page
20

10

The Six Big Losses (continued)

Losses affecting Quality Rate:

Quality Defects and Rework

Are you making defects ?

What are the causes ? ( 5 why root cause & effect; see later )
Working hard is no excuse for making defective parts
A Loss is still a loss - A Form of waste.
Time spent reworking defective parts is also a waste
SPC (see later ) can be used to keep parameters under control.

Start up Losses

It takes time to get started in the morning

Page
21

The OEE formula

The OEE formula is as follows:
OEE = Availability X Performance Rate X Quality Rate
Where:

Availability =

total availabletime actual down time

X 100 %

total availabletime
Performance =

ideal cycle time X total units produced

X 100 %

actual working time

Quality Rate =

total units produced number of defects

X 100 %

total units produced

Note: Total available time = Total shift working time Planned down time
Actual working time = Total available time - Actual down time

Page
22

11

Example 1
A manufacturing plant is continually operated over three 8 hour
shifts. During this time, 90 minutes planned downtime is performed
and 10 minutes unscheduled stoppages occur. The ideal cycle time
for producing the product is 2 minutes per item. The actual output is
found to be 560 unit for the three shifts but 5 of these units are found
to be defective.

Calculate the OEE for this plant and make recommendations based on
your answer.

Page
23

Example 1 - Solution
A manufacturing plant is continually operated over three 8 hour shifts. During
this time, 90 minutes planned downtime is performed and 10 minutes
unscheduled stoppages occur. The ideal cycle time for producing the product
is 2 minutes per item. The actual output is found to be 560 units for the three
shifts but 5 of these units are found to be defective.
Calculate the OEE for this plant and make recommendations based on your
answer.
Total shift working time is: 3 x 8 x 60 = 1440 minutes
Total available time is: 1440 90 = 1350 minutes
Actual downtime is: 10 minutes
Actual working time is: 1350 10 = 1340 minutes
Ideal Cycle time is: 2 minutes
Total units produced: 560 units
Total time to produce these is: 560 x 2 = 1120 minutes
No. of defective units: 5

Page
24

12

Example 1 Solution (continued)

Availability =

total available time actual down time

X 100 %

total available time

Availability =

Performance =

1350 10
X 100 % = 99.26 %
1350

ideal cycle time X total units produced

X 100 %

actual working time

Performance =

2 X 560
X 100 % = 83.58 %
135010

Page
25

Example 1 Solution (continued)

Quality Rate =

total units produced number of defects

X 100 %

total units produced

560 5
Quality Rate =
X 100 % = 99 . 11 %
560
OEE = Availability X Performance Rate X Quality Rate
OEE = 0.9926 X 0.8358 X 0.9911 X 100 % = 82.22 %
For world class plant, OEE is in excess of 85%. So this plant is not
quite in that category. Performance rate is the lowest value of the three
metrics in the calculation of the OEE. Thus, aiming to improving the
performance rate by improving minor stoppages or speeding up
production would be a good place to start.
Experience shows that 1 % improvement in the OEE is often equivalent
to 10 % reduction in the direct cost of maintenance.
Page
26

13

Example 2
Performance of a plant is monitored over 4 days and the figures are tabulated as
shown below. The ideal cycle time is 0.5 min/piece. For this plant:
(i) Calculate the average OEE over the period.
(ii) Calculate the best of the best (target) OEE.
(iii) Comment on the results.

Date

Total working
time
(mins)

Planned
Downtime
(mins)

Unplanned
Stoppages
(mins)

Output
(no.)

Defects
rework &
Scrap (no.)

9/9/08

480

60

243

10/9/08

480

60

380

11/9/08

480

60

10

328

12/9/08

480

60

732

Page
27

Example 2 - Solution
Highlight the best figures and find the average figures.
Date

Total working
time
(mins)

Planned
Downtime
(mins)

Unplanned
Stoppages
(mins)

Output
(no.)

Defects
rework &
Scrap (no.)

9/9/08

480 *

60 *

243

0*

10/9/08

480

60

0*

380

11/9/08

480

60

10

328

12/9/08

480

60

732 *

Total

1920

240

20

1683

* Best scores for use in calculation of best of the best

Average is the total divided the number of day. As each figure is to be divided by
4, we can just use the total.

Page
28

14

Example 2 Solution (continued)

Calculate the average OEE:

Availability =

total availabletime actual down time

X 100 %

total availabletime
Availabili ty =

Performance =

(1920 240) 20
X 100 % = 98.81 %
(1920 240)

ideal cycle time X total units produced

X 100 %

actual working time

Performance =

0.5 X 1683
X 100 % = 50.69 %
(1920 240 20)

Page
29

Example 2 Solution (continued)

Quality Rate =

total units produced number of defects

X 100 %

total units produced

1683 5
X 100 % = 99.7 %
1683Rate X Quality Rate
OEE = Availability X Performance
Quality Rate =

Average OEE = 0.9881 X 0.5069 X 0.997 X 100 % = 49.94 %

Comment:
This is a very poor figure for the OEE. The effectiveness of the plat is
less than 50% of what it should be. Notice that the low figure is solely
due to the performance figure of 50.69%. The availability and the quality
figures are over 95%. In order to improve the OEE, the performance
must be improved i.e. produce more units in the time available!

Page
30

15

Example 2 Solution (continued)

Calculate the best of best OEE:

Availability =

total availabletime actual down time

X 100 %

total available time

Availability =

Performance =

(480 60) 0
X 100 % = 100 %
(480 60)

ideal cycle time X total units produced

X 100 %

actual working time

Performance =

0.5 X 732
X 100 % = 87.14 %
(480 60 0)

Page
31

Example 2 Solution (continued)

Quality Rate =

total units produced number of defects

X 100 %

total units produced

Quality Rate =

386 0
X 100 % = 100 %
386

OEE = Availability X Performance Rate X Quality Rate

Best of Best OEE = 1 X 0.8714 X 1 X 100 % = 87.14 %
Big difference between the average and the best of best.
Question: What is stopping the company achieving the best of best
consistently?
Answer: The company is not in control of the SIX BIG LOSSES!
Comment: The high value of best of best OEE should give the company
high confidence as each of value for the availability, performance and
Quality was achieved during the measurement period. If the company can
control the big six losses, their OEE will be at least the best of best level.
Page
32

16

Summary
Challenges of Performance Measures.
Performance Measures as a
Continuous Improvement Process.
Maintenance Performance Measures.
Desirable Properties in Maintenance
Performance Measures.
The OEE.
Page
33

Video

Precision
Team Work.
SMED
Creativity and innovation (engine behind the driver).
Continuous improvement..
Synchronisation, and systemisation, and standardisation.
Examples:

Out of press set-ups.

Minimum number of connections.
Design
2 hours to 5 min
4 million increase in sales

Page
34

17

References
Nakajima, S., Total Productive Maintenance,
Productivity Press, 1988.
Pujadas, W., and Chen, F.F., A Reliability Centred
Maintenance Strategy for a Discrete Part
Manufacturing Facility, Computers Industrial
Engineering, Vol. 31, No. 1/2, pp 241-244, 1996.
Mann, L. Maintenance Management, D.C. Heath &
Co., 1982.
Priel, Y.Z., 1974, "Systematic Maintenance
Organisation.

Page
35

Thank You..Any Questions?

Page
36

18

PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

Page 1

Total Productive Maintenance

(T.P.M.)

Page 2

Asset Management

Reliability

Maintenance

CMMS
RCM

CBM

FMEA

TPM

FTA

OEE

Page 3

Tools / Techniques for the

Pro-Active Side of Breakdown
Events

Motivated and Skilled People.

Effective CMMS System.
Predictive Maintenance Tools.
Appropriate Maintenance Strategy and
Integration.
Preventive Maintenance Schedules

The Whole Course Structure!!

Page 4

WHAT IS TPM?
TPM is a tried and tested way of cutting waste,
saving money, and making factories better places to
work.
TPM gives operators the knowledge and confidence
to manage their own machines.
Instead of waiting for a breakdown, then calling the
maintenance engineer, they deal directly with small
problems, before they become big ones.
Operators investigate and then eliminate the root
causes of machine errors. Also, they work in small
teams to achieve continuous improvements to the
production lines.
Page 5

WHAT IS TPM?
It's a long-term program to increase
skills, raise efficiency, and achieve zero
losses.
That means:
zero stoppages.
zero quality defects.
zero waste of materials and manpower .

Page 6

In Short What is TPM and

What is Not ?
TPM IS NOT A TRAINING COURSE
IN MACHINE MAINTENANCE
"TOTAL PRODUCTIVE MAINTENANCE"
MEANS THAT OPERATORS ARE
EMPOWERED TO MAINTAIN
CONTINUOUS PRODUCTION ON
TOTALLY EFFICIENT LINES
Page 7

Page 8

WHAT'S SO SPECIAL
ABOUT T.P.M.?
Like most good ideas, it's both very simple
and very profound.
"There is nothing inevitable about failure."
TPM refuses to accept that machines
inevitably fail. TPM reminds us that every
time a machine fails, someone could have
prevented it!
TPM shows us that the power to break the
endless circle of failure, waste and loss, lies
within our own brains and hands.
Page 9

Page
10

Page
11

T.P.M. Principles

Man to
re-model

Firm to
re-structure

Autonomous
maintenance

Company led
small group
activities

Equipment
to re-design
Maximise overall
equipment
effectiveness

Page
12

Page
13

OLD Versus NEW Attitudes

OLD Attitude:
I operate it, you fix it
I fix it, you design it
I design it, you operate
it

NEW Attitude:
We are all responsible
for our equipment
Page
14

TPM Objective
(maximisation of OEE)
Downtime-related:
Equipment failure due to breakdowns.
Set-up and adjustment e.g. die exchange in injection
moulding.

Speed loss-related:
Idling and minor stoppages due to abnormal operation
of sensors, wear or blockage of chutes etc.
Reduced speed equipment will not operate at designed
speed without failure.

Defect-related
Process defects due to scrap and the need for re-work.
Reduced yield during the period between machine
start-up and stable production.
Page
15

Page
16

Losses
Time

Breakdown

Available Time

Availability =
(Available Time - Downtime) * 100
Available Time

Running Time

Bdown Losses

Changeover

Idling and
Productivity =
Minor Stoppages Ideal Cycle Time *Processed Amount * 100

Valuable
Running
Time

Defect Losses

Net
Running
Cost

Speed Losses

Running Time

Reduced
Speed
Defects in
Process

Quality Rate =
(Processed Amount - Defect Amount) * 100

Processed Amount

Reduced
Yield
Page
17

T.P.M. Performance
Measure: The O.E.E.

Page
18

TPM
TPM can be seen as the maintenance aspect of Total
Quality Management. Its defining features (the five
aims) are:
TPM is aimed at maximising equipment effectiveness
through the optimisation of equipment availability,
performance, efficiency and product quality.
TPM establishes a maintenance strategy (level and type of
PM) for life of the equipment.
TPM covers all departments such as the planning
departments, the users, and the maintenance department.
TPM involves all staff members from top management to
shop floor workers.
TPM promotes improved maintenance through small group
autonomous activities.

Page
19

Page
20

10

Page
21

Page
22

11

Page
23

Page
24

12

TPM
in
Industry

Page
25

An Example: Let Your Equipment Tell You What It Needs!

This photo is just one example of
many visual systems for improving
equipment effectiveness.
This gauge has the correct ranges
marked with red, yellow, and
green transparent gauge-marking
labels and paint pens.
Now it is obvious to anyone
walking by, whether or not the
machine is operating in an
acceptable range.

Page
26

13

Visual Control

Page
27

Waste in
Operations

Page
28

14

Page
29

Common Techniques for

Reducing Setup Time

Page
30

15

Common Techniques for

Reducing Setup Time (cont.)

Page
31

Common Techniques for

Reducing Setup Time (cont.)

Page
32

16

Examples of Visual
Control

Page
33

Examples of Visual
Control (cont.)

Page
34

17

5S Scan

Seiri
(sort)

Goal

Keep only what you
need

Seiton
(set in order)

Seisou
(shine)

Seiketsu
(standardize)

Shisuke
(sustain)

A place for
everything and
everything in its
place

Cleaning, and
looking for ways to
keep clean and
organized

Maintaining and
monitoring the first
three categories

Sticking to the rules

Eliminate or Correct

Unneeded equipment, tools, furniture;
unneeded items on walls, bulletins; items
blocking aisles or stacked in corners;
unneeded inventory, supplies, parts; safety
hazards

Items not in their correct places; correct
places not obvious; aisles, workstations, &
equipment locations not indicated; items not
put away immediately after use

Floors, walls, stairs, equipment, & surfaces
not lines, clean; cleaning materials not easily
accessible; labels, signs broken or unclean;
other cleaning problems

Necessary information not visible; standards
not known; checklists missing; quantities and
limits not easily recognizable; items cant be
located within 30 seconds

Number of workers without 5S training;
number of daily 5S inspections not performed;
number of personal items not stored; number
of times job aids not available or up-to-date

Page
35

Japanese Five Ss / Westernised CAN-DO

Assets are operated at optimum efficiency because the signs of deterioration
and impending failure are noticed and acted upon. As seen before, to achieve
this, five principles are involved. The first and crucial steps is the application of
the five Ss, which are central to all the Japanese methods evolved since 1970s.
Japanese Five Ss

Westernised CAN-DO

Seiri:
sort through, sort out

Arrangement

Seiton:
Set limits in locations

Neatness

Seiso:
Shine, clean workplace and equipment

Cleaning

Seiketsu :
Standardise, share data and standards

Order

Shitsuke:
Sustain, stick to the rules

Discipline
( For ease referred to as CAN-DO )

Page
36

18

Antes

Despues
Page
37

Antes

Before

Despues

After
Page
38

19

Making Monitoring Easier

Page
39

Making Monitoring Easier

Page
40

20

Making Inspection Easier

Antes

Despues
Page
41

Antes

Despues
Page
42

21

Bring equipment back to new or

better-then-new condition

A more reliable compressor operation resulted

in the idling of the backup compressor saving
$35K/year in electrical expense.
Page
43

Antes

Despues
Page
44

22

Ask WHY 5 Times (or more!)

- Why has the machine stopped?
- Overload tripped out!
- Why overload trip?
- Insufficient oil on shaft!
- Why insufficient oil?
- Oil pump was inefficient!
- Why was pump inefficient?
- Oil filter was blocked with debris!
- Why was the oil filter blocked?
- Oil filter wasnt changed in time!
- Why wasn't the oil filter changed in time?
- No process established to change!
Page
45

TPM Improvement plan Problem Prevention Cycle

( 5 whys looked at later )

Example of the Problem solving cascade used to find the poor asset care
Page
46

23

Summary of The TPM Process

Correct to perfect

Detect to correct

Inspect to detect

Clean to inspect
Page
47

Autonomous Maintenance in a nutshell

Clean
Inspect
Detect
THE MOTTO IS.
Clean to Inspect
Inspect to Detect
Detect to Correct
Correct to
Perfect ! !

Correct

Perfect

Page
48

24

Tools

Page
49

Results of Successful TPM

Implementation

Ford, Eastman Kodak, Dana Corp., Allen Bradley, Harley Davidson;

these are just a few of the companies that have implemented TPM
successfully.
All report an increase in productivity using TPM. Kodak reported that a
$5 million investment resulted in a $16 million increase in profits which
could be traced and directly contributed to implementing a TPM
program.
One appliance manufacturer reported the time required for die changes
on a forming press went from several hours down to twenty minutes!
This is the same as having two or three additional million dollar
machines available for use on a daily basis without having to buy or
lease them.
Almost all the above named companies reported 50% or greater
reduction in down time, reduced spare parts inventory, and increased
on-time deliveries.
The need for out-sourcing part or all of a product line was greatly
reduced in many cases.

Page
50

25

Difficulty with TPM

Managers tend to focus on early results rather than
activities aimed at reducing losses in the long run [AlNajar, 96].
Improving personnel and changing the corporate
culture is easily said than achieved.
The traditional cultural division between operator and
maintenance, you bend it, we mend it, must be
altered by mutual consent.
Continuous improvement means data analysis. Often
data are collected but no analysed. There is a need
to find a less time consuming method that is also
precise.
Page
51

Difficulty with TPM

Any TPM programme is supposed to go through four
stages: self-development, improvement activities,
problem solving and autonomous maintenance.
However, it seems that most groups do not transit
from stage 2 to stage 3. They die before they are
really grown up.
An analogy of adopting TQM and TPM is of having a
good brain and strong muscles. It seems, however,
that a nerve system (data and decision analysis), is
missing in this analogy.

Page
52

26

Difficulty with TPM

The trend in recent maintenance literature seems to emphasise on the

cultural difference between the Japanese culture and the Western.
It has been pointed out by [Hartmann, 1992] the impact of the cultural
differences between the Japanese and the West, stressing the
Japanese affinity for small groups and consensus decisions.
Also, [Willmott, 1992] confirms this and emphasises that the work ethic
is very strong in Japan, coming before self and family.
In addition, [Kelly and Harris, 1993] identify uses and limits of TPM, and
conclude that TPM succeeds not because of its systems or engineering
techniques but because of its attention to the management of human
factors.
It is clear that there is a need for a revised, 'appropriate', approach
regarding TPM. This approach should be dynamic, practical, focused,
adaptable, and integrated with other functions of the organisation.

Page
53

TPM in a nutshell
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is human based
technique in which maintainability is emphasised.
TPM is a tried and tested way of cutting waste, saving
money, and making factories better places to work.
TPM gives operators the knowledge and confidence to
manage their own machines. Instead of waiting for a
breakdown, then calling the maintenance engineer, they
deal directly with small problems, before they become big
ones.
Operators investigate and then eliminate the root causes
of machine errors. Also, they work in small teams to
achieve continuous improvements to the production lines.
Techniques allied to TPM: Overall Equipment
Effectiveness, Ask Why 5 Times.

Pioneering industry: Car Manufacturing (TPS).

For more details on TPM see Nakajima (1988), Hartmann
(1992), and Willmott (1994).
Page
54

27

Page
55

SLU/TPM techniques
1.
2.
3.

Ask why 5 times.

The OEE.
Cases from Industry:
a.
b.
c.

4.

Making monitoring easier.

The visual factory.
Examples of waste.

Cases from the Japanese:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

16:52 min

Generation of new ideas.

Moving target.
A learning company.
Strong communication, decision making, generation of
alternatives.
Relationship between managers and workers.
Understanding customer needs.
Relationship and investment in suppliers and sub-contractors.
Page
56

28

Flow of Goods, Services and Information

between Businesses in the Supply Chain
Second Tier First Tier
Suppliers
Suppliers

Distributors

Customers
Retailers

Business
Operations
Upstream Supply Chain

Downstream Supply Chain

Page
57

Traditional Supply Chain

Management Thinking Versus
New

Traditional Supply Chain

Management
Price emphasis for supplier
selection.

New Supply Chain

Management Partnership

Multiple criteria for supplier

selection.

Short-term contract for suppliers. Long-term alliances wit supplier.

Tender or bid evaluation.

Intensive evaluation of supplier

value-added.

Large supplier base.

Few suppliers.

Propriety information.

Shared information.

Power driven problem solving.

Mutual problem solving

improvement.

Individual success.

Success sharing.

Ref: (Benton and Maloni, 2005)

Page
58

29

Comparison of European and Japanese

Development Lead times for the
Automotive Industry
Calendar Months

70

60

Development lead time - Europe

50

63

40

30

20

Launch

10

50 Concept study
58
55

41 Product planning
41 Advanced engineering

Product engineering 42

19

Process engineering 37

10
Pilot run 10

Development lead time - Japan

43

34 Concept study
38
42

29 Product planning
27 Advanced engineering

Product engineering 30

Japanese companies
could develop and
introduce a new car to
market in 43 months
against 63 months in
Europe.

Process engineering 28

6
Pilot run 7

Page
59

Trust In Supply Chain

A study of product development in automobile manufacturing revealed that

Japanese firms prepare an engineering design for only 30 percent of their
parts (suppliers do the rest), whereas American firms design 81 percent of
their component parts.
In the traditional design process, U.S. manufacturers determine component
design in detail, down to the fraction of an inch, including the specific
material to be used. Detailed engineering drawings are made, and only
then are suppliers called in to submit their bids. Japanese manufacturers,
on the other hand, provide general performance specifications to their
component suppliers, such as these:
Design a set of brakes that can stop a 2,200-pound car from 60 miles per hour
in 200 feet ten times in succession without fading. The brakes should fit into a
space 6 inches x 8 inches x 10 inches at the end of each axle and be delivered
to the assembly plant for $40 a set.2

The supplier is asked to prepare a prototype for testing. Detailed decisions

are left up to the supplier, as a member of the design team who is the
expert in that area. This approach saves considerable development time
and resources.

Page
60

30

Further Readings /
References

Nakajima, S., Total Productive Maintenance,

Productivity Press, 1988.
Al-Najar, Total Quality Maintenance, Journal of
Quality in maintenance Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 3,
1996.
Hartmann, E. H., "Successfully Installing TPM in a
Non-Japanese Plant", TPM Press, Inc., New York,
1992.
Kelly, Anthony and Harris, John, "Uses and limits of
total productive maintenance ", Professional
Engineering, vol. 6 no. 1, 1993, pp 9-11.
Willmott, Peter, "Total Productive Maintenance. The
Western Way", Butterworth - Heinemann Ltd., 1994.
Page
61

Thank You..Any Questions?

Page
62

31

PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

Page 1

Interpreting Reliability and

Maintenance Results
(Introduction to Reliability)

Page 2

Asset Management

Reliability

Maintenance

CMMS
RCM

CBM

FMEA

TPM

FTA

OEE

Page 3

What is Reliability ?
One of the quality characteristics that
consumers
require
from
the
manufacturer of products is reliability.
But what is reliability ?
Example of starting your car.

Importance of reliability:
Examples of failure and success cases.

Page 4

Definition of Reliability
Reliability is the probability that a
product or service will operate properly
for a specified period of time(design life)
under the design operating conditions
(such as temperature or volt) without
failure.
{Elsayed, 1996}

In other words, reliability may be defined as a

measure of the systems success in providing
its function properly.
Page 5

Selected Definitions

Reliability: ..
Redundancy: ..
Failure: ..
Maintainability:
Availability:..

Page 6

Selected Definitions

Reliability: The ability of an item to perform a required function

under stated conditions for a stated period of time (BS 4778).
Redundancy: The existence of more than one means of
accomplishing a given function. Each means of accomplishing
the function need not necessarily be identical (MIL-STD-721B).
Failure: The termination of the ability of an item to perform a
required function (BS 4778).
Maintainability: The ability of an item, under stated conditions of
use, to be retained in, or restored to, a state in which it can
perform its required functions, when maintenance is performed
under stated conditions and using prescribed procedures and
resources (BS 4778).
Availability: The ability of an item (under combined aspects of its
reliability, maintainability and maintenance support) to perform
its required function at a stated instant of time or over a stated
period of time (BS 4778).
Page 7

CEN EN 13306, Maintenance Terminology

Maintenance Terminology

Item related terms

Properties of items
Failures and events
Faults and states
Maintenance types and strategies
Maintenance activities
Time related terms
Maintenance support and tools
Economical and technical indicators
Page 8

Maintenance Terminology
Basic terms

Maintenance
Improvement
Modification
Failure
Fault
Availability
Reliability
Maintainability
Supportability

Preventive Maintenance
Corrective Maintenance
Predetermined Maintenance
Condition Based Maintenance
Immediate Corrective
Maintenance
Deferred Corrective
Maintenance
Cost Efficiency
Productivity
Asset Management
Page 9

Maintenance Terminology
Maintenance
Combination of all technical, administrative and managerial actions
during the life cycle of an item intended to retain it in, or restore it
to, a state in which it can perform the required function.
NOTE: See also the definition of improvement and modification.

Improvement
Combination of all technical, administrative and managerial actions,
intended to ameliorate the dependability of an item, without changing
its required function.

Page
10

Maintenance Terminology
Modification
Combination of all technical, administrative and managerial actions
intended to change the function of an item.
NOTE 1: Modification does not mean replacement by an equivalent item.
NOTE 2: Modification is not a maintenance action but has to do with changing
the required function of an item to a new required function.
The changes may have an influence on the dependability or on the
performance of the item or both.
NOTE 3: Modification may be allocated to the maintenance organization.

Page
11

Maintenance Terminology
Failure
Termination of the ability of an item to perform a required function.
NOTE 1: After a failure the item has a fault, which may be complete or partial.
NOTE 2: Failure is an event, as distinguished from fault, which is a state.

Fault
State of an item characterised by inability to perform a required
function, excluding the inability during preventive maintenance
or other planned actions, or due to lack of external resources.
Failure
Up state
Down state
Fault

Page
12

Summary: The Definition of

RELIABILITY
Reliability determines to what degree a
system/plant is able to achieve the intended
performance in spite of errors, disturbances and
limited maintenance resources
The variable used for
measuring reliability is
Availability (A)

Page
13

The relationship between the

CONCEPTS of RELIABILITY
RELIABILITY
Measure:
Availability,
A

Functional
reliability
measure:
MTBF

Influence the technical

system, the plant
or the machine

Maintainabilty
measure:

Supportability
measure:

MTTR

MWT

Influence the
maintenance
system
Page
14

Maintenance Terminology
Availability
performance
The goal for the
maintenance
activities

Seldom
a down state
of the item

Simple and fast

maintenance
activities

The right resources,

at the right place,
at the right time

Reliability

Maintainability

Maintenance
Supportability

The technical
system

The maintenance
system

Page
15

The relationship between

the CONCEPTS of RELIABILITY
Available time for production
T
Mean
Down time
MDT

Mean Time Bet. Failure

MTBF

Mean
Waiting Mean
Time Time To
Repair
MWT

MTTR

Page
16

The item is
available for use
Seldom
a down state
of the item

The right resources

at the right place
at the right time

Simple and fast

maintenance
activities

Availability

Reliability

Maintainability

Supportability

Page
17

Availability

What has the

biggest influence
upon the result?
Reliability

Maintainability

Supportability

Design

70 %

70 %

10 %

Production

20 %

10 %

20 %

Maintenance

10 %

20 %

70 %

Copyright Jan Frnlund 2007

Page
18

The relationship between

the CONCEPTS of RELIABILITY
MTBF

MWT

MTTR

Varies due to:

# Condition
monitoring.
# The design.
# Redundancy.
# Choice of
equipment or
components.

Varies due to:

# Organisation.
# The information
systems.
# Routines.
# Education.
# Training.

Varies due to:

# Accessibility.
# Built in test.
# Fault indication.
# Staffs knowledge.
# Staffs motivation.

Page
19

Maintenance Terminology
Availability performance
Ability of an item to be in a state to perform a required function
under given conditions at a given instant of time or during a given
time interval, assuming that the required external resources are
provided.
NOTE 1: This ability depends on the combined aspects of the reliability, the
maintainability and the maintenance supportability.
NOTE 2: Required external resources, other than maintenance resources,
do not affect the availability of the item.

Reliability
Ability of an item to perform a required function under given
conditions for a given time interval.
NOTE: The term reliability is also used as a measure of reliability
performance and may also be defined as probability.

Page
20

10

Maintenance Terminology
Maintainability
Ability of an item under given conditions of use, to be retained in,
or restored to, a state in which it can perform a required function,
when maintenance is performed under given conditions and using
stated procedures and resources.
NOTE: The term maintainability is also used as a measure of maintainability
performance.

Maintenance Supportability
Ability of a maintenance organization of having the right
maintenance support at the necessary place to perform the
required maintenance Activity at a given instant of time or
during a given time interval.

Page
21

Maintenance Terminology
MTTF
Up state
MTW

MTTR

Down state
Total time interval
Aa = MTTF / (MTTF + MTW + MTTR)
Aa = Achieved Availability

MTTF = Mean Time To Failure

MTW = Mean Time Waiting

MTTR = Mean Time To Repair

NOTE: This formula is only taking into account faults and corrective maintenance.

Page
22

11

Maintenance Terminology
MTTM
Up state
MTW

Down state
Total time interval
Ao = MTTM / (MTTM + MTW + M)
Ao = Operational Availability

MTW = Mean Time Waiting

MTTM = Mean Time To Maintenance (Preventive and corrective)

M = Mean Maintenance Time (Time for preventive and corrective maintenance actions)
NOTE: In the calculation of the Ao, only those maintenance actions which will cause
stoppage time for the operational use of the technical system will be included.

Page
23

Maintenance Terminology
MAINTENANCE

Preventive Maintenance

Condition Based
Maintenance

Predetermined
Maintenance

Scheduled,
continuous
or on request

Scheduled

Corrective Maintenance

Deferred

Immediate

Page
24

12

Maintenance Terminology
Preventive Maintenance (PM)
Maintenance carried out at predetermined intervals or according
to prescribed criteria and intended to reduce the probability of
failure or the degradation of the functioning of an item.

Condition Based Maintenance (CBM)

Preventive maintenance based upon performance and/or
parameter monitoring and the subsequent actions.
NOTE: Performance and parameter monitoring may be scheduled, on
request or continuous.

Predetermined Maintenance (PDM)

Preventive maintenance carried out in accordance with
established intervals of time or number of units of use but
without previous condition investigation.
Page
25

Maintenance Terminology
Corrective Maintenance (CM)
Maintenance carried out after fault recognition and intended to
put an item into a state in which it can perform a required
function.

Deferred Maintenance (DM)

Corrective maintenance which is not immediately carried out
after a fault detection but is delayed in accordance with given
maintenance rules.

Immediate Maintenance (IM)

Maintenance which is carried out without delay after a fault has
been detected to avoid unacceptable consequences.

Page
26

13

Maintenance Terminology
COSTS

COST EFFICIENCY

Direct costs
Indirect costs
External costs

RESULTS
COSTS

ACTIVITIES

RESULTS

EFFECT

Preventive maint.
Corrective maint.
Reinvestments

Few functional disturb.

Few failures
The state of the assets

AVAILABILITY
MIN. DISTURBANCES
QUALITY

RESOURCES
Direct hours
Indirect hours
Use of technical
resources

PRODUCTIVITY
RESULTS
USED
RESOURCES
Page
27

Maintenance Terminology
Company Management,
Designers
&
Project managers

Production
Management

Maintenance
Management

Right
Capacity

Right
Production

Right
Maintenance

Asset
Management

Right
Logistics

Logistics
Management
Page
28

14

Maintenance Terminology
For further information:
The European standard

CEN EN 13306, Maintenance Terminology

Page
29

Actions to Improve Reliability

From Design Stage

Factors of safety.
Leads to the compounding of many different safety factors.
Compensate for uncertainty.
Lead to over design(increased weight and cost).

Redundancy.
Compensate for uncertainty.
Lead to over design(increased weight and cost).

Extensive testing.
Significant increase in expenditure.
Can lead to product launch delays.
Test environment may be an inadequate simulation of the operating
environment.

Page
30

15

Conventional Reliability
Prediction Requires Data..But
A substantial number of failures need to
have already occurred for the system to
be assessed.
There is a need for reliability data at
parts level, of which there appears too
little.
Existing data sources are often not
relevant to new product designs
because of the evolution in materials
and manufacturing technology.

Page
31

Hazard function
The hazard

rate is also referred to as the instantaneous failure rate.

The hazard rate expression is of greatest importance to
practitioners.
The expression can be useful in estimating: The time to failure (or time between failures).
Repair crew size for a given repair policy.
Availability of the system.
Warranty cost.
The behaviour of the systems failure with time.
The hazard rate is a function of time.
What type of function does the hazard rate exhibit with time?
The general answer to this question is the bathtub-shaped function.
Page
32

16

Page
33

Hazard rate, h(t)

The general failure curve

Start-up
failure
period

Chance
failure
period

Wear-out
failure
period

Time

Category
Cause
Countermeasure

Start-up
failure
Design/
manufacturing
errors
Trial runs at
acceptance and
start-up control

Chance
failure
Operational
errors
Proper
operation

Wear-out
failure
Wear-out

Preventive and
maintainability
improvement

Maintenance prevention
{Robinson, 1991}
Page
34

17

Page
35

Effect of
QC and
Rel.
Program

Ref: [Sherwin, 1993]

Hazard rate, h(t)

Effect of QC training, PM intensity and PM

depth on bathtub curves

Start-up
failure
period

Effect of
Training

Chance
failure
period

Wear-out
failure
period

Effect of
PM Depth
Effect of
PM Intensity

Time
Page
36

18

 WEIBULL, EH Waloddi 1887-1979

Page
37

Beta < 0.9

Early Life Failure

Beta ~ 1
Random Failure

Beta > 2
Wear-Out Failure
Page
38

19

Weibull Method (from Video)

Few failures are needed.

Simple data is needed time to failure.
Can be computerised.
Failures do not need to be available for
examination.

Page
45

Cases (from Video)

Failure of Glandless Pumps.
Failure of Compressor Bearings.
Failure of Gearbox Rolling Element
Bearings.

Page
46

20

106 C
Design( L10 )hrs =

60 N P

Where:
N = speed.
P = load.
C = bearing load capacity.
X = bearing factor.
NB. In process industry L10 life is sometimes
selected to be 40,000 hours (about 4 years).
Page
47

Thank You..Any Questions?

Page
48

21

PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

Page 1

Failure Mode &

Effect Analysis
(FMEA)

Page 2

RCM Techniques
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

RPN
Iso critical curves.
FMEA.
FTA.
RBD
RCM.

Page 3

FMEA
(Failure Mode and Effect
Analysis)

Page 4

The three tasks of failure prevention and recovery

Failure detection
and analysis
Finding out what is
going wrong and why

Improving
system reliability

Recovery

Stopping things going

wrong

Coping when things do

go wrong

Page 5

Introduction
FMEA was developed in the 1950s, and was
one of the first systematic methods used to
analyse failures in technical systems.
The method appeared under different names.
Nowadays, a requirement that an FMEA be
included as part of the design process, and
that the results from the analysis be part of
the system documentation.

Page 6

FMEA: Definition
An engineering technique used to define, identify,
and eliminate known and/or potential failures,
problems, errors, and so on from the system, design,
process, and/or service before they reach the
customer.
[ASQC 1983]

simple analysis method to reveal possible failures

and to predict the failure effects on the system as a
whole.

[Aven, 1992]
N.B. Only one component is considered at a time, the other
components are then assumed to function perfectly. FMEA is
therefore not suitable for revealing critical combinations of
component failures.
Page 7

FMEA: General Idea

The FMEA provides a systematic method of
examining all the ways in which a failure can
occur.
For each failure, an estimate is made of its
effect on :

the total system, and design,

its seriousness,
its occurrences (frequency), and
its detection.
Page 8

Example: Gas Turbine

Page 9

Example of Equipment
Hierarchy

Source:
BS ISO 14224:1999

Page
10

Ref: http://www.mrginc.net/FMEA.html

The figure above details a sample FMEA for a single functional failure for the
class/subclass of pump/centrifugal: the pump fails to fulfill its function because it
pumps less than the required flow rate. The figure depicts multiple entries at each
level of the hierarchy, indicating that there are multiple classes, that may have
multiple subclasses, that may have multiple functions, etc.

Page
11

Performing FMEA (II)

A good FMEA: Identifies known and potential failure modes.
Identifies the cause and effect of each failure
mode and, provides for problem follow-up
and corrective action.
Prioritises the identified failure modes
according to the risk priority number (RPN),
where:
RPN = occurrence freq. x severity x detection.
Page
12

Risk priority Number (RPN)

The RPN defines the priority of the
failure.
This number is the product of severity,
occurrence, and detection.
RPNs have no units, they are only used
to rank (define) the potential design
deficiencies.
The objective of FMEA is to reduce the
RPN.
Page
13

Failure Modes Effects Analysis

Normal
Operation

Failure

Probability
of failure

Severity of
consequence

Degree of
severity

Effect on
customer

Likelihood
of detection

Risk priority number

Page
14

Failure Modes Effects Analysis and Risk

Management
Mitigation

Prevention

Normal
Operation

Severity of
consequence

Failure

Probability of
failure

Recovery

Degree of
severity

Effect on
customer

Likelihood of
detection

Risk priority number

Page
15

Ref: MIL-STD-1629A

Increasing failure mode occurrence probability

A Criticality Matrix
A
B
ng
asi
e
r
Inc

l
tica
cri

ity

Iso-criticality
curve

C
Minor

Marginal

Critical

Catastrophic

Increasing failure severity

Page
16

Ref.MIL-STD-1629A

Increasing failure mode occurrence probability

A CRITICALITY MATRIX

In

Minor

a
cre

g
sin

Marginal

ty
ali
itic
r
C

Critical

Catastrophic

Increasing failure severity

Page
17

Other Tools Related to

FMEA

Fault Tree Analysis.

Block Diagrams or Logic Diagrams.
Failure Mode Analysis.
Quality Function Deployment.

Page
18

IV. Fault Tree Analysis (FTA):

Introduction

The FTA was originally developed by Bell telephone

laboratories in 1962. The Boeing company further
developed the technique during the 1970s. Since
then, it became widely spread.
A fault tree is a logical diagram which shows the
relation between system failure, i.e. a specific
undesirable event in the system as well as failures of
the components of the system.
The undesirable event constitutes the top event of
the tree and the different component failures
constitute the basic event of the tree. For example,
for a production process the top event might be that
the process stops, and one basic event is that a
certain motor fails.
Page
19

Fault Tree Analysis (FTA): Symbols

Logical symbols
Or gate

E2

E1

Basic (input) events

A basic fault event that requires
no further development. It is
independent of other events.

And gate A
E2

E1

It is dependent upon lower

events, but not developed
downwards.

The AND-gate indicates that the output event occurs only if all the input faults occur at
the same time. There may be any number of input faults to an AND-gate.
The OR-gate indicates that the output event occurs only if one or more of the input
events occur. There may be any number of input events to an OR-gate.
Page
20

10

Fault Tree Analysis (FTA):

connection to Reliability
Reliability block diagram
1

Fault tree
Top

Series structure
1

Top
2
3

Parallel structure

Page
21

FTA
RBD

Page
22

11

Construction of the Fault Tree

The construction of the Fault Tree always starts from the TOP
event.
Those fault events that are the immediate, necessary, and
sufficient causes should be carefully identified and connected to
the TOP event through a logic gate.
The first level of causes under the TOP event is often referred to
as the TOP structure of the fault tree.
Then, the construction of the Fault Tree can be preceded level
by level, until all fault events have been developed to the
prescribed level of resolution.
This deductive analysis method is carried out by repeatedly
asking What are the reasons for this event?

Page
23

Example: Three valves system

Here is a system with three valves, T1, T2, and T3.

Valve T1 and T2 are connected in parallel.
Valve T3 is connected in series with paralleled system.
These valves are normally open to transmit flow from A to B.
A failure might happen when the valve might be erroneously
closed or a fault occurs that the valve has to be closed.

Page
25

12

Example: Three valves system

The TOP event for this system
can be: No flow is transmitting
from the A to B.
A fault tree does not show the
causes of all failures or accidents
in a system.
It only illustrates the causes of a
specified failure or accident, the
TOP event.
The construction of fault tree
also depends on the personal
opinion of the analyst.
Different analyst, in most cases,
might construct different fault
trees.
Page
26

Example: A Simple FTA for an Aircraft Internal

Combustion Engine
Engine will not
start

O1
Fuel flow
failure

Carburettor
failure

O2
Fuel pump
Failure
1

Ignition
failure

A1

O3

Blocked
Filter
2

Ignition
System
2

Ignition
System
1
Blocked
Jet
3

Faulty
Adjustment
4

L.T.
Failure
5

O4

O5
H.T.
Failure
6

L.T.
Failure
7

H.T.
Failure
8Page
27

13

Reliability Block Diagram of Engine

Ignition system 1
LT

Fuel
pump

Fuel
filter

Fuel supply system

Jet

HT

Other
components

Carburettor
Ignition system 2
LT

HT

Page
28

Example: Storage Tank

The figure shows an open container for preliminary storage of

fluid for use in the production process.The consumption of fluid
is not constant.
Filling the tank is automatically controlled and can be described
as follows:
When the the liquid level reaches a certain height - normal level,
then the Level Switch High (LSH) will be activated and send a
closure signal to the valve v1.The fluid supply to the tank then
stops.
If this mechanism does not function and the liquid level continues to
increase to abnormal level, then the Level Switch High High
(LSHH) will be activated and send a closure signal to valve V2. The
fluid supply to the tank then stops. At the same time the LSHH send
an opening signal to valve V3 so that the fluid is drained.
Page
29

14

Example: Storage Tank

- LSH: Level Switch High.

- LSHH: Level Switch High
High.

From
source

LSH

V2

LSHH

V1

Tank

To
consumer

V3

Drain
Page
30

Example: Storage Tank

Over-filling
of tank

Fault Tree
V1 does not
close

V1 does not
function

No signal
from LSH
LSH doe not
send signal

Associated
reliability
diagram

V3 does not
open

V2 does not
close

V2 does not
function

No signal
from LSHH
LSHH doe not
send signal

V3 does not
function

No signal
from LSHH
LSHH doe not
send signal

Can you do it ?

Page
31

15

Fault-tree analysis for below-temperature

food being served to customers
Food served to
customer is below
temperature
Food
is cold

Plate
is cold

Plate warmer
malfunction
Plate taken
too early
from warmer

Oven
malfunction

Key
AND node
OR node

Cold plate
used

Timing error
by chef
Ingredients
not
defrosted

Page
33

Hidden
Reliability Block Diagram for below-temperature
food being served to customers

Plate warmer
malfunction

Plate taken
too early
from warmer

Cold plate
used

Oven
malfunction

Timing error
by chef

Ingredients
not
defrosted

Page
34

16

Hidden
Fault-tree analysis for below-temperature
food being served to customers
Food served to
customer is below
temperature
Food
is cold

Plate
is cold

Plate warmer
malfunction
Plate taken
too early
from warmer

Oven
malfunction

Key

Timing error
by chef

AND node
OR node

Ingredients
not
defrosted

Cold plate
used

Page
35

Hidden
Reliability Block Diagram for below-temperature
food being served to customers

Plate warmer
malfunction

Oven
malfunction

Plate taken
too early
from warmer

Timing error
by chef

Cold plate
used

Ingredients
not
defrosted

Page
36

17

Tutorial: Practical Example

A control system consists of an electrical power supply, a
standby battery supply which is activated by a sensor and
switch if the main supply fails, a hydraulic power pack, a
controller, and two actuators acting in parallel (i.e. control exists
if either or both actuators are functioning).
The separate components are as follows:
1. Main electrical supply.
2. Standby battery.
3. Sensor & switch.
4. Hydraulic supply.
5. Controller.
6,7. Actuator (2 off).
A. Draw the Fault Tree appropriate to the top event total loss of
actuator control.
B. Draw the system Reliability Block Diagram.
Page
37

Loss of actuator control

B. Fault Tree
OR

Controller
fail

Hydraulic
power

No Electrical
power

No Actuator

AND

No standby
power
OR
Standby
Battery
fail

Power
Supply
fail

AND

Actuator 1
fail

Actuator 2
fail

Sensor &
Switch
fail
Page
38

18

Reliability Block Diagram

(6)

(1)
Electrical
power

(2)

(3)

Standby
battery

Sensor &
switch

No electrical
power

Actuator 1

(4)

(5)

Hydraulic
power

Controller

(7)
Actuator 2

Hydraulic
power fail

No actuator

Controller fail

Page
39

Key

Turbine
AND node

Vibration

OR node

Bearing
Failure

Fatigue
Failure

Over

Salt

Speed

Deposition

Unreliable
Analyser

Loss of
Lubricant

Back
Pressure

Chemical
Over-dosage

High Steam
Flow

Page
40

19

Turbine
Vibration

Back
Pressure

Fatigue
Failure

Unreliable
Analyser

Loss of
Lubricant

Chemical
Over-dosage

High Steam
Flow

Page
41

Cement Mill

Cement
Out

Raw
Material
in

Reference:
Mr. Waleed Al Deraie - Kuwait
Page
42

20

Key

Mill
AND node

Failure

OR node

Power Out

High
Temperature

Electric

Main Source

Trip

Out

Bad
Quality

Bad material

Insufficient
water

Incorrect
ratio

Pump failure

Page
43

Mill
Failure

Bad
Quality

Power out
Insufficient
water

Electric
Trip

Bad
material

Main
Source Out

Incorrect
ratio

Pump
failure

High Temperature
Page
44

21

Page
45

Titanic The Unsinkable Ship That Sank

Page
46

22

Titanic Disaster
What Happened

The Ship Hit The Iceberg At Such High Speed That Caused
The Resulting Failure Of The Superstructure To Be
Catastrophic
The Iceberg Caused A Rip To The Hull Of The Ship And
Damaged 5 Of 16 Watertight Compartments
Titanic Sank After 2 Hours And 40 Minutes After The Crash
On Board Was 2,228 Between Passengers And Crew

Page
47

Titanic Disaster
Technical Failure

Wrong Decisions Made (Human Factor)

Low Visibility Condition (Lack Of Technology And
Equipment)
Material Weakness / Metal Failure (Technology
Not Available For Quality Control And Testing)
Inefficient Evacuation Procedure And Insufficient
Life Boats (The Life Boats Capacity Was Only
1.178 People)
Too Much Belief On The Unsinkable Ship
Page
48

23

Titanic Disaster
Consequences And Severity

Human Loss 1,300 People

Loss Of Ship $7.5m
Reputation Of White Star Line
Massive Insurance Premium Increase

Page
49

Titanic Disaster
Analysis

Human Wrong Decisions Made

Lack Of Technology And Equipment- Limited
Resources. But What Was Available Was
Insufficient For Detection Of Iceberg
Poor Design Manufacturing Process And
Materials Used. Material Weakness / Metal Failure
(Technology Not Available For Quality Control And
Testing)
Poor Safety Factor And Procedures If Major
Failure Occurred (Insufficient Of Life Boats)
Lack Of FMECA Study And Criticality Of Failure
Poor Design Against Impact Damage
Page
50

24

Titanic Disaster
Improvements

Human Adherence To Safety Procedures.

Concurrence Of Decisions Made. Train The People
Use of Technology And Equipment Available - Real
Time Observation And Safe Running Speed
Poor Design. Re-design Ship To Remain Afloat After
Major Impact. Review Best Available Technologies.
Re-design Ship Superstructure Concurrent
Engineering Methodology Should Be Applied
Multiple Criteria For Re-design.

Page
51

Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) for the Titanic Disaster

Titanic's
Disaster

AND = Parallel
OR = Series
AND
Inefficient
passenger
evacuation

Iceberg
Collision

OR
Insufficient
life boats

Not
enough
time

Collapsed
structure

OR
Lack of
emegency
procedure

Poor
visiblility

OR
High
speed

Innapropiate
manufacturing
process

Innapropirate
material

AND
Bad
outlook

No
binoculars

AND
Lack of
quality
control

Lack of
material
testing

Page
52

25

Reliability Block Diagram (RBD) for the Titanic Disaster

AND = Parallel
OR = Series

Bad outlook
High speed
No binoculars
Poor visibility

Insufficient
life boats

Iceberg collision

No enough
time

Lack of
emergency
procedure

Insufficient passengers evacuation

Lack of Quality
Control

Inappropriate
manufacturing
process
Inappropriate
material

Lack of Material
Testing

Collapsed structure
Page
53

How Designers Learn from Failures? Why

Systems Fail?

Inter City Express Train Derails near

Eschede, Germany causing a Disaster

Page
54

26

Background: What caused the disaster?

On the morning of June 1998, an Inter City Express
(ICE) train, consisted of a single locomotive pulling
12 cars, including passenger coaches slammed into
an overpass, killing 101 people out of the 287 who
were on board at the time of the accident. The failure
was traced back to a damaged wheel that
disintegrated just before the train passed over a
track-switch, causing cars to derail and impact the
bridges supports. Further investigation uncovered
evidence of misuse of heritage wheel design,
insufficient design verification testing, poor bridge
construction and ineffective emergency procedures.
Wheel Tire Failure

Page
55

Technical causes of failure (design perspective)

1.

2.

3.

4.
5.

Poor Design: The design of the rubber cushioned wheels, which

were not suitable for the heavy load of the ICE trains, and the
inadequate testing of such design.
Poor Maintenance System: Lack of ultra sound crack inspection
inside of wheel rim lead to failure, and wheels were over worn which
should have been replaced.
Bridge Design: The construction of the overpass bridge near to the
switch (an inherent hazard for high speed trains), and the design of
the bridge supports also contributed to the severity of the disaster.
Track Switch Location: The location of the switch which ultimately
derailed the train.
Operational Inadequacy: Failing to respond effectively by the train
manager, due to the pressure which was imposed by his company to
investigate any incident himself before stopping the train, which also
could have prevented the whole disaster.

Page
56

27

Consequences of failure

The most significant consequence of the failure is the 101 fatality

and 88 injury which were reported out of 287 passenger who were
on board, and could have been higher if the train was running at its
full capacity of 651 passenger.

All ICE operations were abandoned until the full scale investigation
was completed, which has caused a major disruption of the railway
transportation system in Germany, and companies going out of
business.

All trains with wheel-tire design were discontinued and was replaced
by the original mono-block wheel design.

The entire German railway network was checked for similar

arrangements of switches close to possible obstacles.

A manslaughter case was raised against two transportation officials

and an engineer. However, the case was later dismissed.

Page
57

Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) of the

Disaster
Indirect causes

Wheel De-lamination

Absence of
recommended
CBM for wheel
distortion

Inefficient emergency
procedure

Design

Maintenance

Stoppage of
Ultra-Sonic
testing

Wheel size,
acceptable
limit change

No testing

Design did not

match
application

Staff

Passengers

Infrastructure
adding to disaster

Track Switch

Bridge design /
location

Page
58

28

Reliability Block Diagram of the

Disaster
1

8
9

N.B: The number in the blocks is from the previous Fault Tree Diagram leafs.

Page
59

Uses of the Fault Finding Techniques:

Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) and Reliability Block
Diagrams (RBD)

Identification of safety and reliability of

critical failure modes and effects.
Preparation of diagnostic routines such as
flowcharts or fault-finding tables.
Preparation of preventive maintenance
requirements.
Design of built-in test (BIT), failure
indications and redundancy.
For retention as formal records (Knowledge
Base).
Page
61

29

Fault Finding Steps

Optimised
7. Implement then refine tactics.
Maintenance
Paralysis
programme 6. Decide on what should be done to by
prevent failures.

Analysis

5. Assess the effects and consequences

of the failures.
4. Identify the root causes of the failures.
3. Determine the ways it may fail.
2. Define equipment functions and performance
standards.

Operating
1. Select equipment to be reviewed.
Context
Page
62

Page
63

30

SUMMARY

FMEA definitions.
Severity.
Occurrence.
Detection.
Performing FMEA.

Levels of Failure
Modes.
Risk Priority umber
(RPN).

4 Types of FMEA.
Other Tools
Related
to FMEA.
Practical Example.
Page
64

Further Reading(s)
Stamatis, D.H., Failure Mode and
Effect Analysis, ASQC, 1995.
Aven, T., Reliability and Risk Analysis,
Elsevier, 1992.
OConnor, P.D., Practical Reliability
Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, 1990.

Page
65

31

Thank You..Any Questions?

Page
66

32

PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

Page 1

World Class Performance

(Decision Analysis In Asset Management)
Labib, A.W., A Decision Analysis Model for
Maintenance Policy Selection Using a CMMS, Journal of
Quality in Maintenance Engineering (JQME); MCB
Press; ISSN: 1355-2511; Vol 10, No 3, pp 191-202, 2004.
Labib, A.W.; World Class Maintenance Using a
Computerised Maintenance Management System;
Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering (JQME);
MCB Press; Vol 4, No 1.; pp 66-75; ISSN: 1355-2511;
April 1998.
Page 2

Some of the benefits that can result from the

application of computerised maintenance
management systems (CMMS) are:
Resource Control: Tighter control of resources
(maintenance personnel, spare parts, equipment,
etc).
Cost Management: Better cost management and
audibility.
Scheduling: Ability to schedule complex, fast moving,
workloads.
Integration: Integration with other business systems.
Reduction of Breakdowns: Improve reliability of
physical assets through the application of an effective
maintenance programme.
Page 3

BUT...
There exists some sort of black hole
Here is the proof

Page 4

1st proof

Data Collection, Data Analysis, Decision Analysis

Data Collection:

Time, effort and

money

Data Analysis:

Decision Analysis:

A Black Hole

50%

48%
(Simon et.al , 1992)
Page 5

2nd proof

Examples of Available C.M.M.S.s in the Market

Data
Collection

..........

..........

..........

Maximo/ SAP
DataStream

Data
Analysis
Real Time

Network
Decision
Analysis
Price Range

..........

1K+

A Black Hole
10 K +

30 K +

..........

40 K +

Page 6

CMMS
Features As A
Function Of Price
Case Study:
Intellectual
Asset
Management
The Next
Generation
Of
Computerize
d
Maintenance
Management
Systems
(CMMS),
Wayne Grant
Reed,
SKF
Reliability
Systems
4th Annual
World Class
Best
Practices in
Maintenance
22-23
September
2003
The Westin,
Kuala
Lumpur,
Malaysia

Feature
Data
Collectio
n
Data
Analysis

Price Range
$1.5K $15k+ $45k+ $65K
+
+
YES

YES

YES

YES

NO

YES

YES

YES

Real time

NO

NO

YES

Network

NO

NO

NO

YES

Decision
Support

NO

NO

NO

NO

YES

Source: Labib A W & Exton T, "Spare Parts Decision Analysis - The Missing Link In CMMS's (Part1)",
Maintenance & Asset Management Journal, Vol. 16 No. 3, 2001

Page 7

3rd proof

CMMS to aid Maintenance

Applications of CMMS Modules
Maintenance budgeting

A Black Hole

Predictive maintenance data analys is

Equipment failure diagnos is
Inventory control
Spare parts requirements planning
Material and s pare parts purchas ing
Manpower planning and s cheduling
Work-order planning and s cheduling
Equipment parts lis t
Equipment repair his tory
Preventative Maintenance planning
70

75

80

85

90

95

100

Percentage of system s incorporating m odule

Adapted from Swanson, L. (1997) Computerized Maintenance Management Systems: A study of system design and use
Production and Inventory Management Journal, Second Quarter pp. 11-14

Source: [Tim Exton, 2001]

Page 8

4th proof

CMMS Software
Implementation
> 20 users
< 6 users
Success.

A Black Hole

8% Success.
55%

Within the first 3 years of implementation

Source: The Institute of Asset Management (IAM)
(equivalent to UTEK in the UK)
Page 9

5th proof

The Use of CMMSs to Support TeamBased Maintenance

Dimitrios Boznos, MPhil Thesis, Cranfield University, 1998

The primary uses of CMMS appear to be as a storehouse for equipment

information, as well as a planned maintenance and a work maintenance
planning tools.
CMMS appears to be used less often as a device for analysis and co-ordination.
Existing CMMS in manufacturing plants are still far from being regarded as
successful in providing team based functions.
it is also worrying the fact that almost half of the companies are either in some
degree dissatisfied or neutral with their CMMS.
The responses indicated that manufacturing plants demand more user-friendly
systems.
There is also the indication that employees and teams have not taken ownership
of these systems, so as to believe in them and use them in their full potential.

A Black Hole
Page
10

6th proof

Critical Commentary.[Ref: Slack, 2004, pp 509] I

Far from being the magic ingredient which allows
operations to fully integrate all their information, ERP
is regarded by some as one of the most expensive
ways of getting zero or even negative return on
investment.
For example, the American chemicals giants, Dow
Chemical, spent almost half-a-billion dollars and
seven years implementing an ERP system which
became outdated almost as it was implemented.
One company, FoxMeyer Drug, claimed that the
expense and problems which it encountered in
implementing ERP eventually drove it to
bancruptcy
Page
11

6th proof

Critical Commentary.[Ref: Slack, 2004, pp 509] II

...One problem is that ERP implementation is
expensive. This is partly because of the need
to customise the system, understand its
implications for the organisation, and train
staff to use it.
Spending on what some call the ERP
ecosystem (consulting, hardware, networking
and complimentary applications) has been
estimated as being twice the spending on the
software itself.
But it is not only the expense which has
disillusioned many companies, it is also the
returns they have had for their investment
Page
12

6th proof

Critical Commentary.[Ref: Slack, 2004, pp 509] III

...Some studies show that the vast majority of
companies implementing ERP are
disappointed with the effect it has had on
their businesses.
Certainly many companies find that they have
to (sometimes fundamentally) change the
way they organise their operations in order to
fit in with ERP systems. This organisational
impact of ERP (which has been described as
the corporate equivalent of dental root-canal
work) can have a significantly disruptive effect
on the organisations operations.
Page
13

Evidence of Black Holes

Most existing on-the-shelf software packages, especially

Computerised Maintenance Management Systems (CMMSs)
and Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems, tend to be
black holes.
Companies consume a significant amount of management and
supervisory time compiling, interpreting and analysing the data
captured within the CMMS.
Companies then encounter difficulties analysing equipment
performance trends and their causes as a result of
inconsistency in the form of the data captured and the historical
nature of certain elements of it.
In short, companies tend to spend a vast amount of capital in
acquisition of of-the-shelf systems for data collection and their
added value to the business is questionable.
Page
14

An Industrial Case Study

Data

Decisions

A Black Box

Page
15

Breakd o w n T ren d s (h rs.)

12 00
10 00
8 00
6 00
4 00
2 00
0
Nov

Dec

Jan

F eb

M ar

A pr

M ay

Jun

Jul

A ug

S ep

Oct

Nov
Page
16

The Decision-Making
Grid (DMG)
Background: Acts as a map where the
performances of the worst machines are
placed based on multiple criteria.
Objective: To implement appropriate
actions that will lead to the movement of
machines towards an improved state
with respect to multiple criteria.

Page
17

Data Analysis for the DMG

Criteria: Downtime
Name
Machine [A]
Machine [B]
Machine [C]
Machine [D]
MEDIUM Machine [E]
Machine [F]
Machine [G]
LOW Machine [H]
Machine [I]
Machine [j]
Sum of Top 10
Sum of All
Percentage
HIGH

Frequency
Downtime
(hrs)
30
20
20
17
16
12
7
6
6
4
138
155
89%

Name

Frequency
(No. off)
Machine [G]
27
Machine [C]
16
HIGH
Machine [D]
12
Machine [A]
9
Machine [I]
8
Machine [E]
8
MEDIUM
Machine [k]
8
Machine [F]
4
Machine [B]
3
LOW
Machine [H]
2
Sum of Top 10
97
Sum of All
120
Percentage
81 %

Criteria Evaluation

Page
18

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Operate to Failure
(Favourable state)

Frequency

Low

O.T.F.

Medium

High
Page
19

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Frequency

Low

O.T.F.

Skill Levels Upgrade

Maintaining this machine is a
relatively easy task that can be
passed to operators after
upgrading their skill levels.

Medium

High S.L.U.
Page
20

10

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Frequency

Low

O.T.F.

C.B.M.

Condition Based Maintenance

A problematic machine, in maintenance words "a killer".
It does not breakdown frequently (low frequency), but
when it stops it is usually a big problem that lasts for a
long time (high downtime). In this case the appropriate
action to take is to analyse the breakdown events and
closely monitor its condition, i.e. condition base
monitoring (CBM).

Medium

High S.L.U.
Page
21

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Frequency

Low

O.T.F.

C.B.M.

Design Out Maintenance

One of the worst performing machines based on both
criteria. It is a machine that maintenance engineers are
used to seeing it not working rather than performing
normal operating duty. A machine of this category will
need to be structurally modified and major design out
projects need to be considered

Medium

High S.L.U.

D.O.M.
Page
22

11

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime

Fixed Time Maintenance

Low Medium High

where it is "easy" FTM because it is near to the OTF

region and it requires re-addressing issues regarding who
will perform the instruction

Frequency

Low

O.T.F.

C.B.M.

Medium F.T.M.
High S.L.U.

D.O.M.
Page
23

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime

Fixed Time Maintenance

Low Medium High

where it is "easy" FTM because it is near to the OTF

region and it requires re-addressing issues regarding
when will the instruction be implemented.

Frequency

Low

O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Medium F.T.M.
High S.L.U.

D.O.M.
Page
24

12

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Fixed Time Maintenance

The "difficult" FTM issues are the ones
related to the contents of the instruction
itself. It might be the case that the wrong
problem is being solved or the right one is
not being solved adequately.

Frequency

Low

O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Medium F.T.M.

F.T.M.

High S.L.U.

D.O.M.
Page
25

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Fixed Time Maintenance

The "difficult" FTM issues are the ones
related to the contents of the instruction
itself. It might be the case that the wrong
problem is being solved or the right one is
not being solved adequately.

Frequency

Low

O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Medium F.T.M.

F.T.M.

High S.L.U. F.T.M. D.O.M.

Page
26

13

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Frequency

Low

O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Medium F.T.M. F.T.M. F.T.M.

High S.L.U. F.T.M. D.O.M.
Page
27

D.
Out
C.
Condition
G.
Time
Maintenance
E.
Fixed
Time
H.
Fixed
Time
A.Fixed
Operate
F. Design
Fixed
toBased
Time
Failure
B.
Skill
Level (OTF)
Maintenance
(DOM)
(FTM)
Maintenance
(CBM)
Maintenance
Maintenance
(FTM)
(FTM)
Sustain
Maintenance
the
best
practice
(FTM)
Upgrade
(SLU)
One of theFTM
worst
The
A
problematic
"difficult"
machine,
issues
in
Easy:
When?
(Favourable
state).
Easy:
It
might
Who?
be
the
case
that
Maintaining
this
machines
are
theperforming
ones
related
to
the
maintenance
words
"a
It requires
machine
is reacriteria.
the
It requires
wrong
problem
re-addressing
is
based
on
both
contents
ofdoes
the instruction
killer".
It
not
addressing
issues
A
machine
this
relatively
easy
task
being
issues
solved
regarding
orof
the
who
right
itself.
breakdown
It
might
frequently
be
the
case
(low
category
will
need
to
regarding
when
will
that
can
bethe
passed
to
one
will
is
perform
not
being
solved
that
thebe
wrong
frequency),
butproblem
whenbe
itis
structurally
the
instruction
operators
after
adequately.
instruction.
being
stops solved
itupgrading
is usually
orand
the
amajor
right
big
modified
implemented
(How
their
skill
out
projects
one
problem
is design
not
that
being
lasts
solved
for
a long
often).
levels.
need to
be considered.
adequately.
time (high
downtime).
Downtime (or MTTR)

C.
CBM

B. U
SL

R&KT
DMG
Strategy

A. OTF

G. FTM
(How?)

TM )
. F t?
H ha
(W

E.
FTM
(Who?)
F
(W FT .
he M
n?
)

Frequency (or 1/MTBF)

D. M
DO

Design Maintenance Grid
Decision Making Grid

(DMG)

Low
Low

Medium

O.T.F. F.T.M.

C.B.M.

F.T.M.
(Who?)

F.T.M.
(How?)

(When?)

Medium

High

High S.L.U.

F.T.M.
(What?)

D.O.M.
Page
28

07

14

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Frequency

Low

O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Medium F.T.M. F.T.M. F.T.M.

High S.L.U. F.T.M. D.O.M.
Page
29

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Frequency

Low

O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Medium F.T.M. F.T.M. F.T.M.

High S.L.U. F.T.M. D.O.M.
Page
30

15

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Frequency

Low

O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Medium F.T.M. F.T.M. F.T.M.

High S.L.U. F.T.M. D.O.M.
Page
31

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Frequency

Low

O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Medium F.T.M. F.T.M. F.T.M.

High S.L.U. F.T.M. D.O.M.
Page
32

16

The DMG
As a
Continuous Improvement
Process.
Multiple Criteria Analysis.

Strategic / Operational Concept.

Generic Methodology.
Page
33

[A]

[B]

DMG as a continuous
improvement process

[C]

L
L
M
H

[A]
[B]
[C]

Page
34

17

Demonstration of the AHP

Analytic Hierarchy Process

Page
35

A typical AHP decision hierarchy

Primary objective

Criterion 1

Sub-criterion 1a

Sub-criterion 1b

Alternative A

Criterion 2

Sub-criterion 1c

Alternative B

Sub-criterion 2a

Sub-criterion 2b

Alternative C

Page
36

18

Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA)

Level 1: Criteria
Evaluation

Downtime

Frequency

Spare Parts

Bottlenecks

Level 2: Critical
Machines

System A

System C

System B

Level 3: Critical
Faults

Electrical
Level 4: Fault
Details

Mechanical

Motor Faults

Limit Faults

Hydraulic Pneumatic

No Power Faults

Proximity Faults

Panel Faults

Pressure Faults

Software
Switch Faults

Push Button Faults

Page
37

Downtime
Low

Medium

High

CBM

OTF

Medium
High

Frequency

Low

SLU: Skill Level Upgrade.

OTF : Operate To Failure .
CB M: Condition B ased Monitoring.
FTM: Fixed Time Maintenance.
DOM: Design Out Maintenance.

FTM
SLU

DMG: Strategic Grid

(overall map)

DOM

: Machine / System

Multiple Criteria

Fixed Rules
&
Flexible Strategies

Downtime Frequency Spare Parts Bottleneck

Electrical

Multiple Criteria:
Prioritised focused actions

Motor
faults

Mechanical

Panel
faults

Hydraulic

Switch
faults

Pneumatic

No power
faults

Dr. A.W. Labib, UMIST, 2002

Page
38

19

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Frequency

Low

?
O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Medium F.T.M. F.T.M. F.T.M.

?

High S.L.U. F.T.M. D.O.M.

Page
39

Background: Fuzzy Logic Control

The human brain can reason with uncertainties,
vagueness, and judgments.
Computers can only manipulate precise valuations.
Fuzzy logic is an attempt to combine the two
techniques.
C ris p In p u t
In p u t
M e m b e rs h ip
F u n c tio n s

F u z z ific a tio n
F u z z y In p u ts

R u le s

R u le E v a lu a tio n
F u z z y O u tp u ts

O u tp u t
M e m b e rs h ip
F u n c tio n s

D e f u z z if ic a t io n
C ris p O u tp u t

Membership Function
Fuzzy Process

Page
40

20

Membership Function of
Frequency

Medium

Low

High

1
0.75
0.4

10

20

30

40

50
Frequency
(No. of times)

12

Page
41

Membership Function of
Downtime

Medium

Low

High

1
0.7

0.2
0

100

200

300

400
380

500
Downtime
(hrs)

Page
42

21

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime
Low Medium High

Frequency

Low

O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Medium F.T.M. F.T.M. F.T.M.

High S.L.U. F.T.M. D.O.M.
Page
43

DOM
CBM
SLU
FTM
OTF
380
12

Page
44

22

DOM
CBM
SLU

FT M
380
12

OTF
Page
45

Basic Data
Requirements
Asset Register (Machine
identifier).
Counter of Faults (Frequency).
Timer of Faults (Down-time).
Level of Faults (Hierarchical).

Page
46

23

Decision A Black Box

Analysis
Process

Analytic
Hierarchy
Process

MRP / CMMS Systems

Maintenance Data:
- Machines
- Faults
- Spare Parts
Bottleneck Data:
- Speed
- Loading
- Quality

is
:
ve sh th
i
t
i
jec bl
Ob esta
To

k
lin

Decisions (actions)

Data

Proposed Model

Preventive
Maintenance
Instructions

Page
47

Characteristics of a model for the

way forward
Simplicity All of the greatest ideas are
simple in concept. If not kept simple, they are
not fully understood or remembered, and they
fail as guiding principles.
Intuitive Underlying principles should be
understood without guidance.
Utility The model should work consistently
in application.
Comprehensiveness All necessary
elements of success should be contained.

Page
48

24

Conclusion
The proposed model provides an
optimised identification of machines
characteristics based on multiple
criteria.
With the rule based approach one can
decide what actions should be carried
out to maintain the operation of the
machines in the most effective way.
The result is a flexible and effective
system in maintenance systems
domain.
Page
49

It is not the strongest of the

species that survives, nor the most
intelligent, but the one most
responsive to change.
Charles Darwin

Next
Generation
Maintenance
Systems will have to be responsive
to change.
Page
50

25

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime

QP
Group 1
- MPGs

Low Medium High

- UT
- Instr.

Low

O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Frequency

-Critical Machines

Medium F.T.M. F.T.M. F.T.M.

High S.L.U. F.T.M. D.O.M.
Page
51

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime

QP
Group 1

Low Medium High

Frequency

Low

O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Portable
H2O

UT

Condensate
Pump

Medium F.T.M. F.T.M. F.T.M.

Recycle
Pump

Turbo Expander

High S.L.U. F.T.M. D.O.M.

Instr.

MPG
Page
52

26

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

QP
Group 2
- WHJ
-Vessel
Separator

Low Medium High

Low

O.T.F. F.T.M. C.B.M.

Frequency

- Pumps

Downtime

- Compressors

Medium F.T.M. F.T.M. F.T.M.

High S.L.U. F.T.M. D.O.M.
Page
53

Decision-Making Grid
(DMG)

Downtime

QP
Group 2

Low Medium High

O.T.F. F.T.M.

Frequency

Low

C.B.M.
Compressor
KT 4201

Medium F.T.M. F.T.M. F.T.M.

High

S.L.U.
Pump
P-5376

F.T.M. D.O.M.
Page
54

27

Thank You..Any Questions?

Page
55

28

24/11/2008

PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

Day 4
OPTIMISING MAINTENANCE
ORGANISATION

Operations Excellence
Operations + Maintenance = Production
Can Operations Manage Maintenance?
A Driving Lesson for Operations and
Maintenance
Maintenance Management Legends
2

24/11/2008

OPTIMISING MAINTENANCE
ORGANISATION
(The Balanced Score Card
A Maintenance Perspective)

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this session you should be
able to answer the following questions:
What is BSC?
How to apply BSC?
What are the advantages and weaknesses of
BSC?

24/11/2008

Why?
The main challenge is that:
Executives want a balanced presentation of
measures that allow them to view the company
from several perspectives simultaneously.

What you measure is what you get.

No single measure can provide a clear
performance target or focus attention on the
critical areas of the business.
(Kaplan and Norton, 1992)
5

Why?
Income-based financial figures are lag indicators.
They are better at measuring the consequences of
yesterdays decisions than at indicating tomorrows
performance.
Managers are willing to play the earnings game.
For instance, investment in maintenance can be cut back to
boost the quarterly earnings.
The detrimental effect of the cut back will only show up as
increased operating cost in some future periods, by which
time the manager making the cut back decision may have
already been promoted because of the excellent earnings
performance.
In view of these deficiencies, customer oriented measures
such as response time, service commitments, and customer
satisfaction have been proposed to serve as lead indicators
of business success (Eccles, 1995).
6

24/11/2008

What is a Balanced Score Card?

1) A measurement system
2) A strategic management system
3) A communication tool

BSC as a Measurement System

Translates mission, vision and strategy through
objectives and measures

Provides a framework to describe the key
elements in the achievement of the strategy

Measures four perspectives
- Customer Relations
- Financial
- Internal Service Process
- Learning, Innovation and Growth
8

24/11/2008

The Balanced Scorecard

According to Kaplan & Norton
Harvard Business Review

Defined:
a set of measures that gives
top managers a fast but
comprehensive view of
the business

January-February 1992

Includes:
Financial Measures
Operational Measures
Customer Satisfaction
Internal Processes
Innovation and
Improvement
Activities
9

Balanced Scorecard
Methodology
The BSC is a structured approach to performance measurement and
performance management that links the organizations strategic thinking
to the activities necessary to achieve desired results
The BSC is a vehicle for communicating an organizations strategic
direction and for measuring achievements towards these predetermined
objectives
The BSC clearly establishes linkage between strategic objectives, the
measures for determining progress, the stretch targets established, and the
focused initiatives needed to move the organization forward to meet those
organizational goals

10

24/11/2008

The BSC Provides Answers to Four

Basic Questions
How do customers see us? (customer
perspective)
What must we excel at? (internal
perspective)
Can we continue to improve and create
value? (innovation and learning
perspective)
How do we look to shareholders? (financial
perspective)
11

BSC as a Measurement System

Financial

Customer
Relations

Vision and
Strategy

Learning,
Innovation and
Growth

Internal Service
Process

12

24/11/2008

The Balanced Score Card

13

Strategic Approach
Customer-focus

Process Analysis

Benchmarking

Workforce Planning
14

24/11/2008

Balanced Scorecard
Performance Objectives
CUSTOMER
- Customer Satisfaction
- Effective Service/Partnership

FINANCIAL
- Optimum Cost Efficiency of
Purchasing Operations;
Cost Reasonableness of
Actions

MISSION
VISION
STRATEGY
LEARNING AND
GROWTH

INTERNAL BUSINESS
PROCESSES

- Acquisition Excellence
- Most Effective Use of
Contracting Approaches
- Streamlined Processes
- On-Time Delivery
- Supplier Satisfaction
- Socioeconomics

- Access to Strategic Information

- Employee Satisfaction
- Organization Structured for
Continuous Improvement
- Quality Workforce
15

Balanced Scorecard
Strategic Perspectives
CUSTOMER
To Achieve Our Vision,
How Must Our
Customers View Us?

FINANCIAL
To Succeed Financially, How
Do We Contribute to the
Bottom-line?

MISSION
VISION
STRATEGY

LEARNING AND
GROWTH
To Achieve Our Vision, How
Will We Sustain Our Ability
To Change And Improve?

INTERNAL BUSINESS
PROCESSES
To Satisfy Our Stakeholders
and Customers, What Business
Processes Must We Excel At?

16

24/11/2008

Balanced Scorecard
Strategic Perspectives
CUSTOMER
To Achieve Our Vision,
How Must Our
Customers View Us?

FINANCIAL
To Succeed Financially, How
Do We Contribute to the
Bottom-line?

MISSION
VISION
STRATEGY

INTERNAL BUSINESS
PROCESSES
To Satisfy Our Stakeholders
and Customers, What Business
Processes Must We Excel At?

LEARNING AND
GROWTH
To Achieve Our Vision, How
Will We Sustain Our Ability
To Change And Improve?

17

Customer Perspective:
How Do Customers See Us?

Customers concerns tend to fall into four

categories:
1.
2.
3.
4.

TIME.
QUALITY.
PERFORMANCE and SERVICE.
COST.

18

24/11/2008

Customer Perspective:
Example from a company

Example of established general goals for

customer performance at a company:
Get standard products to market sooner.
Improve customers time to market.
Become customers supplier of choice
through partnerships with them.
Develop innovative products tailored to
customer needs.
19

Balanced Scorecard
Strategic Perspectives
CUSTOMER
To Achieve Our Vision,
How Must Our
Customers View Us?

FINANCIAL
To Succeed Financially, How
Do We Contribute to the
Bottom-line?

MISSION
VISION
STRATEGY

LEARNING AND
GROWTH
To Achieve Our Vision, How
Will We Sustain Our Ability
To Change And Improve?

INTERNAL BUSINESS
PROCESSES
To Satisfy Our Stakeholders
and Customers, What Business
Processes Must We Excel At?

20

24/11/2008

Internal Business Perspective:

What Must We Excel at?
For example:

Cycle time.
Quality.
Employee skills.
Productivity.
Critical technologies.

21

Internal Business Perspective:

Example from a company:
Manufacturing excellence.
Design productivity.
New product introduction.

22

24/11/2008

Balanced Scorecard
Strategic Perspectives
CUSTOMER
To Achieve Our Vision,
How Must Our
Customers View Us?

FINANCIAL
To Succeed Financially, How
Do We Contribute to the
Bottom-line?

MISSION
VISION
STRATEGY

INTERNAL BUSINESS
PROCESSES
To Satisfy Our Stakeholders
and Customers, What Business
Processes Must We Excel At?

LEARNING AND
GROWTH
To Achieve Our Vision, How
Will We Sustain Our Ability
To Change And Improve?

23

Innovation and Learning Perspective:

Can We Continue to Improve and Create
Value?
A companys ability to innovate, improve
and learn ties directly to the companys
value.
Could be through the ability to:
Launch new products.
Create more value for customers.
Improve operating efficiencies.
24

24/11/2008

Innovation and Learning Perspective:

Examples from a Company
Ability to develop and introduce standard products
rapidly.
Use the percent of sale from new products as one
of its innovation and improvement measures.
A ten-four improvement programme:
Measures of process defects, missed deliveries, and
scrap were to be reduced by a factor of ten over the
next four years!!

25

Balanced Scorecard
Strategic Perspectives
CUSTOMER
To Achieve Our Vision,
How Must Our
Customers View Us?

FINANCIAL
To Succeed Financially, How
Do We Contribute to the
Bottom-line?

MISSION
VISION
STRATEGY

LEARNING AND
GROWTH
To Achieve Our Vision, How
Will We Sustain Our Ability
To Change And Improve?

INTERNAL BUSINESS
PROCESSES
To Satisfy Our Stakeholders
and Customers, What Business
Processes Must We Excel At?

26

24/11/2008

Financial Perspective:
How Do We Look to Shareholders?
Typical financial goals have to do
with:
Profitability.
Growth.
Shareholders value.

27

Financial Perspective:
Examples from a Company
A companys financial goals are
simply:
To survive (measured by cash flow).
To succeed (measured by quarterly sales
growth, and operating income by
division).
To prosper (by increased market share by
segment and return on equity).
28

24/11/2008

BSC Strengths
The BSC is like the dials in
an airplane cockpit: it gives
managers complex
information at a glance.
Focused
Current and future
Balanced approach
Integration and
benchmarking
29

BSC Weaknesses
The scorecard information
is not timely.
Private Sector Approach
Potentially Complex
Data Availability
Constant Alignment with
Strategy and Vision

30

24/11/2008

BSC Software
www.ergometrics .com

31

Todays Exercise
Form 4 groups- one for each perspective
Within each group:
1. Appoint a scribe/presenter
2. Brainstorm objectives
3. Record all objectives
4. Present objectives to other groups
5. Record other objectives as suggested by the
other groups
32

24/11/2008

Brainstorming Exercise
Purpose: to generate
multiple ideas, in this case
for developing BSC
objectives

33

BSC Objectives
1. Describe the activities that we must
perform well to successfully implement
strategy/goals
2. Answer the questions associated with
each perspective
3. Start with an action verb: increase,
develop, improve, lower, achieve etc.

34

24/11/2008

Brainstorming Exercise

Rules:
1.No idea is a bad idea
2.Be creative
3.Take risks
4.No criticism allowed
35

Not in the notes

The Maintenance Scorecard Model

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

36

24/11/2008

Not in the notes

The Maintenance Scorecard Model

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

37

Not in the notes

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

MSC in Electricity Industry

Fictitious Case Study.
An Example of Strategic Advantages of applying MSC.
Areas covered:
Operating Environment.
The corporate level

Productivity Perspective.
Learning Perspective.
Safety Perspective.
Environmental Perspective.
Quality Perspective.
Cost Effectiveness Perspective.

38

24/11/2008

Not in the notes

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

MSC in Electricity Industry:

Operating Environment
Four fundamental changes over the past two decades:
Privatisation of formerly state-owned companies, where countries
have sold off all or part of their electricity assets.
Deregulation of the industry, where the government has stopped
trying to determine what electricity companies can charge and
where they can do business.
The ungrouping of services, where power generation functions
have been separated from transmission and distribution functions.
In some cases this has gone further to separate transmission and
distribution also.
Global warming, which has also impacted on the business models
of electricity providers. This issue sparked interest in other forms
of power generation throughout the world, including renewed
interest in nuclear power and other alternative forms like wind
generation.
39

Not in the notes

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

The fictitious company used in this

example operates in a regulated market
with an aging asset base and is focused
on the transmission and distribution of
electrical energy.

40

24/11/2008

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

Not in the notes

The Corporate Level:

Productivity Perspective
1. The main challenge was to ensure that unit
cost, lower than current unit costs, was
achievable.
2. Despite recent efforts to increase
profitability of the asset base, workforces
sizes were still too large.

41

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

Not in the notes

The Corporate Level:

Learning Perspective
1. To ensure accurate data quality.
2. To ensure that this data was being
analysed and used in a manner that was
effective for the goals of the company.

42

24/11/2008

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

Not in the notes

The Corporate Level:

Safety Perspective
1. This company operated within a market
where there is considerable focus on
personal accountability for decisions taken
with regard to the safety of workers and
the public.
2. Ensuring that a risk of harm or death from
the physical assets is 1: 10,000,000.
43

Not in the notes

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

The Corporate Level:

Environmental Perspective
1. There were considered to be no significant
environmental considerations for this
fictitious operator.

44

24/11/2008

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

Not in the notes

The Corporate Level:

Quality Perspective
1. The company committed itself to
maintaining continuous, high quality
supply during the coming year by
reducing the interruption failure rate, in
terms of continuity and quality, to 1: 100.

45

Not in the notes

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

The Corporate Level:

Cost Effectiveness Perspective
1. Ensure value for money capital spending
on modifications to existing plant.
2. Ensure reduced unit costs in delivery of
the entire asset management function (in
conjunction with the productivity
perspective).

46

24/11/2008

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

Not in the notes

Corporate Example Electricity Company

Productivity

Safety

Cost Effectiveness

Administrative
hours per
Maintenance
tool-time

Unit
maintenance
cost

Environment

1:1,000,000
Risk of harm or
Fatal injury due
To the physical
asset base.
Measured by
incidence only
47

(Daryl Mather, 2005)

Not in the notes

Corporate Example Electricity Company

Quality
Reduction of the
probability of
discontinuity of
supply or of lower
than required
supply quality of
1:100
Measured by
incidence only

Learning
Data quality
Exception report
To ensure
Continuing data
Quality for
Management
Decisions
Measurement:
Data quality
Equipment
register

48

24/11/2008

Thank you Any Questions?

49

PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this session you should be
able to answer the following questions:

What is ERP?
How did ERP develop?
What is MRP?
What is MRPII?
How is ERP developing?
2

Ref: Adapted from D. Starkey

Types of Systems in
Organisations

Ref: Harrison and Petty, 2001

Scope of Decisions
Decisions:
Low Frequency
High Significance

Co
Pla rpora
nn te
ing

10 Years

Strategic

M
Pla aster A
g
nn
ing P gre
la ga

nn te
ing

1 Year

Tactical

rm
Pla edi
nn ate
ing

1 Month

Operational

Pr
o
Co c ess Lo
wL
n tr
ol Pl
a ev e

nn
ing lIn
te

Decisions:
High Frequency
Low Significance
1 Day
Physical

The Origins of ERP

To understand ERP, it is important to
understand the various stages in its
development
5

Increasing impact on the whole supply

network

The development of ERP

Web-integrated Enterprise Resource

Planning (Collaborative Commerce,
e-commerce)
Enterprise Resource
Planning (ERP)
Manufacturing Resource
Planning (MRPII)
Material
Requirements
Planning (MRP)
6

Increasing integration of information systems

Overview of Part I
History
Nature of ERP
ERP Operation
Role of the Accountant
Success and Failure
7

Manufacturing Management - History

Scientific
Management
ROP
Operations
Research

MRP
Closed
Loop MRP
ERP
Finite Capacity
Scheduling

MRP II

OPT
JIT
8

ERP - Evolution
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Scientific
Management

BPR
ERP
Operations
Research
MRP MRP II

Batch
Processing

WWW

On-line
Processing
PC

9
0106

Courtesy: Dr. David Petty

Package Vs Bespoke Software

Bespoke

Modified
Package

Requirement

Package +
Additions

Package

10

Advantages/Disadvantages of the
Package Approach
Maintenance Fees
Business Focus
Implementation Times
Bespoke
Approach

System Reliability

Package
Approach

Advanced IT/IS Functionality

11

Courtesy: Dr. David Petty

ERP Characteristics
No Universal Definition and Some Re-Badging
Attempts to Integrate all Data and Processes
Commercially Orientated
Functionality
Product Families/Medium-Term Aggregate Plans
Multi-Site Reporting
Electronic Commerce Functionality

Widely Used Terminology

But a High Proportion of Implementations are Unsuccessful
12

Courtesy: Dr. David Petty

SAP - Industries

Founded in 1972
Systeme, Anwendungen und Produkte
45,000 Customers in 120 Countries
ERP Market Leader

Manufacturing

Aerospace & Defense

Automotive
Chemicals
Consumer Products
Engineering, Construction & Operations
High Tech
Industrial Machinery & Components
Life Sciences
Mill Products
Mining
Oil & Gas

Financial and Public Services

Banking
Defense & Security
Healthcare
Higher Education & Research
Insurance
Public Sector

Service

Media
Retail
Telecommunications
Travel & Logistics Services
Utilities
Wholesale Distribution

13
See http://www.sap.com/industries/index.epx

Supply Chain Simple Model

Raw
Material

Transformation
Process 1

Transformation
Process 2

End
Customer

14
0603

Courtesy: Dr. David Petty

ERP Transactions Example

Payment

Invoice

Invoice

e
Issu

n
tio

era
Op

SO atc
sp
De

WO

O
W eipt
c
Re

Re PO
ce
ip
t

Payment

Operation

15

Courtesy: Dr. David Petty

Functional Organisation/Integration
Engineering

Maintenance

HRM

Production

Sales

Quality

Accounts

Purchasing

Warehouse

Distribution
16

Courtesy: Dr. David Petty

Functional Organisation/Integration
Engineering
Engineering

Quality

Maintenance
Maintenance

Sales

Warehouse
Quality
Accounts

Engineering

Purchasing

Production

HRM

Quality
Sales

Production

Production

Warehouse

Distribution

Distribution

Maintenance

Accounts

Accounts

Sales

Warehouse
HRM

Purchasing

HRM

Purchasing

Distribution
17

Courtesy: Dr. David Petty

MRPII/ERP Package Structure

Manufacturing
Forecasting

MPS

RCCP

Sales
Ledger

SOP

MRP

BOM

General
Ledger

Inventory
Control

WOP

CRP

Purchase
Ledger

POP

SFC

Routings

Distribution
Financial

Fixed
Assets

18

Additional ERP Functionality

Configured Products
Human Resource Management
Maintenance Management
Quality Management
19

ERP integrates several systems

Senior management and stakeholders

Integrated
database

Purchasing
and supply
applications

Delivery and
logistics
applications
Service
applications

Customers

Operations
applications

Sales and
marketing
applications

Front-office staff

Back-office staff

Suppliers

Financial
applications

Strategic
reporting
applications

HRM
applications
Employees
20

10

Enterprise resource planning

Supply

Demand
The informational
ability to deliver
products/services

The operation
Operations resources

Required time,
quantity and quality
of products and
services

The
market
Customer requirements

ERP integrates the information that reconciles the

organisation and supply of an operations products
and services with the demand for them
21

Courtesy: Dr. David Petty

Good and Bad Case Study

Good (Ferodo)

Bad (Company A)

Small, Committed Project Team

Large, Uncommitted Project Team

Project Ownership by the Team

Minimal Team Project Ownership

Senior Management Understood

Key Issues and Concepts

Senior Management had Minimal

Understanding

Visible Support from Senior

Management Support

No Evidence of Support from Senior

Management

Confidence in Project Team

Micro-Management of Irrelevance

Education for All Relevant People

Education for the Project Team Only

Appropriate Project Plan

Overly Complex Project Plan

Expended Effort on Understanding

Created a Project Logo

11

22

Courtesy: Dr. David Petty

Business Process Simplification

Approach

Financial
Systems

Supplier
Schedules
Payments

Customer
Schedules

Purch Order
Processing

Sales Order
Processing

Company
Database

Invoices

Inventory
Control

Raw
Material

W/C
1

W/C
2

W/C
3

W/C
4

W/C
5

W/C
6

Finished
Product

Kanban Control

23

Summary
ERP Now in Common Use
Aims - a Single Common System
SAP is Dominant in the ERP Market
Effective Implementation is Vital
Accountants have a Key Role
24

12

Capacity Planning
Imagine you have decided to hold a
party in two weeks time and expect
about 40 people to attend
25

The meaning of MRP

Supply of
products and
services
The
operations
resources

MRP
Deciding the
volume and
timing of
materials flow
in dependent
demand
conditions

Demand for
products and
services
The
operations
customers

26

13

Material requirements planning (MRP)

Customer
orders

Master
production
schedule

Forecast
demand

Bill of
materials

Material
requirements
planning

Inventory
records

Purchase
orders

Materials
plans

Works
orders
27

The concept of MRP II

Finance

Marketing
Central
database

Operations

Design

28

14

Items and Bills of Materials (BOMs)

Shaft

Motor

Steel Bar
(300mm)
Rotor

End Terminal
Cover
Box
(2)

Motor
Body

Winding

Feet
(2)

Bearing
(2)

Rotor

29
Rotor Core

Shaft

Full Parts Explosion

Motor

Rotor

E.Cover

T.Box

(2)

Rotor

Shaft

Casting

Casting

Motor

Feet

Bearing

Body

(2)

(2)

Casting

Casting

Core

Winding

Small
Items

Winding
Core

Copper
Wire
(3Kg)

Steel
(300mm)

Bills of Materials are Alternatively Called Product Structures

15

30

Use of Phantoms

A
B

X
X

G
B
B

H
I

I
B

X
E

Orders are Never Generated for X, but rather B, C, D and E

31

Master production schedule (MPS)

Known
orders

Forecast
demand
Sister plant
demand
R&D
demand

Master
production
schedule

Promotion
requirements
etc.

Key
capacity
constraints
Inventory
levels
Spares
demand
Safety stock
requirements
32

16

Total future demand is made up of

known and forecast demand

Demand

Total
demand
Forecast element
of demand
Known orders

Time in future
33

MRP Principles
Gross
Requirements

Sales

Inventory
Balances

Order
Information

Orders

MRP
Net
Requirements

Item
Data

Bill of
Materials

Next Level
34

MRP: The planning of components based on the demand for higher-level assemblies

17

MRP - Example
Part No:
Lead Time:
Order Qty:

A0
3
60

SOH = Stock on Hand

SOH

Gross Requirements

10

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

25

45

25

45

Scheduled Receipts
Projected Available Balance

60
25

45

Planned Order Receipt

60

Planned Order Release

60

60

Product
Structure

60

A0

Ord No: 0023

Ord No: 0024

Part No:
F1
Lead Time:
1
Order Qty: 120

SOH

Gross Requirements

60

10

15

15

15

F1

60

Scheduled Receipts
Projected Available Balance

15

15

Planned Order Receipt

Planned Order Release

75

75

75

15

120
120

35
Ord No: 0025

The process of MRP

Explode the master production schedule.
Identify what parts and assemblies are required.
Check whether the required parts and assemblies are
available.
For every part or assembly that is required, but not
available, identify when work needs to be started for it
to be made available by its due date
Generate the appropriate works and purchase orders.
Repeat the process for the next level of the bill of
materials.
36

18

Limitations
Sales
Planning

Extra Demand
Changed Due Dates

Policy Changes
Schedule Changes

Open Loop MRP

Order Launch
and Expedite
Suppliers

Engineering

Poor Quality
Late Delivery

BOM Changes
Routing Changes

Stores

Manufacturing

Accurate Records
Damaged Items

Poor Quality
Late Delivery

37

Hitting the Skeet - Shotgun

Enough Excess Resource will Solve Almost any Problem

38

19

Hitting the Skeet Smart Bullet

Sophisticated Systems can Compensate for Problems

39

Hitting the Skeet High Speed

Eliminating Problems Allows Simplicity

20

40

MRPII
a game plan for monitoring all the
resources of a manufacturing company:
manufacturing, marketing, finance and
engineering. Technically it involves using
the closed-loop MRP system to generate the
financial figures.
[Wight, 1984]

41

ERP
a complete enterprise wide business solution.
The ERP system consists of software support
modules such as: marketing and sales, field
service, product design, and development,
production and inventory control, procurement,
distribution, industrial facilities management,
process design and development, manufacturing,
quality, human resources, finance and accounting,
and information services. Integration the modules
is stressed without the duplication of information.
[attribute to Christopher Koch]

42

21

Critical Commentary.[Ref: Slack, 2004, pp 509] I

Far from being the magic ingredient which allows
operations to fully integrate all their information, ERP is
regarded by some as one of the most expensive ways of
getting zero or even negative return on investment.
For example, the American chemicals giants, Dow
Chemical, spent almost half-a-billion dollars and seven
years implementing an ERP system which became
outdated almost as it was implemented.
One company, FoxMeyer Drug, claimed that the expense
and problems which it encountered in implementing ERP
eventually drove it to bancruptcy
43

Critical Commentary.[Ref: Slack, 2004, pp 509] II

...One problem is that ERP implementation is
expensive. This is partly because of the need to
customise the system, understand its implications
for the organisation, and train staff to use it.
Spending on what some call the ERP ecosystem
(consulting, hardware, networking and
complimentary applications) has been estimated as
being twice the spending on the software itself.
But it is not only the expense which has
disillusioned many companies, it is also the
returns they have had for their investment
44

22

Critical Commentary.[Ref: Slack, 2004, pp 509] III

...Some studies show that the vast majority of
companies implementing ERP are disappointed
with the effect it has had on their businesses.
Certainly many companies find that they have to
(sometimes fundamentally) change the way they
organise their operations in order to fit in with
ERP systems. This organisational impact of ERP
(which has been described as the corporate
equivalent of dental root-canal work) can have a
significantly disruptive effect on the
organisations operations.
45

References

Harrison, D.K., and Petty, D.J, Systems for

Planning & Control in Manufacturing:
Systems and Management for Competitive
Manufacture, 2004, ISBN 0 7506 49771, IIE
Publications. (Chapters 16 and 17).
Slack, N., Chambers, S., and Johnston, R.,
Operations Management, Fourth Edition,
Prentice Hall, 2004 (Chapter 14)
46

23

01

Summary
ERP Now in Common Use
Aims - a Single Common System
SAP is Dominant in the ERP Market

Implementation Can Have Many Meanings

Effective Implementation is Vital
Not Simply an IT/IS Issue

47
0148

Thank You..Any Questions?

48

24

Past Exam Question

Briefly discuss the evolution of Enterprise

Resource Planning (ERP) systems showing its
relationship with its predecessors MRP and
MRP II. You may use an illustration to
demonstrate its evolution.
You are about to acquire and implement an ERP
system in your organisation. Outline the main
advantages limitations of ERP systems that need
to be considered before such a decision is taken.
64

25

11/24/2008

PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

1
1

Maintenance Scheduling and

Planning I

24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

2
2

1<#>

11/24/2008

Preventative Maintenance
And Shutdown Planning
Implementing Proven Preventative
Maintenance Strategies and Managing
Shutdowns to Improve Overall Productivity
and Profitability

Planned preventative maintenance can cost your company thousands - if not millions of dollars every year! This lecture will cover key aspects concerning preventative
maintenance planning, from identifying core business drivers that underline
maintenance strategies to practical techniques for managing shutdowns, turnarounds,
outages and overhauls of any scale.

In particular, you will learn:

Concepts of Project Management.

Phases of Project Management.

The Basic Functions of the Maintenance Planner/Scheduler.

Illustration of Project Management Software.

24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

2<#>

11/24/2008

Product Design
Teams at
Chrysler and Ford
When the Ford Mustang was introduced in
1964, it was an immediate hit, with sales
more than 417,000 within 12 months.
However, annual sales, which were around
500,000 through the 1960s, had dropped to
only 86,000 by 1992. In 1989 Ford
management almost decided to discontinue
the Mustang when a study showed the cost
for redesigning it would be $1 billion.
However, a group of Ford employees and
Mustang loyalists persuaded the company to
let them take on the redesign project,
promising a lower cost. Operating with more
independence than most project teams, the
400-member group brought the car online
after three years in 1994 for $700 million, 25
percent faster and 30 percent cheaper than
any other comparable design project at Ford.

6
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Definition of a Project(I)
Project - unique process, consisting of
a set of co-ordinated and controlled
activities with start and finish dates,
undertaken to achieve an objective
conforming to specific requirements
including constraints of time, cost and
resources.
ISO 8402
7
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

3<#>

11/24/2008

What is Project Management? (II)

A definition for project:

A project is a sequence of unique,

complex, and connected activities having
one goal or purpose and that must be
completed by specific time, within
budget, and according to specification.
Wysocki, Beck, and Crane

8
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

What is Project Management? (III)

Another definition for a project:
Project management is the process of
defining, planning, directing,
monitoring, and controlling the
development of an acceptable system
at a minimum cost within a specified
time frame.
9
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

4<#>

11/24/2008

Approaches to Project Management

One approach is to appoint a project

manager from the ranks of the team.

Self-directed team paradigm.

Others believe that successful project

managers apply a unique body of
knowledge and skills that must be learned.

Thus, hire or develop professional managers.

11

24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Common Elements of a Project

Specification for the project

(what)
Project plan
(sequence).
Time frame
(when).
Budget
(how much - overall).
Cost plan
(how much - detail).
Statement of quality required
(how good/bad).
Identification of any areas of uncertainty (how risky).
Evaluation of possible risks and the appropriate responses.

12
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

5<#>

11/24/2008

The 4 Phases of a Project

Termination
Realisation
Conception

Development

13
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Desirable Skill of a Good

Maintenance Planner/Scheduler

Technological
understanding.
An understanding of
project economics.
A knowledge of man
management techniques.
A competence in systems
design and maintenance.

A competence in planning
co-ordination and control.
Financial competence.
A competence in
procurement.
Good personal
communication abilities.

14
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

6<#>

11/24/2008

The Basic Functions of the

Maintenance Planner/Scheduler

These functions include:

I. Planning,
II. Staffing,
III. Organizing,
IV. Scheduling,
V. Directing, and
VI. Controlling.

15
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

The Basic Functions of the

Maintenance Planner/Scheduler...(I)

Planning Project Tasks and Staffing the

Project Team:

Each

task required to complete the project must be

planned.

The following are other planning issues.

24/11/2008

How much time will be required?

How many people will be needed?
How much will the task cost? What sort of material is
needed?
What tasks must be completed before other tasks are
started?
Can some of the tasks overlap?

16

Prof. A.W. Labib

7<#>

11/24/2008

The Basic Functions of the Maintenance

Planner/Scheduler...(II)

Planning Project Tasks and Staffing the

Project Team:

The planner/scheduler manager should

carefully consider the business and technical
expertise that may be needed to successfully
finish the project.
The key is to match the personnel to the
required tasks that have been identified as part
of project planning.
17

24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

The Basic Functions of the Maintenance

Planner/Scheduler...(III)

Organizing

and Scheduling the Project

Effort:

The

project schedule should be developed

with an understanding of task time
requirements, personnel assignments, and
inter-task dependencies.

Many projects present a deadline or
requested delivery date.
18
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

8<#>

11/24/2008

The Basic Functions of the Maintenance

Planner/Scheduler...(IV)

Directing and Controlling the Project:

Once the project has begun, the planner

becomes a supervisor.

As

a supervisor, there is a need to direct the team's

activities and evaluates progress.

Every supervisor must demonstrate such people
management skills as motivating, rewarding,
advising, coordinating, delegating, and appraising
team members.

19
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

The Basic Functions of the Maintenance

Planner/Scheduler...(V)

Directing and Controlling the Project:

Perhaps the planner's most difficult and

important function is controlling the project.

There

is a need to monitor tasks, schedules, costs,

and expectations in order to control those elements.

The planner must be able to present the alternatives
and their implications for the budget and schedule in
order to manage expectations.

20
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

9<#>

11/24/2008

Skills necessary for business

Key skills will be the ability to win friends

and influence people at a personal level, the
ability to structure partnerships, and the
ability to negotiate and to find
compromises. Business will be much more
about finding the right people in the right
places and negotiating the right deals.
Charles Handy 2002
21

24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Responding to Conflict

Maintain even disposition

Ask clarification questions
Delay with process not contention
Seek advancement on less contentious issues and return to
others later
Reposition or frame in positive, mutual-gain terms
Frame differences as natural
Find common ground through value linking
Emphasize what has been accomplished
Encapsulate conflict issues
Avoid petty issues
Meet halfway

22
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

10<#>

11/24/2008

Ref: Dr. DJ Petty

Team Roles
Turns Ideas Into Practical Actions

Implementer

Clarifies Goals, Promotes Decision Making,

Delegates Well

Coordinator
Shaper

Has the Drive and Courage to Overcome Obstacles,

Likes to Win.

Plant

The Ideas Person Who Often Solves Difficult

Problems.

Resource Investigator

Explores Opportunities, Develops Contacts, a

Natural Networker.

Monitor/evaluator

Sees All Options, Judges Accurately - The Inspector.

Teamworker

Listens, Builds, Averts Friction, Calms Things

Sensitive to People and Situations.

Completer

Searches Out Errors and Omissions. Delivers on

Time.

Specialist

Provides Scarce Knowledge and Skill.

23

24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

0132

Project Management Tools and

Techniques(I)

Gantt Charts

First conceived by Henry L. Gantt in 1917.

It is the most commonly used project
scheduling and progress evaluation tool in use.

A

Gantt chart is a simple horizontal bar chart that

depicts project tasks against a calendar. Each bar
represents a named project task. The tasks are listed
vertically in the left-hand column. On a Gantt chart,
the horizontal axis is a calendar timeline.

24
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

11<#>

11/24/2008

GANTT (Bar Chart)

Time
Activity

Week number
1 2

4 5

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

25
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

GANTT (Bar Chart)

Three Sequential Activities
Time
Activity

Representation of 50%
of activity complete

Week number
1 2

4 5

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

A
B
C

26
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

12<#>

11/24/2008

GANTT (Bar Chart)

Representation of Progress
Time
Activity

Representation of 50%
of activity complete

Week number
1 2

4 5

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

A
B
C
D

27
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Project Management Tools and

Techniques

Using Gantt Charts to Evaluate Progress:

One

of the project manager's frequent

responsibilities is to report project progress
to superiors.

Gantt charts frequently find their way into
progress reports because they can
conveniently compare the original schedule
with actual performance.
28
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

13<#>

11/24/2008

Project Management Tools and

Techniques

Gantt Charts

Calendars:

In

project management software a base calendar can

be established to identify the work week (e.g.,
Monday through Friday), work day (e.g., 8 AM Noon; 1 PM - 5 PM), and holidays and conflict
days.

After the project team has been identified, personal
calendars can also be established to block out
individual vacations and commitments.

29
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Example of Gantt Chart

0

Month
4

10

Activity
Design house
and obtain
financing
Lay foundation
Order and
receive
materials
Build house
Select paint
Select carpet
Finish work

5
Month

24/11/2008

30

Prof. A.W. Labib

14<#>

11/24/2008

Gantt Chart: A simplified project description

for building a house

Concept of:
Slack

31
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Gantt Chart

The Gantt chart provides a visual display of the project schedule,

indicating when activities are scheduled to start, when finished, and where
extra time is available and activities can be delayed.

The project manager can use the chart to monitor the progress of the
activities and see which ones are ahead of schedule and which ones are
behind schedule.

The Gantt chart also indicates the precedence relationships between

activities; however, these relationships are not always easily discernible.

This problem is one of the disadvantages of the Gantt chart method, and it
limits the chart's use to smaller projects with relatively few activities.

The CPM/PERT network technique does not suffer this disadvantage.

32
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

15<#>

11/24/2008

Project Management Tools and

Techniques

There are two basic scheduling approaches

supported by most project management
software tools.

Forward scheduling establishes a project startdate and then schedules forward from that date.
Reverse scheduling establishes a project
deadline and then schedules backward from that
date. Essentially, tasks, their duration, and
resources must be chosen to ensure that the
project can be completed by the deadline.

33
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Project Management Tools and

Techniques

Work Breakdown Structures:

Another

type of entry in a work breakdown

structure is a milestone.
Milestones are events that signify major
accomplishments or events during a
project.
Milestones do not represent actual work,
per se.
34

24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

16<#>

11/24/2008

Project Management Tools and

Techniques

Predecessors and Constraints:

The

start of any given task may be dependent on the

start or completion of another previous task.

Additionally, the completion of a task is frequently
dependent on the completion of a prior task.

Milestones almost always have several predecessors
that signify those tasks that must be completed
before you can say that the milestone has been
achieved.

35
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

The Project network for Building a

House

Precedence relationships:

Activity (1-2) in the project is to design the

house and obtain financing. This activity must
be completed before any subsequent activities
can begin.

Activities 2-3, laying the foundation, and 2-4,

ordering and receiving materials, can start
only when node 2 is realized, indicating the
event that activity 1-2 is finished.

Activity 2-3 and activity 2-4 can occur

concurrently; neither depends on the other and
both depend only on the completion of activity
1-2.

When the activities of laying the foundation

(2-3) and ordering and receiving materials (24) are completed, then activities 4-5 and 4-6
can begin simultaneously. However, before
discussing these activities further, notice
activity 3-4, referred to in the network as a
dummy.

36
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

17<#>

11/24/2008

AOA Project Network for

a House

Lay
foundation
2

3
Design house
and obtain
financing

Dummy
Build
house

0
1

Order and
receive
materials

Select
paint

Finish
work

3
1

Select
carpet

37
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Concurrent Activities

A dummy activity is inserted into the network

to show a precedence relationship, but it does
not represent any actual passage of time.

Activities 2-3 and 2-4 have the precedence

relationship as shown.

However, in a CPM/PERT network, two or

more activities are not allowed to share the
same starting and ending nodes.

Instead, activity 3-4 is inserted to give two

activities separate end nodes and, thus, two
separate identities as shown.

Notice, though, that a time of zero months has

been assigned to activity 3-4.

The dummy activity shows that activity 2-3

must be completed prior to any activities
beginning at node 4, but it does not represent
the passage of time.

24/11/2008

38

Prof. A.W. Labib

18<#>

11/24/2008

Concurrent Activities
3

Lay foundation

Lay
foundation

3
2

Order material

Dummy
2

0
1

Order material

(a) Incorrect precedence

relationship

(b) Correct precedence

relationship

39
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

The Critical Path

A network path is a sequence

of connected activities that
runs from the start node to the
end node in the network. The
network in figure has several
paths through it. In fact, close
observations of this network
show four paths, identified as
A, B, C, and D:

A: 1-2-3-4-6-7.

B: 1-2-3-4-5-6-7.

C: 1-2-4-6-7.

D: 1-2-4-5-6-7.

40
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

19<#>

11/24/2008

AON Network for House

Building Project
Lay foundations

Build house

4
3

2
2
Start

Finish work

7
1

1
3

Design house
and obtain
financing

3
1

Order and receive

materials

5
1

6
1
Select carpet

Select paint

41
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

The Critical Path

The project cannot be completed (i.e.,

the house cannot be built) sooner than
the time required by the longest path in
the network, in terms of time. The path
with the longest duration of time is
referred to as the critical path.

By summing the activity times along

each of the four paths, we can compute
the length of each path, as follows:

42
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

20<#>

11/24/2008

Critical Path
4
3

2
2
Start

7
1

1
3
3
1

A:
B:
C:
D:
24/11/2008

6
1

5
1

1-2-4-7
3 + 2 + 3 + 1 = 9 months
1-2-5-6-7
3 + 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 8 months
1-3-4-7
3 + 1 + 3 + 1 = 8 months
1-3-5-6-7
3 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 7 months

Critical path

Longest path
through a network
Minimum project
completion time

43
Prof. A.W. Labib

Activity Start Times

Because path A is the longest path, it is the critical path; thus the
minimum completion time for the project is 9 months.

Activities 2-3 and 2-4 cannot start until 3 months have passed. It is
also easy to see that activity 3-4 will not start until 5 months have
passed. The start of activities 4-5 and 4-6 is dependent on two
activities leading into node 4. Activity 3-4 is completed after 5
months (which we determine by adding the dummy activity time
of zero to the time of 5 months until node 3 occurs), but activity 24 is completed at the end of 4 months. Thus, we have two possible
start times for activities 4-5 and 4-6, 5 months and 4 months.
However, since no activity starting at node 4 can occur until all
preceding activities have been finished, the soonest node 4 can be
realised is 5 months.

Now consider the activities leading from node 4 we can determine

that the time of the longest path in the network--the critical path is
9 months.

This brief analysis demonstrates the concept of a critical path and

the determination of the minimum completion time of a project.
However, this was a cumbersome method for determining a critical
path. Next, we discuss a mathematical approach to scheduling the
project activities and determining the critical path.

44
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

21<#>

11/24/2008

Project Management Software

Project management software is used to
help plan projects, develop schedules,
develop budgets, monitor progress and
costs, generate management reports, and
affect change.

This software greatly simplify the
preparation of the project management
models such as Gantt and CPM/PERT
charts.

24/11/2008

45

Prof. A.W. Labib

Sample GANTT Chart

46
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

22<#>

11/24/2008

Sample PERT Chart

47
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

To Be Continued

48
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Prof. A.W. Labib

23<#>

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PRESENTS

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE PLANNING

15 to 19 December, 2008
Kuala Lumpur
BY
Professor Ashraf W. Labib
Senior Consultant

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Prof. A.W. Labib

1
1

Maintenance Scheduling and

Planning II

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Prof. A.W. Labib

2
2

1<#>

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Shutdowns & Turnarounds

INTRODUCTION

Planning and managing shutdowns and turnarounds in the plant

environment is a complex and demanding function.

If turnarounds are not properly planned, managed and

controlled, then companies run the risks of serious budget
overturns and costly schedule delays.

This lecture has been developed to specifically respond to the

need to help owners and contractors meet their turnaround
goals.

It is designed to establish a thorough understanding of the

fundamentals of effective turnaround management. The
emphasis is on major strategic planning and management
issues that are essential to successful turnarounds.

3
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Lectures OBJECTIVES

To enhance the companys turnaround management capabilities, and

to ensure a team approach in the planning and execution of plant
shutdowns and turnarounds.

Provide a comprehensive understanding of effective turnaround

management techniques & implementation.

Create awareness of strategic planning methods and an integrated

organisational approach in the execution of successful turnarounds.

Incorporate latest developments in the turnaround planning and

management techniques and emerging industry trends.

Make the turnaround planning and execution process efficient,

proffesionally rewarding and with the minimum stress and conflict.

4
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Prof. A.W. Labib

2<#>

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5
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Project Planning Methods

Network Analysis: Developed from US

defence projects.

Critical Path Method (CPM).

Programme Evaluation + Review Techniques
(PERT).

One-off type projects with start and end.

Consider utilisation of resources via: Gantt
Charts.

6
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Prof. A.W. Labib

3<#>

11/24/2008

Source: Dr. Hannam

Modelling
Node
N

Node
Time
Activity

N+1

(Start) ES

(Start) EF

(End) LS

(End) LF

Nodes permit floats between ends and next starts

7
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Source: Dr. Hannam

Data for a simple network for removal of

an NC machine to a new factory
Production stops at existing sites initiating:

1. Cleaning site at new factory.

2. Disassemble of machine & transport to new factory,
supervised by Manfg. Engr. A.
3. Preparation of foundation at new site.
4. Install machine.
5. Train new programmers / operators in programming
by Manfg. Engr. A.
6. Part programming of trial components.
7. Trials - to follow installation and programming.

Duration in
weeks
1
5
2
4
1
2

8
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Prof. A.W. Labib

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11/24/2008

Data for a simple network for removal of

an NC machine to a new factory
Production stops at existing sites initiating:

ABBREV.

Duration in
weeks

1. Cleaning site at new factory.

(CLEAN)
2. Disassemble of machine & transport to new factory,
supervised by Manfg. Engr. A.
(DISASSBLE A)
3. Preparation of foundation at new site.
(PREPARE)
4. Install machine.
(INSTALL)
5. Train new programmers / operators in programming
by Manfg. Engr. A.
(TRAIN A)
6. Part programming of trial components.
(PROG_TRY)
7. Trials - to follow installation and programming.
(TRIALS)

1
5
2
4
1
2

9
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Network Example: Removal of

an NC machine to a new factory
2

(PREPARE)

(IN
ST

(C
L

EA
N)

(0)

1
A
IS
(D

4
AL
L)

SS
E
BL
A)

(P

O
R

RY
_T
G

6
)

(TRAIN A)

10
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Prof. A.W. Labib

5<#>

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Source: Dr. Hannam

Network Example: Removal of an

NC machine to a new factory
1
2
3

(C
L

0
1
A
IS
(D

(0)

4
TA
LL
)

SS

(PREPARE)

EA
N)

5
3
5 (INS

E
BL
A)

6
5
7

(TRAIN A)

O
PR

_
G

Y
TR

9
6
9
Earliest Start
Latest Start
N.B.
Rule 1: ES --> max
Rule 2:LS <-- min

11
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Network Example: Removal of an

NC machine to a new factory
3
5
N.B.
Rule 1: ES --> max
Rule 2:LS <-- min

(0)

=
1

4
5
min

(TRAIN A)

5
- 7

Latest
Start

12
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Prof. A.W. Labib

6<#>

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Network Example: Removal of an

NC machine to a new factory
1
2

5
3

(PREPARE)

Earliest
Start

max

=
N.B.
Rule 1: ES --> max
Rule 2:LS <-- min

(0)

+
5
4

13
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Network Example
1
Concrete foundation (A)

Complete
base

on

Di

1
Mark out

11 1
)
er (A

gf
ou
nd
at i

t tow
Erec

(A
)

10

Erect
span

Di

gf

at i
nd
ou
on
)
(B

Concrete
foundation (B)

2
Erect
plinth

ec
Er

w
to

er

)
(B

14
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Prof. A.W. Labib

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Earliest Activity Start and Finish

Times

16
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Latest Activity Start and Finish

Times

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8<#>

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Earliest Activity Start & Finish

Times

18
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Steps for Constructing a Network

1. Define all activities, their predecessors and their duration.
2. Draw network, linking start and end nodes.
3. Examine network for ambiguities, needs for dummies to establish
sequence/precedence.
4. Redraw network.
5. Find earliest start times of activities by adding times from left to
right.
6. Find latest start times (and floats) by subtracting times from right
to left.
7. Identify critical path (no floats).
8. Review network to meet requirements of projects
8.1. Shortening critical path.
8.2 Varying resource allocation.
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19

Prof. A.W. Labib

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Project Management Tools and

Techniques

Critical

Path:

The

critical path is a sequence of dependent

project tasks that have the largest sum of
estimated durations.

It is the path that has no slack time built in.

If any of these tasks fall behind schedule, the
projects completion date will be delayed.

20
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Project Management Tools and

Techniques

Critical Path

The

slack time available for any task is equal to the

difference between the earliest and latest completion
times.

Tasks that have slack time can get behind schedule
by an amount less than or equal to that slack time
without having any impact on the projects final
completion date.

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Prof. A.W. Labib

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CPM Vs. PERT

Both CPM and PERT are derivatives of the Gantt chart and, as a result, are
very similar.

There were originally two primary differences between CPM and PERT.

With CPM a single estimate for activity time was used that did not allow for any
variation in activity times--activity times were treated as if they were known for
certain, or "deterministic." With PERT, multiple time estimates were used for each
activity that allowed for variation in activity times--activity times were treated as
"probabilistic."

The other difference was related to the mechanics of drawing the project network.
In PERT activities were represented as arcs, or arrowed lines, between two nodes,
or circles, whereas in CPM activities were represented as the nodes or circles.

However, over time CPM and PERT have been effectively merged into a
single technique conventionally referred to as CPM/PERT.

22
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Project Management Tools and

Techniques

Effort and Duration:

For

each task, the duration needs to be estimated.

Sample estimating technique:
Estimate the minimum amount of time it would
take to perform the task - called the optimistic
time (OT).
Estimate the maximum amount of time it would
take to perform the task - called the pessimistic
time (PT).

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Prof. A.W. Labib

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Project Management Tools and

Techniques

Effort and Duration:

Sample

estimating technique: (continued)

Calculate the most likely time (MLT) that will be needed

to perform the task.
Don't take the median of the optimistic and
pessimistic times.
Calculate the expected duration (ED) as follows:
ED = OT + (4 x MLT) + PT
6
This formula provides a weighted average of the
various estimates.

24
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Project Management Tools and

Techniques

PERT Charts

PERT stands for Project Evaluation and

Review Technique.
Was developed in the late 1950s to plan and
control large weapons development projects for
the U.S. Navy.

It

was developed to make clear the interdependence

of project tasks when projects are being scheduled.

PERT is a graphic networking technique.

25

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Prof. A.W. Labib

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Project Management Tools and

Techniques

PERT

Charts

PERT Definitions and Symbols:

Like

Gantt Charts, PERT charts projects are

organized in terms of tasks and milestones.

A variety of symbols circles, squares, and
the like have been used to depict tasks
and milestones on PERT charts.

26
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Project Management Tools and

Techniques

PERT Charts

The Critical Path in a PERT Network:

The

critical path is a sequence of dependent project

tasks that have the largest sum of estimated
durations.

Each task appearing on the critical path is referred to
as a critical task.

Critical tasks must be monitored closely by the project

manager because any delays in those tasks will delay the
entire project.

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Prof. A.W. Labib

13<#>

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Project Management Tools and

Techniques

PERT Charts

Using PERT for Planning and Control:

The

primary uses and advantages of the PERT chart

lie in its ability to assist in the planning and
controlling of projects.

In planning, the PERT chart aids in determining the

estimated time required to complete a given project, in
deriving actual project dates, and in allocating resources.
As a control tool, the PERT chart helps the manager
identify current and potential problems.

28
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Project Management Tools and

Techniques

PERT Charts

PERT versus Gantt Charting:

PERT

is usually recommended for larger projects

with high inter-task dependency.

Gantt is recommended for simpler projects.

PERT and Gantt charts can be used in a
complementary manner to plan, schedule, evaluate,
and control systems development projects.

Most information systems project managers seem to
prefer Gantt charts because of their simplicity and
ability to show the schedule of a project.
24/11/2008

29

Prof. A.W. Labib

14<#>

11/24/2008

CPM/PERT Vs GANTT

The advantage of CPM/PERT over the Gantt chart is in the

use of a network to depict the precedence relationships
between activities.

The Gantt chart does not clearly show precedence

relationships, which is a disadvantage that limited its use to
small projects.

The CPM/PERT network is a more efficient and direct

means of displaying precedence relationships. In other
words, in a network it is visually easier to see the
precedence relationships, which makes CPM/PERT
popular with managers and other users, especially for large
projects with many activities.

24/11/2008

30

Prof. A.W. Labib

Resource Allocation
Gantt Chart
Resource
Diggers

10 11

Dig A
Dig B
Tower
B

Crane

N.B.
Economy in use of resources may require extension of project. Time (days)
To shorten time, examine critical path activities and increase
resources to reduce duration(s) of activities.

31

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Prof. A.W. Labib

15<#>

11/24/2008

Resources
Time is different from any other resources
in that it cannot be stored.

Skilled man-power and capital equipment,
need to be allocated most carefully.

This is because:

number of people available is limited.

Must be utilised as fully as possible.
32

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Prof. A.W. Labib

Project Management Tools and

Techniques

Resource Assignment and Management:

Resources

are people, material, and tools that you

assign to the completion of a task.

Resources may be constrained by the following:

Resources available to the project manager.

Competition with other managers and project for a
resources time.
Calendars of resources.

Costs

can be assigned to resources to assist in

budgeting the project.

33
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Prof. A.W. Labib

16<#>

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Number of fitters

Resource Aggregation
(histograms)

4
3
2
1
1

3 4

9 10 11 12 13

Week
Number
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Number of fitters needed

Resource Levelling
Criteria for effectiveness:
Absolute upper limit to all resources.
Upper limit to be as small as possible.

4
Upper
limit

3
2
1
1

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3 4

9 10 11 12 13

Week
Number

35

Prof. A.W. Labib

17<#>

11/24/2008

Number of fitters needed in a week

Resource Smoothing

Idle resource that cannot

be re-deployed in short-term.

4
3
2
1
1

24/11/2008

3 4

9 10 11 12 13

Week
Number

36

Prof. A.W. Labib

Project Crashing and TimeCost Trade-Off

The project manager is frequently confronted with having to reduce the

scheduled completion time of a project to meet a deadline. In other
words, the manager must finish the project sooner than indicated by the
CPM/PERT network analysis.

Project duration can often be reduced by assigning more labour to

project activities, in the form of overtime, and by assigning more
resources (material, equipment, and so on). However, additional labour
and resources increase the project cost.

Thus, the decision to reduce the project duration must be based on an

analysis of the trade-off between time and cost. Project crashing is a
method for shortening the project duration by reducing the time of one
(or more) of the critical project activities to less than its normal activity
time. This reduction in the normal activity time is referred to as
crashing. Crashing is achieved by devoting more resources, usually
measured in terms of money, to the activities to be crashed.

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Prof. A.W. Labib

18<#>

11/24/2008

Project Crashing

To demonstrate how project crashing works, we will employ the

CPM/PERT network for constructing a house. This network is repeated
except that the activity times previously shown as months have been
converted to weeks.

We will assume that the times (in weeks) shown on the network activities
are the normal activity times. For example, 12 weeks are normally
required to complete activity 1-2. Further, we will assume that the cost
required to complete this activity in the time indicated is 3,000. This
cost is referred to as the normal activity cost.

Next, we will assume that the building contractor has estimated that
activity 1-2 can be completed in 7 weeks, but it will cost 5,000 instead
of 3,000 to complete the activity. This new estimated activity time is
known as the crash time, and the cost to achieve the crash time is
referred to as the crash cost.

38

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Prof. A.W. Labib

Example of Gantt Chart

0

Month
4

10

Activity
Design house
and obtain
financing
Lay foundation
Order and
receive
materials
Build house
Select paint
Select carpet
Finish work

5
Month

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39

Prof. A.W. Labib

19<#>

11/24/2008

AOA Project Network for

a House

Lay
foundation
2

3
Design house
and obtain
financing

Dummy
Build
house

0
1

Order and
receive
materials

Select
paint

Finish
work

3
1

Select
carpet

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24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Project Crashing

Activity 1-2 can be crashed a total of 5 weeks (normal time crash time = 12-7 = 5 weeks)
at a total crash cost of 2,000 (crash cost - normal cost = 5,000-3,000 = 2,000). Dividing
the total crash cost by the total allowable crash time yields the crash cost per week:

If we assume that the relationship between crash cost and crash time is linear, then activity
1-2 can be crashed by any amount of time (not exceeding the maximum allowable crash
time) at a rate of 400 per week. For example, if the contractor decided to crash activity 1-2
by only 2 weeks (reducing activity time to 10 weeks), the crash cost would be 800 (400
per week x 2 weeks). The linear relationships between crash cost and crash time and
between normal cost and normal time are illustrated in the following figure.

The objective of project crashing is to reduce project duration while minimizing the cost of
crashing. Since the project completion time can be shortened only by crashing activities on
the critical path, it may turn out that not all activities have to be crashed. However, as
activities are crashed, the critical path may change, requiring crashing of previously
noncritical activities to reduce the project completion time even further.

41
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Prof. A.W. Labib

20<#>

11/24/2008

The Relationship between Normal Time

and Cost, and Crash Time and Cost
$7,000
$6,000
Crash cost

$5,000

Crashed activity
Slope = crash cost per week

$4,000
$3,000
$2,000

Normal activity
Normal cost

$1,000

Normal time

Crash time

|
2

24/11/2008

|
4

|
6

|
8

|
10

|
12

|
14

Weeks

42

Prof. A.W. Labib

Example

Recall that the critical path for the house building

network encompassed activities 1-2-3-4-6-7 and the
project duration was 9 months, or 36 weeks.
Suppose the home builder needed the house in 30
weeks and wanted to know how much extra cost
would be incurred to complete the house by this time.

The normal times and costs, the crash times and

costs, the total allowable crash times, and the crash
cost per week for each activity in the network are
summarized in the following table.

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Prof. A.W. Labib

21<#>

11/24/2008

45
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Prof. A.W. Labib

SOLUTION:

We start by looking at the critical path and seeing which activity has the minimum crash
cost per week.

Observing the preceding table and the following figure, we see activity 1-2 has the
minimum crash cost of $400 (excluding the dummy activity 3-4, which cannot be
reduced).

Activity 1-2 will be reduced as much as possible. The table shows that the maximum
allowable reduction for activity 1-2 is 5 weeks, but we can reduce activity 1-2 only to
the point where another path becomes critical. When two paths simultaneously become
critical, activities on both must be reduced by the same amount. If we reduce the activity
time beyond the point where another path becomes critical, we may be incurring an
unnecessary cost. This last stipulation means that we must keep up with all the network
paths as we reduce individual activities, a condition that makes manual crashing very
cumbersome. For that reason we normally rely on the computer for project crashing;
however, for the moment we pursue this example in order to demonstrate the logic of
project crashing.

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Prof. A.W. Labib

22<#>

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47
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Prof. A.W. Labib

It turns out that activity 1-2 can

be crashed by the total amount
of 5 weeks without another path
becoming critical, since activity
1-2 is included in all four paths
in the network.

Crashing this activity results in

a revised project duration of 31
weeks at a crashing cost of
$2,000.

The revised network is shown

in the opposite figure.

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Prof. A.W. Labib

23<#>

11/24/2008

Since we have not reached our crashing goal of 30 weeks, we must continue and the process is
repeated. The critical path in the preceding figure remains the same, and the minimum activity crash
cost on the critical path is $500 for activity 2-3. Activity 2-3 can be crashed a total of 3 weeks, but
since the contractor desires to crash the network only to 30 weeks, we need to crash activity 2-3 by
only 1 week. Crashing activity 2-3 by 1 week does not result in any other path becoming critical, so
we can safely make this reduction. Crashing activity 2-3 to 7 weeks (i.e., a 1-week reduction) costs
$500 and reduces the project duration to 30 weeks.

The total cost of crashing the project to 30 weeks is $2,500. The contractor could inform the
customer that an additional cost of only $2,500 would be incurred to finish the house in 30 weeks.

Suppose we wanted to continue to crash this network, reducing the project duration down to the
minimum time possible; that is, crashing the network the maximum amount possible. We can
determine how much the network can be crashed by crashing each activity the maximum amount
possible and then determining the critical path of this completely crashed network. For example,
activity 1-2 is 7 weeks, activity 2-3 is 5 weeks, 2-4 is 3 weeks, and so on. The critical path of this
totally crashed network is 1-2-3-4-6-7 with a project duration of 24 weeks. This is the least amount of
time the project can be completed in. If we crashed all the activities by their maximum amount, the
total crashing cost is $35,700, computed by subtracting the total normal cost of $75,000 from the
total crash cost of $110,700 in the preceding table. However, if we followed the crashing procedure
outlined in this example, the network can be crashed to 24 weeks at a cost of $31,500, a savings of
$4,000.

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Prof. A.W. Labib

The General Relationship of

Time and Cost

In our discussion of project crashing, we demonstrated how the project critical path time
could be reduced by increasing expenditures for labour and other direct resources. The
objective of crashing was to reduce the scheduled completion time to reap the results of
the project sooner. However, there may be other reasons for reducing project time. As
projects continue over time, they consume indirect costs, including the cost of facilities,
equipment, and machinery, interest on investment, utilities, labour, personnel costs, and
the loss of skills and labour from members of the project team who are not working at
their regular jobs. There also may be direct financial penalties for not completing a
project on time. For example, many construction contracts and government contracts
have penalty clauses for exceeding the project completion date.

In general, project crashing costs and indirect costs have an inverse relationship;
crashing costs are highest when the project is shortened, whereas indirect costs increase
as the project duration increases. This time-cost relationship is illustrated. The best, or
optimal, project time is at the minimum point on the total cost curve.

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24<#>

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Prof. A.W. Labib

References
Lockyer, and Gordon, Project
Management, 6th Edition, 1996.

MacLachlan, Making Project Management
Work, 1996.

Haynes, M.E., Project Management, 4th
edition, 1996.

Russell, R.S., and B.W. Taylor, Operations
Management, Prentice Hall, 2000.

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Prof. A.W. Labib

25<#>

11/24/2008

Team
No. Activity

Predecessor Duration

1.
2
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

53
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Team:
Abdulaziz Al-Sarami (ARAMCO)
Ebrahim Al-Qahtani (QP)
Saeed Al Suwaidi (ZADCO)
No.

Activity

Predecessor

Duration (days)

1.

Tank drainage

Cleaning

3.

Visual inspection

9,2

4.

Repairing

10

5.

Box- up

11

6.

Hydro test

Not 7 but 5

7.

Isolation

N/A

Ventilation

Radio graphic

0.5

10

Develop Contract

N/A

11

Checking

7,8,9,10

12

Despading

N/A

54
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

26<#>

11/24/2008

Team:
Abdulaziz Al-Sarami (ARAMCO)
Ebrahim Al-Qahtani (QP)
Saeed Al Suwaidi (ZADCO)

dro
Hy

ng

Cleaning

Radio
graphic

Visual
inspection

tes

De
sp
ad
i

Ventilation
Ta
nk
dra
i na
ge

Repairing

10

11

ec
kin
g

Isolation

Ch

ac
ontr
op C
l
e
v
De

Box-

up

12

13

55
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Team:
Abdulaziz Al-Sarami (ARAMCO)
Ebrahim Al-Qahtani (QP)
Saeed Al Suwaidi (ZADCO)

Isolation

Ventilation
Ta
nk 1
dra
i na
ge
3

dro
Hy 1

De
sp
ad
i
2 ng

Cleaning
2

Radio
graphic

0.5

Visual
inspection

Repairing

10 7
ec
kin
g

t ra c
Con

Ch

elop
Dev

tes

Box-

8
13

up

11
1

12

56
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

27<#>

11/24/2008

Team:
Abdulaziz Al-Sarami (ARAMCO)
Ebrahim Al-Qahtani (QP)
Saeed Al Suwaidi (ZADCO)
1

Isolation

Radio

Visual

2
4
4.5
inspection
graphic
Ventilation
Cleaning
3
4
5
Ta
1
0.5
2
nk 1
dra
i na
ge 2
3

dro
Hy 1

De
sp
ad
i
2 ng

tes

10 7

11
1

13.5

5.5Repairing12.5

Ch

ec
kin
g

ac
ontr
op C
l
e
v
1
De

15.5 Box- up
2
13

12

57
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Prof. A.W. Labib

Team:
Abdulaziz Al-Sarami (ARAMCO)
Ebrahim Al-Qahtani (QP)
Saeed Al Suwaidi (ZADCO)
1

1
0

Isolation

1
1

2
1

5.5
Radio

Visual

2
4
4.5
inspection
graphic
Ventilation
Cleaning
3
4 0.5 5 1
Ta
2
nk 1
2
4
4.5
dra
i na
ge 2
3

dro
Hy 1

De
sp
ad
i
2 ng

tes
t

5.5Repairing12.5

10 7

11

5.5

ec
kin
g

t ra c
Con

Ch

elop
Dev

12.5
1

13.5

4 5.5

15.5 Box- up
2
13

8
12.5

12
13.5

15.5

12.5

58
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

28<#>

11/24/2008

Team:
Abdulaziz Al-Sarami (ARAMCO)
Ebrahim Al-Qahtani (QP)
Saeed Al Suwaidi (ZADCO)
1

Isolation

2
1

5.5
Radio

Visual

2
4
4.5
inspection
Cleaning
graphic
Ventilation
3
4
5
Ta
1
2
0.5
nk 1
2
4
4.5
dra
i na
ge 2
3

dro
Hy 1

De
sp
ad
i
2 ng

tes
t

5.5Repairing12.5

10 7

11

5.5

Ch

ec
kin
g

ac
ontr
op C
l
e
v
1
De

12.5
1

13.5

4 5.5

15.5 Box- up
2
13

8
12.5

12
13.5

15.5

12.5

59
24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

Team:
Abdulaziz Al-Sarami (ARAMCO)
Ebrahim Al-Qahtani (QP)
Saeed Al Suwaidi (ZADCO)
No.

Activity

Normal
Time

1.

Tank drainage

Cleaning

3.

Visual inspection

4.

Repairing

5.

Box- up

6.

Hydro test

7.

Isolation

8.

Ventilation

9.

Radio graphic

0.5

10.

Develop Contract

11.

Checking

12.

Despading

24/11/2008

60
Prof. A.W. Labib

29<#>

11/24/2008

Team:
Abdulaziz Al-Sarami (ARAMCO)
Ebrahim Al-Qahtani (QP)
Saeed Al Suwaidi (ZADCO)

No.

Activity

Normal
Time

1.

Tank drainage

Cleaning

3.

Visual inspection

4.

Repairing

5.

Box- up

6.

Hydro test

7.

Isolation

8.

Ventilation

9.

Radio graphic

0.5

10.

Develop Contract

11.

Checking

12.

Despading

24/11/2008

B
Crash
Time

C
Normal
Cost

Crash
Cost

E (A-B) F (D-C/E)
Allowa
ble
Time

Crash
Cost
per day

61
Prof. A.W. Labib

Team:
Abdulaziz Al-Sarami (ARAMCO)
Ebrahim Al-Qahtani (QP)
A
B
C
Saeed Al Suwaidi (ZADCO)
No.

Activity

Normal
Time
3

1.

Tank drainage

Cleaning

3.

Visual inspection

1
7

4.

Repairing

5.

Box- up

6.

Hydro test

7.

Isolation

8.

Ventilation

9.

Radio graphic

0.5
1

10.

Develop Contract

11.

Checking

12.

Despading

24/11/2008

Crash
Time

Normal
Cost

D
Crash
Cost

E (A-B) F (D-C/E)
Allowa
ble
Time

Crash
Cost
per day

62
Prof. A.W. Labib

30<#>

11/24/2008

Well done!!...Thank you.

24/11/2008

Prof. A.W. Labib

63
63

31<#>

207

Learning from failures: design improvements using a

multiple criteria decision-making process
G G Davidson1 and A W Labib2 *
1
Centre for Manufacture, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester, UK
2
Manufacturing Division, Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Manufacturing Engineering, University of
Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester, UK

Abstract: This paper proposes a new concept of decision analysis based on a multiple criteria
decision making (MCDM) process. This is achieved through the provision of a systematic and generic
methodology for the implementation of design improvements based on experience of past failures.
This is illustrated in the form of a case study identifying the changes made to Concorde after the 2000
accident.
The proposed model uses the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) mathematical model as a backbone
and integrates elements of a modied failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA). The AHP has
proven to be an invaluable tool for decision support since it allows a fully documented and
transparent decision to be made with full accountability. In addition, it facilitates the task of justifying
improvement decisions.
The paper is divided as follows: the rst section presents an outline of the background to the
Concorde accident and its history of related (non-catastrophic) malfunctions. The AHP methodology
and its mathematical representation are then presented with the integrated FMEA applied to the
Concorde accident. The case study arrives at the same conclusion as engineers working on Concorde
after the accident: that the aircraft may y again if the lining of the fuel tanks are modied.
Keywords:

design for maintenance, analytic hierarchy process, multiple criteria decision making

NOTATION
a
aav
g

modied risk priority number (RPN)

average modied risk priority number
FMEA rating

INTRODUCTION

Normally it has been difcult to combine both

quantative and qualitative judgements when making
large complex decisions. In this case both sets of data
are combined in the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) to
arrive at an overall decision. Subjective inputs are
The MS was received on 4 April 2003 and was accepted after revision for
publication on 11 August 2003.
* Corresponding author: Manufacturing Division, Department of
Mechanical, Aerospace and Manufacturing Engineering, University of
Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, PO Box 88,
Manchester M60 1QD, UK.
G00903 # IMechE 2003

entered directly into the AHP through pairwise comparisons while qualitative inputs are rst acquired through
the use of a modied failure modes and effects analysis
(FMEA), known here as the g analysis.
Traditional FMEA [1, 2] has been criticized as having
several drawbacks: it concentrates on the analysis of
existing systems rather than proposing ways of designing-in system excellence. These drawbacks are addressed
in several papers [35]. Other conventional reliability
analysis such as fault tree analysis (FTA) and overall
equipment effectiveness (OEE) are based on an analysis
of plant details in a rigid and static environment. They
have been successful to a degree but the volume and
quality of data involved render them expensive and
ineffective solutions to design problems.
The model proposed in this paper acts as an
alternative, offering a exible and intelligent approach
using criticality analysis on a multi-level and multi-axis
view to focus on appropriate improvements and to select
appropriate design policies. In previous work [68]
multiple criteria decision making has been applied to
maintenance problems. Application of FMEA to feedback into design has been addressed by others [9, 10].
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 217 Part G:

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208

G G DAVIDSON AND A W LABIB

THE ACCIDENT

The rst and only recorded loss of a Concorde occurred

on 25 July 2000. Flight AFR 4590 was involved in a
catastrophic accident soon after take-off from Charles
de Gaulle, France, causing complete destruction of the
airframe and the loss of 113 lives (9 crew members, 100
passengers and 4 people on the ground). All remaining
aircraft were immediately grounded to allow execution
of a thorough investigation into the accident. This
investigation not only led to a number of hypotheses
being presented and tested for the cause of the accident
but was also used in recommending that the aircraft may
y again if suitable modications were made [11].
It was concluded that the accident was caused by the
rupture and subsequent disintegration of the front right
tyre of the left main landing gear after being punctured
by a metal strip which had fallen off the thrust reverser
cowl door on a DC10 that had taken off 5 minutes
before Concorde. It was deduced that the tyre failure
initiated a sequence of events that led to leaking fuel
catching re, severely damaging the airframe in ight
and culminating in a loss of control before the aircraft
made contact with the ground.
A brief synopsis of the events is as follows:
1. A tyre was damaged during take-off, throwing
rubber fragments against the aircraft wing at high
velocity.
2. Fuel tank 5 was ruptured and spewed out fuel which
then caught re.
3. The landing gear would not retract while ingestion of
hot gases and kerosene by the engines caused surges
and a consequent loss of thrust.
4. The aircraft angle of attack increased rapidly,
increasing drag and leading to lift being rapidly lost.
The fuel was likely to have been ignited from an
electrical spark, an engine surge or from self-ignition of
hot gases.
The rupture of a fuel tank after being hit by tyre
rubber is an unusual problem and perhaps an exclusive
problem to Concorde due to its very high take-off
velocity, which is in excess of 200 mile/h. Despite this,
the accident should have been prevented if adequate
steps had been taken after similar earlier failures. There
are a variety of ways to protect fuel tanks as well as
trying to ensure tyres do not rupture. However, how do
you decide which is the most effective? The model here
addresses this problem.

2.1 A history of problems

It is prudent to note that this was not the rst identied
case of a tyre rupturing and damaging Concorde during
take-off (Fig. 1), although this is the rst where a failure
had a catastrophic outcome. Previous modications to
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 217 Part G:

J. Aerospace Engineering

reduce the risk at take-off have included the ending of

the use of retreaded tyres by British Airways in 1981 and
then Air France in 1996. This entirely eliminated the
problem of tyres shedding their tread (all tread-loss
events between 1981 and 1996 were attributed to Air
France aircraft). Other modications have included
strengthening the wheel and tyre assemblies in 1982.
This again reduced the number of events concerned with
tyre failure.

2.2 Options for improvement

To minimize the likelihood of any repeat failure of this
nature a number of major modications were considered
by the engineers working on the aircraft. These are
aimed at limitingas far as possiblethe chance of a
repeat disaster. The main options were as follows:
1. To protect the cabling and hydraulics running through
the main landing gear bays more thoroughly. This
would allow full operation of aircraft systems in the
event of a repeat high-velocity impact directed at the
gear bay. This would be done in conjunction with
automatically disconnecting the 115 V electrical
supply to the brake cooling fans while the landing
gear was deployed, eliminating electrical sparks as a
possible source of ignition for escaping fuel. This was
a low-cost option as there would be little additions to
the aircraft in the way of weight or volume as tough,
low-density materials may be used, such as brereinforced composites.
2. To make use of more recent tyre technology by
employing tyres of radial rather than cross-ply
construction, which in the event of a blowout should
burst parallel to, rather than perpendicular to, the
axis of rotation. This is a relatively low-cost solution
which is likely to improve the safety status of the
aircraft. However, potential customers may see
the change as too minor to signicantly improve
the safety of the aircraft.
3. Line the aircraft fuel tanks with kevlar-rubber panels,
which should resist impact penetration better than
current materials. The solution is similar to that used
in military planes where fuel tanks are lined with
rubber which allows a bullet or other body to pass
through before the ensuing gap subsequently closes,
minimizing fuel loss and, therefore, the potential for
re. This, although not a low-cost option, was
perhaps the most robust in terms of meeting the
criteria of improving the safety of the aircraft. It
should appear to airline customers that signicant
steps were being taken to improve the safety of the
aeroplane.
4. Permanently grounding the aircraft has the minimum
of risk involved. If there are no passengers on the
aircraft and the plane does not y, there can be no
G00903 # IMechE 2003

LEARNING FROM FAILURES: DESIGN IMPROVEMENTS

Fig. 1

History of events concerning the tyre failure on Concorde

risk. This option will also be used in the analysis. It is

low cost but there is a publicity trade-off as Concorde
adds prestige to the British Airways and Air France
aircraft eets.
5. The status quo. Although not a real option due to the
aircraft not being certied to y, it will be used in the
analysis as a check on the outcome of the decisions.

THEORY AND USE OF THE g ANALYSIS

(MODIFIED FMEA)

There are four main steps in using the model. The rst is
to perform the modied FMEA to gain a g rating for
each modication. The second is to construct a
hierarchy for use with the AHP which includes g as a
criterion. The third is to make judgements to add to the
AHP and the fourth is to run the AHP mathematical
program to synthesize the result of the analysis. The
process is adaptable in its nature and each task need not
be done concurrently so, for example, the g analysis may
be completed before the construction of the hierarchy
takes place or vice versa (Fig. 2).
The principle of the FMEA remains the same [12, 13]
when used in the model as when used normally: to nd
the RPN (risk priority number) for a given component
G00903 # IMechE 2003

209

or overall system. However, in the modied version

there are two extra stages of analysis to perform, the rst
being calculation of the probability of the cause of the
failure occurring and the second relating to preparing
the RPN data for entry into the AHP. Normally the
RPN is a value between 1 and 1000, but this is reduced
to a value between 0 and 1. This is done using a
logarithmic function.
It is at this stage that the new analysis method begins
to differ from a standard FMEA. The objective of this
analysis is to gain an overall RPN a) for the
modication option being studied rather than an a
value for each individual failure effect. This is done by
averaging a for all the failure effects. As a result of this,
all the values entered in the table in Fig. 3 need to be
scaled accordingly to allow a direct comparison.
A new column is added to the FMEA table for the
probability of the cause of the failure occurring, known
as the probability product. This is then assessed on a
scale of 1 to 10. This value is then used to scale the
probability values for each failure effect by using the
following formula:
Probability product Probability of cause=10

6probability of the effect

1

Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 217 Part G:

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210

G G DAVIDSON AND A W LABIB

Fig. 2

Model ow chart

The values this formula returns are given in a column

entitled `probability product. It is this probability
product value that is used when calculating the a for
each failure effect, which is found in the following
manner:
a severity6detection rate6probability product

This allows a to be given for each failure effect that

takes account of the probability of the cause. The
average of all the values is then found for a particular
modication solution to give its overall rating; this aav
value is used in the overall equation (3) to nd g.
As previously stated, the value of a in this form is not
suitable for use in the AHP as values need to be between
0 and 1 for direct entry into the theory. This is solved by
obtaining only one number to describe the risk
associated with the part being studied. The average of
the a values is found aav which, depending on the
judgements, can be any value between 0 and 1000. The
following formula is then applied to reduce its range to
110:

log1:995 259 9 aav 1

g 1
3
10
The following steps should be followed:
1. The total value is subtracted from 1 to give the
analysis the correct sense: FMEA looks at how bad a
problem is with a high value being very bad, whereas
the AHP looks at how good a solution is with a high
value being very good. This step corrects the above
anomaly.
2. The second part of the formula, log1:9952599 aav 1,
reduces the range of values outputted from the
average of a (1 to 1000) to a range of values from 1 to
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 217 Part G:

J. Aerospace Engineering

10; 1 is added to the aav value to avoid the case where

a log of 0 may need to be found. A base of 1.995 259 9
is used as this gives a range of solutions between 0
and 10 when the data entered into the formula is in
the range 01000.
3. The answer from the above step is divided by 10 to
reduce the values from a range of 010 to a range of
01. These data can then be entered directly into the
AHP.
For this analysis an additional node must be added to
the hierarchy in the form of g. It is under this heading
that the g values will be added.
This criteria is assessed as before, with the weighting
of its importance being decided through the use of the
normal pair-wise comparisons. Thus, if the qualitative
data are deemed to be very important then g will have a
high weighting; if not, the weighting should be lower.
For systems where the g analysis is thorough, a
weighting of around 0.4 should be used, less so if the g
results are felt to be less reliable.

APPLICATION OF THE AHP TO THE

CONCORDE ACCIDENT

The AHP has been developed by Saaty [1416]. It has

been applied to numerous applications [1719]. Section
2 are details of the following modication alternatives:
1. Ground the aircraft.
2. Line the fuel tanks with a composite material.
3. Change the construction of the tyres tted to the
aircraft.
4. Give additional protection to systems passing
through the landing gear bay.
5. Make no changes to the aircraft.
G00903 # IMechE 2003

211

Fig. 3

A g analysis table demonstrating the formulation of g values for a tyre failure

LEARNING FROM FAILURES: DESIGN IMPROVEMENTS

G00903 # IMechE 2003

Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 217 Part G:

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212

G G DAVIDSON AND A W LABIB

For the purpose of this example the decisions are

simplied by making a number of assumptions. These
are that the options are mutually exclusive and that
making no changes to the aircraft is a valid option. In
reality this is not the case.
It may be argued at this stage that it is not
appropriate to carry out an analysis on a system as
complex as the modication of Concorde, especially in
view of the fact that only those with a thorough
understanding of the problem should expect to get
accurate responses from using the proposed model.
However, this is merely a demonstration of the use of
the tool; thus the results are not critical in themselves.

4.1 Step 1: g analysis

The initial step involved here was to identify the system
that was to be analysed. Therefore the root cause of the
Concorde accident, in this case a tyre failure, was used
to form the overall goal to: `[ensure] appropriate
measures have been taken to guarantee a satisfactory
level of safety with regard to the risks associated with
the destruction of tyres [11]. A g analysis table was lled
in for each modication option, as described in section 2
of this paper. There were therefore ve separate tables to
be completed, which was performed in a spreadsheet.
Judgements were then made as to the probability of
each cause, the severity of each effect, the detection rate
of each effect and the probability of each effect.
Formulae were entered in the columns entitled probability product, a and in the cell that calculates g in
accordance with the method described earlier. The table
used to assess the process of changing the tyres is shown
in Fig. 3.
The assessment of grounding the aircraft had to be
treated as a special case because if the aircraft does not
y then there can be no risk from ying on the
aeroplane; therefore g would immediately be zero. This
was not reasonable. It was thus assumed that airline
customers had to y and therefore the risk of ying on
an aircraft other than Concorde should be subjectively
assessed for this entry.

Fig. 4
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 217 Part G:

4.2 Step 2: construction of hierarchy

Construction of the hierarchy (Fig. 4) was made after
taking account of the main factors inuencing the future
of the aircraft. The goal was thus deemed to be `to
choose the appropriate action to take after the
Concorde crash. The goal was then assessed using the
following criteria:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Safety. Are the safety issues satised?

Economic. Will the choice be economically viable?
Image. Will the public be satised with the changes?
Practicality. Are the proposals feasible?
FMEA. g.

Note that all except the g assessment are posed in the

form of a question to ease the pair-wise comparisons
that are made at a later stage. This is not required for g
as the data are entered directly.
The alternatives were entered in a shortened version
as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Line fuel tanks.

Change tyres.
Plate bay.
No changes.
Ground the aircraft.

With the hierarchy completed and all alternatives

entered it is possible to move to the next step of the
analysis.

4.3 Step 3: making judgements

Each judgement was made with respect to the alternatives while being mindful of the background of the
accident and the factors that would inuence the
decision engineers would make. The g values were
added to the AHP at this stage to allow the software to
take account of them when synthesizing the result.

4.4 Step 4: synthesis of results with respect to the goal

The mathematical solver of the AHP was run to
synthesize the results, which are shown in Fig. 5.

Hierarchy of AHP showing the goal and the child nodes of the goal
J. Aerospace Engineering

G00903 # IMechE 2003

LEARNING FROM FAILURES: DESIGN IMPROVEMENTS

Fig. 5

Results of the analysis showing lining of the fuel tanks as the most preferable alternative

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

It can easily be seen that lining the fuel tanks is the most
preferable option, followed by permanently grounding
the aircraft (note that both decisions were made in the
same sequence). This is after all the criteria have been
assessed, including the g rating. The sensitivity of these
results was then analysed using the following graphs.
Figure 6 shows a sensitivity graph with the safety
criterion on the horizontal axis. Sensitivity graphs allow
the effect of changing the importance of one particular
criterion to be studied while the importance of all other

Fig. 6
G00903 # IMechE 2003

213

criteria remains unchanged. Figure 6 demonstrates what

happens when the safety criterion becomes more or less
important than the initial judgement by detailing the
decision surface. It can be seen that at the decision point
(the vertical line) lining the fuel tanks is the best option.
However, if safety was to be given less importance in
relation to the other criteria (the vertical line moves left)
then changing the tyres would be the best option for
achieving the goal. Similarly, if safety issues were to
become more important (the vertical line moves right)
then grounding the aircraft would be the recommendation of the analysis.

Sensitivity graph: safety

Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 217 Part G:

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214

G G DAVIDSON AND A W LABIB

Fig. 7

Sensitivity graph: practicality

When the inuence of practicality is considered (Fig.

7), lining the fuel tanks is only considered the best
option when this criterion is given a low level of
importance. If it were to become more important then
changing the tyres would quickly become the best
option for fullling the goal. Grounding the aircraft is
not considered a practical option as the aircraft would
not be given recertication; as a result it is the least
likely option for all levels of practicality.
Public perception of the aircraft, or image as it is
described in this analysis (Fig. 8), is best satised by
lining the fuel tanks of the aircraft. This is because the

Fig. 8
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 217 Part G:

J. Aerospace Engineering

fact that a major modication has been made to the

aircraft and one that has a substantial cost can be used
in publicity material. Making no changes is not
acceptable at any level and grounding the aircraft is
also reasonably unpopular because the aircraft is
perceived as a status symbol of European technology.
Economic concerns have been prescribed a low level
of importance (Fig. 9) in the initial evaluation. This is
based on the historical economic non-viability of
Concorde and it is seen as being a factor where the
policy of the airlines is unlikely to change. In this case
the lining of the fuel tanks is again the most popular,

Sensitivity graph: image

G00903 # IMechE 2003

LEARNING FROM FAILURES: DESIGN IMPROVEMENTS

Fig. 9

Sensitivity graph: economic

although if the economic weighting is increased, making

no changes very quickly becomes the most desirable
option, for obvious reasons.
Studying the gradient graph relating to the FMEA
rating g, Fig. 10 shows lining the fuel tanks as the best
option, whatever weighting the criteria is given. At the
lower end of the scale, where g is least important,
grounding the aircraft becomes a close second, whereas
at the upper end of the scale changing the tyre design
becomes the second most likely choice to satisfy the
goal.
Studying these graphs allows the relative importance
of the various criteria to be analysed, which is a useful

Fig. 10
G00903 # IMechE 2003

215

tool in the verication of the decision. In this case, lining

the fuel tanks is consistently the preferred option for
fullling the goal and as such it is reasonable to have a
high level of condence in the result of the analysis.

CONCLUSION

The method has shown itself to be thorough in its nature

and fully accountable through the use of the sensitivity
analysis. This allows any outcome to be checked and
double-checked to ensure that it is the most appropriate

Sensitivity graph: g analysis

Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 217 Part G:

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216

G G DAVIDSON AND A W LABIB

one and a permanent record of the analysis process to be

formed.
This case study has arrived at the conclusion that
lining the fuel tanks of Concorde is the preferable option
when deciding the future of the aircraft. This matches
the decision made by the engineers working on
Concorde who have decided the best option was to
line the fuel tanks with a composite material. The next
most popular option was to permanently ground the
aircraft, partly due to its age.
This case study has thus shown that the presented
model is likely to be of use in assisting with this type of
decision and that the result is likely to be of a robust and
dependable nature. The Concorde accident, although
somewhat `freak due to a combination of unlikely
events conspiring to cause the aeroplane to crash, can
still be analysed in a methodical manner when using
suitable models.
The use of the AHP could well prove invaluable when
assisting with this decision, as the AHP will allow a fully
documented and transparent decision to be made with
full accountability. It will also ease the task of justifying
the decision, as it can be shown to have been made for
eminently reasonable reasons.
The case study in this paper concentrated on the
implementation of the model and its subsequent
evaluation to ensure the decision made was robust. In
this case it was possible to compare the decision made
from this analysis with what has actually happened.
Modication of Concorde has now been completed
with lining the fuel tanks being chosen as the preferred
option. This was at a cost of 17 million UK pounds. The
aircraft has now returned to service although its future is
again in jeopardy after British Airways and Air France
decided to remove the aircraft from service in 2003 due
to reduced passenger revenues following a global
economic downturn.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are indebted to an anonymous referee for
detailed and powerful comments on an earlier version of
this paper.

REFERENCES
1 OConnor, P. D. Practical Reliability Engineering, 1990
(John Wiley, Chichester).

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J. Aerospace Engineering

2 Stamatis, D. H. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis, 1995

(American Society of Quality Control).
3 Aven, T. Reliability and Risk Analysis, 1992 (Elsevier,
Oxford).
4 Pillay, A. and Wang, J. Modied failure mode and effects
analysis using approximate reasoning. Reliability Engng
and System Safety, 2003, 79 (1), 6985.
5 Price, C. J. and Taylor, N. S. Automated multiple failure
FMEA. Reliability Engng and System Safety, 2002, 76 (1),
110.
6 Labib, A. W., OConnor, R. F. and Williams, G. B. An
effective maintenance system using the analytic hierarchy
process. Integrated Mfg Systems, 1998, 9(2), 8798.
7 Labib, A. W. World-class maintenance using a computerised maintenance management system. J. Qual. Maintenance Engng, 1998, 4(1), 6675.
8 Labib, A. W., OConnor, R. and Williams, G. An intelligent
maintenance model (system): an application of the analytic
hierarchy process and a fuzzy logic rule based controller. J.
Opl Res. Soc., 1998, 49, 745757.
9 Farquharson, J., McDuffee, J., Seah, A.K. and Matsumoto,
T. FMEA of marine systems: moving from prescriptive to
risk-based design and classication. In Annual Reliability
and Maintainability Symposium Proceedings, 2002, pp. 165
172.
10 Franceschini, F. and Galetto, M. A new approach for
evaluation of risk priorities of failure modes in FMEA. Int.
J. Prod. Res., 2001, 39(13), 29913002.
11 Accident on 25 July 2000 at La Patte dOie in Gonesse (95)
to the Concorde registered F-BTSC operated by Air
France (English translation). Bureau dEnquetes et dAnalyses pur la Securite delAviation Civile, Ministere de
lEquipement des Transports et du Logement, France,
2002.
12 Mohr, R. R. Failure Modes and Effects Analysis, 2002
(Jacobs Engineering Group, Pasadena, California).
13 Dale, B. G. and Shaw, P. Failure mode and effect analysis:
a study of its use in the motor industry. UMIST,
Manchester, 1990, Occasional paper 8904.
14 Saaty, T. L. Decision Making for Leaders. The Analytic
Hierarchy Process for Decisions in a Complex World, 1980
(RWS Publications, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania).
15 Saaty, T. L. How to make a decision: the analytic hierarchy
process. Eur. J. Opl Res., 1990, 48, 926.
16 Saaty, T. L. Decision Making with Dependence and Feedback; The Analytic Network Process 1996 (RWS Publications, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania).
17 Talbert, M. L., Balci, O. and Nance, R. E. Application of
the analytic hierarchy process to complex system design
evaluation. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1996.
18 Vargas, L. G. An overview of the analytic hierarchy
process and its applications. Eur. J. Opl Res., 1990, 48, 28.
19 Dobias A. P. Designing a mouse trap using the analytic
hierarchy process and expert choice. Eur. J. Opl Res., 1990,
48, 5765.

G00903 # IMechE 2003

Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 18 (2005) 205208

www.elsevier.com/locate/jlp

The unfolding of Bhopal disaster

T.R. Chouhan*
Ex-MIC Plant Operator, Union Carbide Plant, Bhopal

Abstract
As an employee of Union Carbide India at the Bhopal plant, I know how the disaster happened. The merciless cost-cutting severely
affecting materials of construction, maintenance, training, manpower and morale resulted in the disaster that was waiting to happen.
Significant differences between the West Virginia, USA plant and the Bhopal, India plant show the callous disregard of the corporation for
the people of the developing countries. The narrative below, if given a proper thought by the management and governments, should help in
significantly reducing industrial accidents.
q 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Bhopal gas tragedy; Safety; Industrial accidents; Methyl isocyanate; MIC

1. The details
Since I was an employee of the Union Carbide India
before and also when the tragic event took place on the night
of December 23, 1984 in Bhopal, I am aware of the
sequence of events that led to it. I am here today to share my
experience with you.
To begin with, I would like to state that the disaster was not
merely an accident! Extensive details are given in (Chouhan,
2004). The points that I would highlight subsequently will
prove how such a big multi-national corporation (like Union
Carbide) had little concern about the safety and well-being of
people in a developing country like ours. Not just that, even
the technology they used was unproven and faulty. For
instance: emergency procedure for MIC storage tanks for
Bhopal plant as per the MIC operating manual reads: If a leak
develops in a tank that cannot be stopped or isolated, the
material in the tank may be pumped to another tank. There
will be exceptions to all these guidelines. We will learn
more and more as we gain actual experience. It implies that
they did not know the process well enough to advise the
emergency procedure in many situations.
The toxic gas that leaked into the Bhopal atmosphere
that night was due to water (along with catalytic material:
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C91 755 2600732; fax: C91 9302370740.
E-mail address: [email protected]

0950-4230/$ - see front matter q 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.jlp.2005.07.025

iron, rust, etc.) entering the storage tank 610 of the Union
Carbide MIC plant. The phosgenes stripping still and the
quench filters safety valves downstream (four in
numbers) were connected to the relief valve vent header
(RVVH). These lines were badly choked with solid
sodium salts deposition. The exercise of washing these
filters started at 8:30 PM on 2nd December 1984. Because
of the choking of these lines and malfunctioning of
RVVH isolation valve, the water entered the RVVH main
header (Fig. 1). This header was connected to the MIC
storage area. The RVVH header of storage area was also
connected to the process vent header (PVH) with a jumper
line (Fig. 2 shows where the jumper line was connected. It
was removed when the remainder MIC was utilized on
December 16, 1984). The blow down valve of the MIC
tank 610 was malfunctioning and was in an open position.
(The tank had been unable to maintain pressure when
pressurized using nitrogen a few days earlier.) The water
along with the catalytic material entered the tank. Other
MIC storage tanks, numbered 611 and 619, were holding
pressure so that they were not contaminated.
As the 42 tons of MIC in tank 610 got contaminated with
water and the catalytic material, the exothermic reactions
began and within an hour, turned into violent runaway
reactions resulting in high pressure and temperature in the
tank. The reaction products and the unreacted MIC started
coming out through PVH/Jumper line/RVVH/VGS
and finally to the atmosphere through the atmospheric vent
line and overflow vent line of scrubber, between approximately 12:15 and 2:30 AM.

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T.R. Chouhan / Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 18 (2005) 205208

5. Danger alarm (siren). Installed for warning the

community people, was switched off after 5 min as per
the revised company policy. Thereafter, only the muted
siren for the plant personal was sounded. No plant
person died due to the gas. If the loud alarm for the
community had been sounded for long, many would
have escaped before the gas overpowered them.
6. Evacuation plan. It was only made for the plant
personal, not for the community.
The management had told the workers that the Bhopal
plant was designed and built on the basis of 20 years
experience in making MIC in the West Virginia, USA plant.
Fig. 1. Four quench filters and RVVH isolation valve (with wheel, top right).

The safety equipment provided for the Bhopal plant were

as follows:
1. Vent gas scrubber (VGS, Fig. 3). It was designed to
neutralize the toxic release material released from
various equipment of MIC plant. However, it was not
capable of controlling the runaway reaction. (Further, it
was not operational that night).
2. Flare tower (Fig. 4). It was designed to burn out excess
CO and MIC vapors at a controlled rate and was not
capable of burning the huge amounts released that night.
(Further, it was under maintenance that night).
3. MIC storage 30 tons refrigeration system. It was
installed to keep the storage tank material below 5 8C.
(However, the system had been shutdown in May 1984
to save power, approx. $ 20/day).
4. Water spray. This could be used to knock out the toxic
chemical vapor by spraying large amount of water. But,
while the toxic gases were released at 30-m (100 ft)
above ground, the water spray could not reach that
height and hence could not knock out any gas.

Table 1
Comparative designs of Union Carbide MIC production plants in West
Virginia, USA and Bhopal, India
West Virginia plant

Bhopal plant

All lines and instruments spread out

over whole tank
Computerized control
PVH and RVVH lines: 304 SS

On one single manhole

Unit storage tank between MIC

manufacture and large storage tank
to check purity
Four Vent Gas Scrubbers (VGS,
inbuilt redundancy)
VGS had no atmospheric vent
Two flare towers (FT, inbuilt
redundancy)
Designed for emergency MIC
release
VGS, FT operational around the
clock due to redundancy
Intermediate, non-interactive
refrigerant
a-Naphthol added through pipe line

Pressure, temperature, level instruments functioned well

PVH and RVVH lines from storage
tank direct to VGS and flare tower
MIC storage temperature %5 8C

Fig. 2. Jumper line was connected to PVH line (left) and RVVH line (right,
larger diameter).

Operation and maintenance under

trained, experienced staff, enough in
number
Complete evacuation plan for community in place
Hospital, train, road, river transport,
police, civic administration
informed in an emergency

No computerized control
C-Steel (although prohibited due
to safety considerations)
No such tank

One vent gas scrubber (no

redundancy)
VGS released gases into air. This
caused the tragedy
One flare tower (no redundancy)
Designed for occasional releases
only
Not available when shutdown for
repairs
Direct brine as coolant: could
react with MIC in case of leak
a-Naphthol added manually from
jute sacks after opening MIC
reactor manhole. Several other
hazardous operations performed
manually
Not trustworthy; temperature
indicator worked only the first
few months
Lines from other equipment also
joined these lines. Probability of
contamination of MIC high
!5 8C when drums being filled
to minimise vapor loss.
Refrigeration shutdown since
May 1984. Power saved (w$ 20/
day)Ocost of MIC vapor loss
Not so (training and number
declined)
No evacuation plan for community
No such arrangements existed

T.R. Chouhan / Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 18 (2005) 205208

16

Operators High School

14
Number of Persons

207

Operators BSC/Diploma

12

Maintenance Supervisors

10

Shift Spervisors
Plant Suptd.

8
6
4
2
0

Fig. 3. Vent Gas Scrubber. MIC came out from the tall pipe left of centre.

We felt excited knowing that we were going to work in a

modern, sophisticated and automatic chemical plant. After
the disaster, I came to know of a lot of differences between
the MIC plants in W. Virginia and Bhopal (Table 1). It is
evident from Table 1 that the Bhopal plant was not designed
to handle emergencies that the West Virginia plant could
have.

2. Causes behind the Bhopal gas disaster

The order for water washing was given without

Fig. 4. Flare tower.

1981-82

1984

1984 Nov

Fig. 5. MIC plant supervisory/operating staff; declining numbers

19791984.

However, it could have warned of the runaway

reaction occurring much earlier.
B The refrigeration unit (30 tons capacity) had
been down for over an year, and was totally
shutdown in May 1984. As a result, the MIC tank
was at ambient temperature while the MIC
manual had strongly recommended keeping MIC
below 5 8C.
B The vent gas scrubber was not operating at the
time of the accident.
B The flare tower had been under maintenance since
November 25, 1984 and maintenance was not
completed until the accident. The job could have
been completed within 8 h but for the shortage of staff.
B Manpower was reduced in all categories (Fig. 5)
B Fire and rescue squad (emergency squad) members
were not qualified and trained to handle such an
accident.
B There was no maintenance supervisor for the night
shift.
Nobody was aware of such types of runaway reactions in
the storage tank and therefore proper emergency steps were
not taken.
B MIC plant operating personnel did not have the
qualifications and training that were necessary.
Training had been reduced over the years (Figs. 6
and 7).
Training Programme (MONTHS)

Placing slip blinds

Checking related lines
Disconnecting various lines.
B Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution, in the VGS
unit and field storage tanks, was insufficient for
neutralization of such a large amount of gas.
B The pressure control valve for the MIC storage tank
(610) had not been functioning for over a month.
Water entered through this route.
B The temperature sensor and alarm for the MIC
storage tank had not been working for almost 4
years. Therefore, regular recording of temperature
in the log sheets was not done. According to the
officers this parameter was not important.

1979-80

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

1975

1977

1978

1979 1980-82 1984

1984
Nov-Dec

Fig. 6. Duration of training programme for operators of UC plant, Bhopal.

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T.R. Chouhan / Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 18 (2005) 205208

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Percentage

% Operating Staff

Fully Trained
Transferred

1980

1981

1982
Year

1983

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1979-81

1984

1984
Nov- Dec

1984
Fig. 8. Relative safety of MIC plant based on its design, operation,
maintenance, number of staff and their training.

Fig. 7. Declining number of trained staff; operators and supervisors at MIC

plant. Transferees from other plants had less training.
B

1982-83

The agreement between the union and the management was completed in 1983 by-passing the safety
rules.
Improper behavior of management with the operating
personnel.
Incorrect modifications of the relief valve vent header
(RVVH) and process vent header (PVH) by providing
interconnection with a jumper line in the MIC storage
area (Fig. 2).
The design and technology given by the Union
Carbide Corporation was not safe and sufficient for
preventing contamination and controlling runaway
reaction.
The loud siren did not start at the proper time and was
shut down after 5 min since the siren policy had been
modified.
There was no evacuation plan for the neighboring
area/communities. Even after the accident the
neighboring communities were not informed.
The Plant superintendent did not inform outside
agencies about the accident. Initially, he denied the

accident, and then stated that MIC gas was like a tear
gas and the effects would be temporary. No effective
antidote was told.
The civic authorities did not know the treatment since
they had not been informed of the extremely
hazardous nature of the material stored.
Keeping all the above developments in mind, no one
should be surprised that such a major accident took
place. It was waiting to happen (Fig. 8).

My objective in this presentation is to see that such

disasters are averted all over the world. I do hope that MNCs
while investing in such projects in developing countries
would be as concerned and careful of the safety and wellbeing of the recipient country people as they would be of
their own.

References
Chouhan, T.R. (2004), Bhopal - The Inside Story, 2nd edition, Goa, India:
Other India Press; New York, USA: The Apex Press.

Introduction

A decision analysis
model for maintenance
policy selection using a
CMMS

In this paper, the author proposes to implement

the holonic concept in maintenance systems. The
main features of the holonic concept are fixed rules
and flexible strategies. In this paper, the author will
attempt to apply these concepts into the
maintenance systems for manufacturing.
Therefore, using a hybrid of a rule-base approach
and the analytic hierarchy process (AHP)
technique, the relationship and criteria of the
proposed system will be analysed.
This paper is organised as follows. In the next
section we discuss the characteristics of
computerised maintenance management systems
(CMMSs) highlighting the need for them and their
current deficiencies. We then discuss holonic
concepts with emphasis on applications in
maintenance of manufacturing systems.
Relationship analysis among criteria that are
governing the proposed maintenance model will be
presented in the following section followed by an
industrial case study of the models
implementation. Finally, conclusions and
directions for future research are presented.

Ashraf W. Labib

The author
Ashraf W. Labib is based in the Department of Mechanical,
Aerospace and Manufacturing Engineering, University of
Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST),
Manchester, UK.

Keywords
Fuzzy logic, Analytical hierarchy process,
Maintenance programmes

Abstract
In this paper, an investigation of the characteristics of
computerised maintenance management systems (CMMSs) is
carried out to highlight the need for them in industry and identify
their current deficiencies. A proposed model provides a decision
analysis capability that is often missing in existing CMMSs.
The proposed model employs a hybrid of intelligent approaches.
This hybrid system is analogous to the Holonic concept.
The distinction between these two features is important.
The rules function automatically. Practical implications. The main
practical implication of this paper is the proposal of an intelligent
model that can be linked to CMMSs to add value to data
collected in the form of provision of decision support capabilities.
A further implication is to identify the need for information to aid
maintenance, followed by the provision of reasons for current
deficiencies in existing off-the-shelf CMMSs.

Electronic access
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available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is
available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1355-2511.htm

Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering

Volume 10 Number 3 2004 pp. 191202
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN 1355-2511
DOI 10.1108/13552510410553244

Need for information to aid maintenance

management
Several factors are driving the need for information
to aid maintenance management. First, the
amount of information available, even to quite
modest organisations, continues to increase almost
exponentially. What is more, there is an increasing
requirement to have this data and information on
hand and in real-time for decision-making.
Secondly, data-life-time is diminishing as a result
of the shop-floor realities, which are real-time in
nature, and the rapid pace of change. The initiative
now is to acquire data about individual machines,
based upon real interactions rather than deduced
behaviour from historical data. Finally, the way
that data is being accessed has changed. The days
of legacy maintenance systems of large batch
reports, where the focus was on data throughput,
are being replaced by dynamic, online queries,
created on-the-fly, and with answers in seconds
rather than days.
As in almost every sphere of organizational
activity, modern computational facilities have
offered dramatic scope for improved effectiveness
and efficiency. Maintenance is one area in which
computing has been applied, and CMMSs have
The author would like to express his gratitude to both
referees for their valuable comments and constructive
criticism.

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Ashraf W. Labib

Volume 10 Number 3 2004 191202

existed, in one form or another, for several

decades. The software has evolved from relatively
simple mainframe planning of maintenance
activity to Windows-based, multi-user systems
that cover a multitude of maintenance functions.
The capacity of CMMSs to handle vast quantities
of data purposefully and rapidly has opened up
new opportunities for maintenance, facilitating a
more deliberate and considered approach to
managing an organizations assets.
The CMMS is now a central component of
many companies maintenance departments, and
it offers support on a variety of levels in the
organizational hierarchy which are as follows:
.
it can support condition based monitoring
(CBM) of machines and assets, to offer insight
into wear and imminent failures;
.
it can track the movement of spare parts and
requisition replacements when necessary;
.
it allows operators to report faults faster, thus
enabling maintenance staff to respond to
problems more quickly;
.
it can facilitate improvement in the
communication between operations and
maintenance personnel, and is influential in
ameliorating the consistency of information
passed between these two departments;
.
it provides maintenance planners with
historical information necessary for
developing PM schedules;
.
it provides maintenance managers with
information in a form that allows for more
effective control of their departments
activities;
.
it offers accountants information on machines
to enable capital expenditure decisions to be
taken; and
.
it affords senior management a crucial insight
into the state of asset healthcare within their
organisation.

majority of CMMSs in the market suffer from

serious drawbacks as will be shown in the following
section.

Current deficiencies in existing

off-the-shelf CMMSs
Most existing off-the-shelf software packages,
especially CMMS and enterprise resource
planning (ERP) systems, tend to be black holes.
This term is coined by the author as a description
of systems greedy for data input that seldom
provide any output in terms of decision support.
Companies consume a significant amount of
management and supervisory time compiling,
interpreting and analysing the data captured
within the CMMS. Companies then encounter
difficulties analysing equipment performance
trends and their causes as a result of inconsistency
in the form of the data captured and the historical
nature of certain elements of it. In short,
companies tend to spend a vast amount of capital
in acquisition of off-the-shelf systems for data
collection and their added value to the business is
questionable.
All CMMS systems offer data collection
facilities; more expensive systems offer formalised
modules for the analysis of maintenance data; the
market leaders allow real time data logging and
networked data sharing (Figure 1). Yet, despite the
observations made above regarding the need for
information to aid maintenance management,
virtually all the commercially available CMMS
software lacks any decision analysis support for
management. Hence, as shown in Figure 1, a black
hole exists in the row titled decision analysis
because virtually no CMMS offers decision
Figure 1 Facilities offered by commercially available CMMS packages

Indeed, the present author, Labib et al. (1998) has

previously observed that ideally a CMMS is a
means to achieving world-class maintenance, by
offering a platform for decision analysis and
thereby acting as a guide to management. CMMS
packages are able to provide management with
reports and statistics, detailing performance in key
areas and highlighting problematic issues.
Maintenance activities are consequently more
visible and open to scrutiny. Managers can rapidly
discover which policies work, which machines are
causing problems, where overspend is taking place,
and so on, thereby revealing information that can
be used as the basis for the systematic management
of maintenance. Thus, by tracking asset health
in an organised and systematic manner,
maintenance management can start to see how to
improve the current state of affairs. However, the

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Ashraf W. Labib

Volume 10 Number 3 2004 191202

support. This section has been reported in a paper

titled; CMMSs: a black hole or a black box (Labib,
2003). It is included here in order to clarify the
argument raised in this paper.
This lack of decision support is a definite
problem, because the key to systematic and
effective maintenance is managerial decisiontaking that is appropriate to the particular
circumstances of the machine, plant or
organisation. This decision-making process is
made all the more difficult if the CMMS package
can only offer an analysis of recorded data. As an
example when one inputs a certain preventive
maintenance (PM) schedule to a CMMS, say to
change the oil filter every month, the system will
simply produce a monthly instruction to change
the oil filter. In other words it is no more than a
diary. A step towards decision support is to vary
frequency of PMs depending on the combination
of failure frequency and severity. A more intelligent
feature would be to generate and to prioritize PMs
according to modes of failure in a dynamic realtime environment. PMs are usually static and
theoretical in the sense that they do not reflect
shop floor realities. In addition, the PMs that are
copied from machine manuals are not usually
applicable because of the following:
(1) each machine works in a different
environment and would therefore, need
different PMs;
(2) machines designers often do not have the
same experience of machines failures, and
means of prevention, as those who operate
and maintain them; and
(3) machine vendors may have a hidden agenda of
maximizing spare parts replacements through
frequent PMs.

and co-ordination and that existing CMMS in

manufacturing plants are still far from being
regarded as successful in providing team based
functions. He has surveyed CMMSs and also
TPM and RCM concepts and the extent to which
the two concepts are embedded in existing
marketed CMMSs. He has then concluded that
it is worrying the fact that almost half of the
companies are either in some degree dissatisfied or
neutral with their CMMSs and that the responses
indicated that manufacturing plants demand more
user-friendly systems (Boznos, 1998). This is a
further proof of the existence of a black-hole.
In addition, and to make matters worse, it
appears that there is a new breed of CMMSs that
are complicated and lack basic aspects of userfriendliness. Although they emphasise integration
and logistics capabilities, they tend to ignore the
fundamental reason for implementing CMMSs is
to reduce breakdowns. These systems are difficult
to handle by either production operators or
maintenance engineers. They are more accounting
and/or IT oriented rather than engineering-based.
In short, they are Systems Against People that
further promote the concept of black holes.
Results of an investigation of the existing
reliability models and maintenance systems
(EPSRC Grant No. GR/M35291) show that
managers lack of commitment to maintenance
models has been attributed to a number of reasons
(Shorrocks, 2000; Shorrocks and Labib, 2000).
(1) managers are unaware of the various types of
maintenance models;
(2) a full understanding of the various models and
the appropriateness of these systems to
companies are not available; and
(3) managers do not have confidence in
mathematical models due to their
complexities and the number of unrealistic
assumptions they contain.

A noticeable problem with current CMMS

packages regards provision of decision support.
Figure 2 shows how the use of CMMS for decision
support lags significantly behind the more
traditional applications of data acquisition,
scheduling and work-order issuing. While many
packages now offer inventory tracking, and some
form of stock level monitoring, the reordering and
inventory holding policies remain relatively
simplistic and inefficient (Exton and Labib, 2002;
Labiband Exton, 2001). Moreover, there is no
mechanism to support managerial decisionmaking with regard to inventory policy, diagnostics
or setting of adaptive and appropriate preventive
maintenance schedules.
According to Boznos (1998) The primary uses
of CMMS appear to be as a storehouse for
equipment information, as well as a planned
maintenance and a work maintenance planning
tool. The same author suggests that CMMSs
appear to be used less often as a device for analysis

This correlates with recent surveys of existing

maintenance models and optimisation techniques,
Ben-Daya et al. (2001) and Sherwin (2000) have
also noticed that models presented in their work
have not been widely used in industry for several
reasons such as:
(1) unavailability of data;
(2) lack of awareness about these models; and
(3) some of these models have restrictive
assumptions.
Hence, theory and implementation of existing
maintenance models are to a large extent
disconnected. They concluded that there is a need
to bridge the gap between theory and practice
through intelligent optimisation systems (e.g. rulebased systems). They argue that the success of this
type of research should be measured by its

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Ashraf W. Labib

Volume 10 Number 3 2004 191202

Figure 2 Extent of CMMS module usage

relevance to practical situations and by its impact

on the solution of real maintenance problems.
The developed theory must be made accessible to
practitioners through Information Technology
tools. Efforts need to be made in the data
capturing area to provide necessary data for such
models. Obtaining useful reliability information
from collected maintenance data requires effort. In
the past, this has been referred to as data mining,
as if data can be extracted in its desired form if only
it can be found.
In the next section we introduce the decision
analysis model which embodies the Holonic
concept (Figure 3). We then show how to
implement such a model for decision support in
maintenance systems.
Figure 3 Holonic form: combination of fixed rules and flexible strategies

Holonic systems
This concept is based on theory developed by
Koestler (1989). He defined the word holon as a
combination of the Greek word holos meaning
whole and the suffix on, suggesting a
particle or part (as in proton and electron, etc.),
because of the following observations. First, he
noticed that the complex adaptive systems will
evolve from simple systems much more rapidly if
there are stable intermediate forms than if there are
not; the resulting complex system in the former
case being hierarchic. Secondly, while Koestler
was analysing hierarchy and stable intermediate
forms in living organism and social organisation,
he noticed that although it is easy to identify subwholes or parts- wholes and parts in an
absolute sense do not exist anywhere. This made
Koestler propose the word holon to describe the
hybrid nature of sub-wholes or parts in real-life
systems; holons being simultaneously are
self-contained wholes with respect to their
subordinated parts, and dependent parts when
regarded from the inverse direction.
The sub-wholes or holons are autonomous
self-reliant units, which have a degree of
independence and handle contingencies without
asking higher authorities for instructions.
Simultaneously, holons are subject to control form
(multiple) higher authorities. The first property
ensures that the holons are stable forms, which
survive disturbances. The later property signifies
that they are intermediate forms, which provide
the proper functionality for the bigger whole
(Christensen, 1994). Applying this concept to

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Volume 10 Number 3 2004 191202

maintenance of manufacturing systems, a holonic

control architecture is to comply with the concept
of hierarchy in distributed systems.
In order to have an efficient function in the
complex system, every holon has to behave
according to fixed rules and flexible strategies.
The fixed rules form a pattern of rules governing
behaviour, which lends stability and cohesion
between holons in the group (complex system),
while flexible strategies allow the holon to be
autonomous in frame of fixed rules. This flexible
strategies enable the holon to determine how it
operates and particular how it interacts with
other holons in its environment (Bongaerts et al.,
2000).

critical machines within the scope of the actions

recommended by the DMG.
The model is based on identification of criteria of
importance such as downtime and frequency of
failures. The DMG then proposes different
maintenance policies based on the state in the grid.
Each system in the grid is further analyzed in
terms of prioritisations and characterisation of
different failure types and main contributing
components.

Applying holonic concepts in

manufacturing maintenance
The proposed holonic manufacturing
maintenance model is based on the concept of
effectiveness and adaptability. Mathematical
models have been formulated for many typical
situations. These models can be useful in
answering questions such as how much
maintenance should be done on this machine?
How frequently should this part be replaced? How
many spare should be kept in stock? How should
the shutdown be scheduled? It is generally
accepted that the vast majority of maintenance
models are aimed at answering efficiency
questions, i.e. questions of the form How can this
particular machine be operated more efficiently?
and not at effectiveness questions, like Which
machine should we improve and how?. The latter
question is often the one in which practitioners are
interested. From this perspective it is not
surprising that practitioners are often dissatisfied if
a model is directly applied to an isolated problem.
This is precisely why in the integrated approach
efficiency analysis as proposed by the author
(do the things right) is preceded by effectiveness
analysis (seeking to do the right thing). Hence, two
techniques have been employed to illustrate the
above-mentioned concepts, viz. the decision
making grid (DMG) based on fuzzy logic and the
AHP (Labib et al., 1998). The proposed model is
shown in Figure 4.
The DMG acts as a map on which the
performances of the worst machines are located
according to multiple criteria. The objective is to
implement appropriate actions that will lead to the
movement of machines towards an improved state
with respect to these criteria. The criteria are
determined through prioritisation based on the
AHP approach. The AHP is also used to prioritise
failure modes and fault details of components of

Maintenance policies
Maintenance policies can be broadly categorised
as being either technology (systems, or
engineering) oriented, human factors
management oriented or monitoring and
inspection oriented, reliability centered
maintenance (RCM) where reliability of
machines is emphasised failing in the first
category, total productive maintenance (TPM) a
human factors based technique in which
maintainability is emphasised failing the second,
and condition based maintenance (CBM) in
which availability based on inspection and followup is emphasised failing in the third. The
proposed approach here is different from the above
in that it offers a decision map adaptive to the
collected data, which suggests the appropriate use
of RCM, TPM, and CBM.

The DMG through an industrial

case study
This case study (Labib et al., 1997) shows the
application of the proposed model, and its effect
on asset management performance, through the
experience of a company seeking to achieve worldclass status in asset management. the application
has had the effect of reducing total downtime from
an average of 800 to less than a 100 h per month as
shown in Figure 5.

Company background and methodology

The manufacturing company has 130 machines,
varying from robots, and machine centres, to
manually operated assembly tables. notice that in
this case study only two criteria are applied, viz.
frequency and downtime. However, if more
criteria were to be included, such as spare parts
cost and scrap rate, the model would become
multi-dimensional, with low, medium, and high
ranges for each identified criterion. The

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Volume 10 Number 3 2004 191202

Figure 4 Holonic maintenance system

time, say one month. the worst performers as

regards each criterion are sorted and placed into
high, medium, and low sub-groups. These ranges
are selected so that machines are distributed evenly
among every criterion (Figure 6). in this particular
case, the total number of machines (which include
CNCs, robots, and machine centres) is 120.

Figure 5 Total breakdown trends per month

methodology implemented in this case was to

follow three steps which are as follows:
(1) criteria analysis;
(2) decision mapping; and
(3) decision support.
Step 1: criteria analysis
As indicated earlier the aim of this phase is to
establish a Pareto analysis of two important
criteria, viz. downtime (the main concern of
production) and frequency of calls (the main
concern of asset management). Notice that
downtime and frequency can be substituted by
mean time to repair (MTTR), and mean time
between failures (MTBF), respectively. the
objective of this phase is to assess how bad are the
worst performing machines for a certain period of

Step 2: decision mapping

The aim here is twofold; high, medium, and low
groups are scaled and hence genuine worst
machines in both criteria can be monitored on this
grid. It also monitors the performance of different
machines and suggests appropriate actions. The
next step is to place the machines performance on
the DMG shown in Figure 7, and accordingly, to
recommend asset management decisions to
management. This grid acts as a map on which the
performances of the worst machines are located
according to multiple criteria. The objective is to
implement appropriate actions that will lead to the
movement of the grid location of the machines
performance towards the top-left section of low
downtime, and low frequency. In the top-left
region the action to implement, or the rule that
applies, is operate to failure (OTF); In the bottomleft region it is skill level upgrade (SLU), because
data collected from breakdowns attended by
maintenance engineers indicates that a machine
such as G has been visited many times (high
frequency) for limited periods (low downtime).
In other words maintaining this machine is a

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Volume 10 Number 3 2004 191202

Figure 6 Step 1: criteria analysis

Figure 7 Step 2: decision mapping

relatively easy task that can be passed to operators

after upgrading their skill levels.
Machines for which the performance is located
in the top-right region, such as machine B, is a
problematic one, in maintenance words a killer.
it does not breakdown often (low frequency), but
when it does it usually presents a big problem that
lasts for a long time (high downtime). In this case
the appropriate action to take is to analyse the
breakdown events and closely monitor its
condition, i.e. condition base monitoring (CBM).
Location in the bottom-right region indicates a
worst performing machine on both criteria; a
machine that maintenance engineers are used to
seeing not working rather than performing normal
duty. A machine of this category, such as C, will
need to be structurally modified and major designout projects need to be considered, and hence the

appropriate rule to implement will be design out

maintenance (DOM).
If a medium downtime or a medium frequency
is indicated the rule is to carry on with the
preventive maintenance schedules. However, not
all of the medium locations are the same. There
are some that are near to the top left corner where
the work is easy fixed time maintenance (FTM)
because the location is near to the OTF region
issues that need to be addressed include who will
perform the work or when it will be carried out.
For example, the performances of machine I is
situated in the region between OTF and SLU and
the question is about who will do the job the
operator, maintenance engineer, or subcontractor. Also, the position on the grid of a
machine such as F has been shifted from the OTF
region due to its relatively higher downtime and
hence the timing of tasks needs to be addressed.
Other preventive maintenance schedules need
to be addressed in a different manner. The
difficult FTM issues are the ones related to the
contents of the job itself. It might be the case that
the wrong problem is being solved or the right one
is not being solved adequately. In this case
machines such as A and D need to be investigated
in terms of the contents of their preventive
instructions and an expert advice is needed.
Notice that both machines J and K were located
in one set but not the other as shown in Figure 6.
This show that the two sets of top ten worst
machines, in terms of frequency and downtime,
need not be the same set of machines. Therefore,
only common machines in both sets (genuine
failures) will appear in the grid as shown in
Figure 7. So, in Figure 7, both machines; J and K

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Volume 10 Number 3 2004 191202

do not appear as they are outranking (one-off)

events.

and downtime. Hence flexibility and holonic

concepts are embedded in the proposed model.

Step 3: multileveled decision support

Once the worst performing machines are identified
and the appropriate action is suggested, it is now a
case of identifying a focused action to be
implemented. In other words, we need to move
from the strategic systems level to the operational
component level. Using the AHP, one can model a
hierarchy of levels related to objectives, criteria,
failure categories, failure details and failed
components (Figure 8).
The AHP is a mathematical model, developed
by Saaty (1980) that prioritises every element in
the hierarchy relative to other elements in the same
level. The prioritisation of each element is
achieved with respect to all elements in the level
above. Therefore, we obtain a global prioritised
value for every element in the lowest level. In doing
that we can then compare the prioritised fault
details (level 4 in Figure 6), with PM signatures
(keywords) related to the same machine. PMs can
then be varied accordingly in a manner adaptive to
shop floor realities.
The proposed holonic maintenance model as
shown previously in Figure 4, combines both fixed
rules and flexible strategies since machines are
compared on a relative scale. The scale itself is
adaptive to machine performance with respect to
identified criteria of importance; that is frequency

Decision making grid based on FL rules

In practice, however, there can exist two cases
where one needs to refine the model. The first case
is when the performance makers of two machines
are located near to each other on the grid but on
different sides of a boundary between two policies.
In this case we apply two different policies despite
a minor performance difference between the two
machines. The second case is when two such
machines are on the extreme sides of a quadrant of
a certain policy. In this case we apply the same
policy despite the fact they are not near each other.
For two such cases (Figure 9) we can apply the
concept of FL where boundaries are smoothed and
rules are applied simultaneously with varying
weights.
In FL, one needs to identify membership
functions for each controlling factor, in this case
frequency and downtime as shown in
Figures 10(a, b). A membership function defines a
fuzzy set by mapping crisp inputs (crisp means
not fuzzy in FL terminology) from its domain to
degrees of membership (0,1). The scope/domain
of the membership function is the range over
which a membership function is mapped. Here the
domain of the fuzzy set medium frequency is from

Figure 8 Step 3: decision support

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Volume 10 Number 3 2004 191202

Figure 9 Special cases for the DMG model

respectively) one can determine the most

appropriate strategy to follow (indicated on the z
axis).
It can be noticed from Figure 13 that the
relationship DOM . CBM . SLU . FTM .
OTF is maintained. As illustrated, for a 380 h
downtime and a 12 times frequency, the suggested
strategy is CBM. As mentioned above through the
combination of frequency (say 12 times) and
downtime (say 380 h) (indicated on the x and y
axes, respectively) one can then determine the
most appropriate strategy to follow (indicated on
the z axis) which belongs to the CBM region as
shown in Figure 12.

Discussion
10 to 40 and its scope is 30 (40-10), whereas the
domain of the fuzzy set high downtime is from 300
to 500 and its scope is 200 (500-300) and so on.
The basis for the ranges in Figures 10(a), (b) can
be derived as estimates from the scale values of the
ones obtained from the decision making grids over
a period of time, an example could be the one
shown in Figure 7.
The output strategies have a membership
function and we have assumed a cost (or benefit)
function that is linear and follows the relationship
DOM . CBM . SLU . FTM . OTF:
As shown in Figure 11(a). The rules are then
constructed based on the DMG where there will
be nine rules (Figure 11(b)), examples of which
are as follows:
.
if frequency is high and downtime is low then
maintenance strategy is SLU; and
.
if frequency is low and downtime is high then
maintenance strategy is CBM.
The fuzzy decision surface is shown in Figure 12,
from which, any combination of frequency
and downtime (indicated on the x and y axes,

The concept of the DMG was originally proposed

by the author (Labib, 1996). It was then
implemented in an automotive company based in
the UK that has achieved a World-Class status in
maintenance (Labib, 1998a) and has been
extended to be used as a technique to deal with
crisis management in an award winning paper
(Labib, 1998b)[1]. Fernandez et al. (2003)
developed and implemented a CMMS that used
the DMG in its interface for a disk pad
manufacturing company in the UK (Fernandez
et al., 2003).
The DMG could be used for practical
continuous improvement. When machines in the
top ten of the list of worst performers have been
appropriately dealt with, others will move down
the list and resources can be directed at these new
offenders. If this practice is continued all machines
will eventually be running optimally.
If problems have been chronic i.e. regular,
minor and usually neglected some of them could
be due to the incompetence of the user and SLU
would be an appropriate solution. However, if
machines tend towards RCM then the problems

Figure 10 Membership function of (a) frequency; and (b) downtime

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Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering

Ashraf W. Labib

Volume 10 Number 3 2004 191202

Figure 11 (a) Output (strategies) membership function; and (b) the nine rules of the DMG

Figure 12 The fuzzy decision surface

are more sporadic and when they occur it could be

catastrophic. Techniques such as failure mode and
effect analysis (FMEA) and fault tree analysis
(FTA) can help determine the cause of the
problems and may help predict failures, thus
allowing a prevention scheme to be devised.
Figure 14 shows when to apply TPM and RCM.
TPM is appropriate at the SLU range since SLU of
machine tool operators is a fundamental concept
of TPM. RCM is applicable for machines
exhibiting severe failures (high downtime and low
frequency). Also CBM and FMEA will be ideal for
such failures and hence an RCM policy (which
require FMEA and, more often than not, indicates
CBM as optimal) will be most applicable. The
significance of this approach is that rather than
treating RCM and TPM as two competing

concepts it unifies them within a single analytical

model.
In general the easy PM and FTM questions are
Who?, and When? (the efficiency questions).
The more difficult ones are What? and How?
(the effectiveness questions), as indicated in the
Figure 15.
In practice maintenance strategies are based on
the failure rate characteristics, i.e. constant or
variable, failure impact and failure rate trend. The
DMG takes into account the failure rate, its impact
and its trend for recommending and particular
maintenance strategy. The failure rate is taken into
consideration as the frequency axis. The frequency
can therefore be substituted with the mean time
between failures (MTBF). The definition of
MTBF is the average operating time between two

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Volume 10 Number 3 2004 191202

Figure 13 The fuzzy decision surface showing the regions of different strategies

Figure 14 When to apply RCM and TPM in the DMG

Figure 15 Parts of PM schedules that need to be addressed in the DMG

subsequent failures. It is a measure of how reliable

a system is and thus the aim is to maximise it. It is
affected by number of failures, and therefore could
be substituted by frequency in the DMG but in a
decreasing direction.
The failure impact is captured in the downtime
axis. It can also be substituted with mean time to
repair (MTTR). This is due to the fact that the

definition of MTTR is the average time it takes to

return a failed system to its initial operating state.
This value needs to be minimised. Therefore, this
is equivalent to downtime in the DMG.
As for the trend, the proposed model relies on
relative comparison of plants in contrast with other
classic models such as Weibull that relies on a large
amount of data for a particular failure mode in
order to study the trend. In other words, the DMG
compares machines relatively, whereas Weibull
looks at each machine in terms of its past and there
is no relative comparison with other systems. The
basic assumption in Weibull is that a system suffers
from one type mode of failure, otherwise failure
modes may compete and the value of b is the
resultant. This is a major constraint with Weibull.
On the other hand, the basic assumption in the
DMG is that machines are comparable, therefore,
it applies only to batch manufacturing but not to
compare, for example, a transfer line with a small
machine. The DMG addresses issues related to
many maintenance decision policies (for, e.g.
DOM. CBM, FTM, etc.), whereas, the Weibull
analysis addresses trade-off decision policies
between replace and repair decision-making based
on the value of b .

Conclusion
The main idea is based on the fact that the black
hole or missing functionality in conventional
CMMSs is the lack of intelligent decision analysis
tools. A model has been proposed based on

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Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering

Ashraf W. Labib

Volume 10 Number 3 2004 191202

combining the AHP with FL control to render a

Decision Making Grid. This combination
provides features of both fixed rules and flexible
strategies.
The grid supports the making of decisions about
how assets should be maintained whether, for
example, to run to failure, to upgrade operator
skills, to maintain on a fixed time basis, or to
design out the causes of failures. It then gives a
prioritised focus within the scope of the suggested
policy in order to dynamically adapt maintenance
plans through the performance, in a consistent
manner, of trade-off comparisons.
The basic data requirements are simply the asset
register, a fault counter, a timer, and a hierarchical
fault tree as follows:
.
the asset register identifies the different
machines and plants, the fault counter records
the frequency of occurrence of faults (the first
parameter used by the DMG, and which
could be obtained from any CMMS or by
using Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs);
.
the fault timer records downtime (the second
parameter used by the DMG and likewise
obtainable from any CMMS or by using
PLCs); and
.
the fault tree in order to establish the
hierarchical level of faults (which is important
for the AHP model where the combination of
structured fault codes and flexible description
needs to be considered).

Christensen, J. (1994), Holonic manufacturing systems-initial

architecture and standards directions, Proceeding of the
First European Conference on Holonic Manufacturing
Systems, Hanover.
Exton, T. and Labib, A.W. (2002), Spare parts decision analysis
the missing link in CMMSs (Part II), Journal of Maintenance
& Asset Management, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 14-21.
Fernandez, O., Labib, A.W., Walmsley, R. and Petty, D.J. (2003),
A decision support maintenance management system:
development and implementation, International Journal
of Quality and Reliability Management, Vol. 20 No. 8,
pp. 965-79.
Koestler, A. (1989), The Ghost in the Machine, Arkana Books,
London.
Labib, A.W. (1996), An interactive and appropriate productive
maintenance, PhD thesis, University of Birmingham,
Birmingham.
Labib, A.W. (1998a), A logistic approach to managing the
millennium information systems problem, Journal of
Logistics Information Management, Vol. 11 No. 5,
pp. 285-384.
Labib, A.W. (1998b), World class maintenance using a
computerised maintenance management system, Journal
of Quality in Maintenance Engineering, Vol. 4 No. 1,
pp. 66-75.
Labib, A.W. (2003), Computerised maintenance management
systems (CMMSs): a black hole or a black box?, Journal
of Maintenance & Asset Management, Vol. 18 No. 3,
pp. 16-21, ISSN 0952-2110.
Labib, A.W. and Exton, T. (2001), Spare parts decision analysis
the missing link in CMMSs (Part I), Journal of
Maintenance & Asset Management, Vol. 16 No. 3,
pp. 10-17.
Labib, A.W., Cutting, M.C. and Williams, G.B. (1997), Towards a
world class maintenance programme, Proceedings of the
CIRP International Symposium on advanced Design and
Manufacture in the Global Manufacturing Era, Hong Kong,
21-22 August, pp. 82-8.
Labib, A.W., Williams, G.B. and OConnor, R.F. (1998), An
intelligent maintenance model (system): an application of
the analytic hierarchy process and a fuzzy logic rule-based
controller, Journal of the Operational Research Society,
Vol. 49, pp. 745-57.
Saaty, T.L. (1980), The Analytic Hierarchy Process, McGraw Hill,
New York, NY.
Sherwin, D. (2000), A review of overall models for maintenance
management, Journal of Quality in Maintenance
Engineering, Vol. 6 No. 3.
Shorrocks, P. (2000), Selection of the most appropriate
maintenance model using a decision support framework,
unpublished report, UMIST, Manchester.
Shorrocks, P. and Labib, A.W. (2000), Towards a multimediabased decision support system for word class
maintenance, Proceedings of the 14th ARTS (Advances in
Reliability Technology Symposium), IMechE, University of
Manchester, November.
Swanson, L. (1997), Computerized maintenance management
systems: a study of system design and use production and
inventory management journal, Vol. 34, pp. 11-14.

These basic requirements are usually easy to find

in existing CMMSs. It is therefore proposed that
such a model could be attached as an intelligent
module to existing CMMSs thus filling a black
hole with an intelligent black box that adds value to
the business.

Note
1 Received the Highly Commended Award 1999 from the
Literati Club, MCB Press (a publisher of 140 journals), for a
paper entitled A Logistics Approach to Managing the
Millennium Information Systems Problem (Labib, 1998b),
Journal of Logistics Information Management, MCB Press,
1998.

References
Ben-Daya, M., Duffuaa, S.O. and Raouf, A. (Eds) (2001),
Maintenance Modelling and Optimisation, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Bongaerts, L., Monostori, L., McFarlane, D. and Kadar, B. (2000),
Hierarchy in distributed shop floor control, Computers
in Industry, Vol. 43, pp. 123-137.
Boznos, D. (1998), The use of CMMSs to support team-based
maintenance, MPhil thesis, Cranfield University,
Cranfield.

Further reading
Lau, R.S.M. (1999), Critical factors for achieving manufacturing
flexibility, International Journal of Operations and
Production Management, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 328-41.

202

Plant Maintenance

Enterprise Resource Planning, Maintenance and

Asset Management Systems Are They a Blessing or a Curse?
a report by

Ashraf W Labib
Professor of Operations and Decision Analysis, Portsmouth Business School, University of Portsmouth

The term maintenance has many definitions. One

comprehensive definition is provided by the UK
Department of Trade and Industry (DTI):
the management, control, execution and quality of
those activities which will ensure that optimum levels
of availability and overall performance of plant are
achieved, in order to meet business objectives.
It should be noted that the totality of activities for the
whole product and process life-cycle is assumed. It is
also worth noting that the definition implies that maintenance is a managerial and strategic activity; today, the
term asset management is often used instead.
Current State of Maintenance Systems

Modern computational facilities have offered a

dramatic scope for improved effectiveness and
efficiency in, for example, maintenance. Computerised
maintenance management systems (CMMSs) have
existed, in one form or another, for several decades.
The software has evolved from relatively simple
mainframe planning of maintenance activity to
Windows-based, multi-user systems that cover a
multitude of maintenance functions. The capacity of
CMMSs to handle vast quantities of data purposefully
and rapidly has opened new opportunities for
maintenance, facilitating a more deliberate and
considered approach to managing assets.
Some of the benefits that can result from the
application of a CMMS are:
resource control tighter control of resources ;
cost management better cost management and
audibility;
scheduling ability to schedule complex, fastmoving workloads;
integration integration with other business
systems; and
reduction of breakdowns improved reliability of
physical assets through the application of an
effective maintenance programme.
The most important factor may be reduction of
breakdowns. This is the aim of the maintenance

function and the rest are nice objectives (or byproducts). This is a fundamental issue as some system
developers and vendors as well as some users lose
focus and compromise reduction of breakdowns in
order to maintain standardisation and integration
objectives, thus confusing aim with objectives. This
has led to the fact that the majority of CMMSs in the
market suffer from serious drawbacks, as will be
shown in the following section.
Evidence of Black Holes

Most existing off-the-shelf software packages,

especially CMMSs and enterprise resource planning
(ERP) systems, tend to be black holes. This term has
been coined by the author as a description of systems
that are greedy for data input but that seldom provide
any output in terms of decision support. In
astronomical terms, black holes used to be stars at
some time in the past and now possess such a high
gravitational force that they absorb everything that
comes across their fields and do not emit anything at
all, including light. This is analogous to systems that,
at worst, are hungry for data and resources and, at
best, provide the decision-maker with information
that he/she already knows. Companies consume a
significant amount of management and supervisory
time compiling, interpreting and analysing the data
captured within the CMMS. Companies then
encounter difficulties analysing equipment performance trends and their causes as a result of
inconsistency in the form of the data captured and the
historical nature of certain elements of it. In short,
companies tend to spend a vast amount of capital in
acquisition of off-the-shelf systems for data collection,
but their added value to the business is questionable.
All CMMSs offer data collection facilities; more
expensive systems offer formalised modules for the
analysis of maintenance data, and the market leaders
allow realtime data logging and networked data sharing
(see Table 1). Yet, despite the observations made above
regarding the need for information to aid maintenance
management, a black hole exists in the row titled
Decision analysis in Table 1, because virtually no
CMMS offers decision support.1 This is a definite
problem, because the key to systematic and effective

BUSINESS BRIEFING: OIL & GAS PROCESSING REVIEW 2006

Ashraf W Labib is Professor of

Operations and Decision Analysis at
Portsmouth Business School of the
University of Portsmouth, UK.
Previously, he was a Senior Lecturer
in the Manufacturing Division of the
Department of Mechanical, Aerospace
and Manufacturing Engineering at
The University of Manchester
(UMIST). Professor Labibs main
research interest lies in the field of
asset management, operations and
decision analysis, which includes
manufacturing maintenance systems,
multiple criteria decision analysis
and applications of artificial
intelligence. He is a fellow of the
Operational Research Society (ORS)
and the Institution of Electrical
Engineers (IEE) and a Chartered
Engineer, and he has published over
80 refereed papers in professional
journals and international
conferences proceedings. Professor
Labib is the Associate Editor of
IEEE Transactions on Systems,
Man, and Cybernetics and in 1999
he was a Guest Editor of a special
crisis management issue of the
Journal of Logistics Information
Management. He has been invited
to give key-note lectures in
Germany, Belgium and Mexico.
He has been involved in the design,
development and implementation
of computerised maintenance
management systems (CMMSs) and
stock control spares and ordering
systems for major automotive
companies, such as Land Rover,
Rockwell, Peugeot Talbot and
Federal-Mogul/Ferodo. He holds a
PhD and an MSc from the University
of Birmingham, an MBA from the
American University in Cairo and a
BSc in mechanical engineering from
the University of Cairo.

39

Plant Maintenance

Table 1: Facilities Offered by Commercially Available CMMS Packages

Price Range

Data collection
Data analysis
Realtime
Network
Decision analysis

1,000 +

10,000 +

30,000 +

40,000+

It is worrying the fact that almost half of the

companies are either in some degree dissatisfied or
neutral with their CMMS and that the responses
indicated that manufacturing plants demand more
user-friendly systems.4

A black hole

maintenance is managerial decision-making that is

appropriate to the particular circumstances of the
machine, plant or organisation. This decision-making
process is made all the more difficult if the CMMS
package can only offer an analysis of recorded data. As
an example, when a certain preventive maintenance
(PM) schedule is input into a CMMS, for example to
change the oil filter every month, the system will
simply produce a monthly instruction to change the oil
filter and is thus no more than a diary. A step towards
decision support is to vary the frequency of PM
depending on the combination of failure frequency and
severity. A more intelligent feature would be to
generate and prioritise PM according to modes of
failure in a dynamic realtime environment. A PM is
usually static and theoretical in that it does not reflect
shop floor realities. In addition, the PM that is copied
from machine manuals is usually inapplicable because:

40

productive maintenance (TPM) and reliability-centred

management (RCM) concepts and the extent to which
the two concepts are embedded in existing marketed
CMMSs. He has concluded that:

This is a further proof of the existence of a black hole.

To make matters worse, it appears that there is a new
breed of CMMSs that are complicated and lack basic
aspects of user-friendliness. Although they emphasise
integration and logistics capabilities, they tend to
ignore the fact that the fundamental reason for
implementing CMMSs is to reduce breakdowns.
These systems are difficult to handle for both
production operators and maintenance engineers; they
are accounting- and/or IT-orientated rather than
engineering-orientated. Results of an investigation of
the existing reliability models and maintenance systems
(Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
(EPSRC) Grant No. GR/M35291) show that
managers lack of commitment to maintenance models
has been attributed to a number of reasons:5,6

all machine work in different environments and

would therefore need different PMs;

Managers are unaware of the various types of

maintenance models.

machine designers often have a different experience

of machine failures and means of prevention from
those who operate and maintain them; and

A full understanding of the various models and

the appropriateness of these systems to companies
is not available.

machine vendors may have a hidden agenda of

maximising spare parts replacements through
frequent PM.

Managers do not have confidence in mathematical

models due to their complexities and the number
of unrealistic assumptions they contain.

The use of CMMSs for decision support lags

significantly behind the more traditional applications of
data acquisition, scheduling and work order issuing.
While many packages offer inventory tracking and
some form of stock level monitoring, the reordering
and inventory holding policies remain relatively
simplistic and inefficient.2,3 Also, there is no mechanism
to support managerial decision-making with regard to
inventory policy, diagnostics or setting of adaptive and
appropriate preventive maintenance schedules.

This correlates with surveys of existing maintenance

models and optimisation techniques. Ben-Daya et
al.7 and Sherwin8 have also noticed that models
presented in their work have not been widely used in
industry for several reasons, such as:

According to Boznos (1998): The primary uses of

CMMS appear to be as a storehouse for equipment
information, as well as a planned maintenance and a
work maintenance planning tool.4 The same author
suggests that CMMS appears to be used less often as a
device for analysis and co-ordination and that existing
CMMS in manufacturing plants are still far from being
regarded as successful in providing team based
functions. He has surveyed CMMS as well as total

unavailability of data;
lack of awareness about these models; and
restrictive assumptions of some of these models.

Finally, here is an extract from Nigel Slacks

textbook on operations management regarding
critical commentary of ERP implementations:
Far from being the magic ingredient which allows
operations to fully integrate all their information, ERP
is regarded by some as one of the most expensive ways
of getting zero or even negative return on investment.
For example, the American chemicals giants, Dow
Chemical, spent almost half-a-billion dollars and

BUSINESS BRIEFING: OIL & GAS PROCESSING REVIEW 2006

Plant Maintenance

seven years implementing an ERP system which

became outdated almost as it was implemented. One
company, FoxMeyer Drug, claimed that the expense
and problems which it encountered in implementing
ERP eventually drove it to bankruptcy. One problem
is that ERP implementation is expensive. This is
partly because of the need to customise the system,
understand its implications for the organisation, and
train staff to use it. Spending on what some call the
ERP ecosystem (consulting, hardware, networking
and complimentary applications) has been estimated as
being twice the spending on the software itself. But it
is not only the expense which has disillusioned many
companies, it is also the returns they have had for their
investment. Some studies show that the vast majority
of companies implementing ERP are disappointed
with the effect it has had on their businesses. Certainly
many companies find that they have to (sometimes
fundamentally) change the way they organise their
operations in order to fit in with ERP systems. This
organisational impact of ERP (which has been
described as the corporate equivalent of dental rootcanal work) can have a significantly disruptive effect on
the organisations operations.9
Hence, theory and implementation of existing
maintenance models are, to a large extent,
disconnected. It is concluded that there is a need to
bridge the gap between theory and practice through
intelligent optimisation systems (e.g. rule-based
systems). It is also argued that the success of this type
of research should be measured by its relevance to
practical situations and its impact on the solution of
real maintenance problems. The developed theory
must be made accessible to practitioners through IT
tools. Efforts need to be made in the data capturing
area to provide necessary data for such models.
Obtaining useful reliability information from
collected maintenance data requires effort. In the
past, this has been referred to as data mining, as if
data can be extracted in its desired form if only it can
be found.
Unmet Needs in
Responsive Maintenance

machine intelligence intelligent monitoring,

prediction, prevention and compensation and
reconfiguration for sustainability (self-maintenance);

42

synchronisation intelligence autonomous

information flow from market demand to factory
asset utilisation.

It can be concluded that the challenges facing

research and development (R&D) concerning nextgeneration maintenance systems are:

how to adapt PM schedules to cope dynamically

with shop-floor reality;

how to feed back information and knowledge

gathered in maintenance to the designers;

how to link maintenance policies to corporate

strategy and objectives; and

how to synchronise production scheduling based

on maintenance performance.

Further Discussion

Training and educational programmes should

be designed to address the existence of the
considerable gap between the skills that are essential to
maximise the potential benefits from these advanced
systems and technologies in the area of maintenance
and asset management and the skills that currently exist
in the maintenance sections of most industries.
The author is and has been involved in teaching
maintenance in the UK, the US and the Middle East
Gulf area and is thus in a good position to assess the
orientation of the existing ERP and CMMS systems,
where the emphasis tend to be on data collection and
analysis rather than on decision analysis. Although
the existing teaching programmes already address
some of the issues related to next-generation
maintenance systems, there is still room for
considering other issues, such as:
emphasis on CMMS and ERP systems in the
market, as well as their use and limitations;
design awareness in maintenance and design for
maintainability;

According to Jay Lee, Director of the National Science

Foundation (NSF) Industry/University Cooperative
Research Center on Intelligent Maintenance Systems
(IMS) at the University of Cincinnati, unmet needs in
responsive maintenance can be categorised as follows:

operations intelligence prioritisation, optimisation and responsive maintenance scheduling for

reconfiguration needs; and

learning from failures across different industries

and disciplines;
emphasis on prognostics rather than diagnostics; and
e-maintenance and remote
including self-powered sensors.

maintenance,

As the success of systems implementation are based

on two factors, human and systems, it is important
to develop and nurture skills as well as to use
advanced technologies.

BUSINESS BRIEFING: OIL & GAS PROCESSING REVIEW 2006

Enterprise Resource Planning, Maintenance and Asset Management Systems

References
1. Labib A W, Computerised Maintenance Management Systems (CMMSs): A black hole or a black box?, Journal of
Maintenance & Asset Management (2003);18(3): pp. 1621.
2. Labib A W, Exton T, Spare Parts Decision Analysis The Missing Link in CMMSs (Part I), Journal of
Maintenance & Asset Management (2001);16(3): pp. 1017.
3. Exton T, Labib A W, Spare Parts Decision Analysis The Missing Link in CMMSs (Part II), Journal of
Maintenance & Asset Management (2002);17(1): pp. 1421.
4. Boznos D, The Use of CMMSs to Support Team-Based Maintenance, MPhil thesis, Cranfield University (1998).
5. Shorrocks P, Labib A W, Towards a multimedia-based decision support system for word class maintenance, Proceedings
of the 14th ARTS (Advances in Reliability Technology Symposium), IMechE, University of Manchester
(November 2000).
6. Shorrocks P, Selection of the most appropriate maintenance model using a decision support framework,
unpublished report University of Manchester (2000).
7. Ben-Daya M, Duffuaa S O, Raouf A (eds), Maintenance Modelling and Optimisation, Kluwer Academic Publishers
(2001).
8. Sherwin D, A review of overall models for maintenance management, Journal of Quality in Maintenance
Engineering (2000);6(3).
9. Slack N, Chambers S, Johnston R, Operations Management, 4th edition, Prentice Hall (2004).
Further Reading
1. Christensen J, Holonic manufacturing systems Initial architecture and standards directions, Proceedings of the First
European Conference on Holonic Manufacturing Systems, Hanover, Germany (1994).
2. Fernandez O, Labib A W, Walmsley R, Petty D J, A decision support maintenance management system: Development
and implementation, International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management (2003);20(8): pp. 965979.
3. Labib A W, Williams G B, OConnor R F, An intelligent maintenance model (system): An application of the analytic
hierarchy process and a fuzzy logic rule-based controller, Journal of the Operational Research Society (1998);49:
pp. 745757.
4. Labib A W, World-class maintenance using a computerised maintenance management system, Journal of Quality in
Maintenance Engineering (1998);4(1): pp. 6675.
5. Labib A W, Cutting M C, Williams G B, Towards a world class maintenance programme, Proceedings of the CIRP
International Symposium on advanced Design and Manufacture in the Global Manufacturing Era, Hong Kong
(2122 August 1997): pp. 8288.
6. Labib A W, Champaneri R, Next generation maintenance systems, recent trends in maintenance management, Oman
(October 2005).

999

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1193

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats

analysis for frameworks of world-class maintenance
R Prasad Mishra1, G Anand2, and R Kodali2*
1
Mechanical Engineering Group, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, India
2
Mechanical Engineering Group, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, India
The manuscript was received on 23 December 2006 and was accepted after revision for publication on 3 April 2007.
DOI: 10.1243/09544054JEM810

Abstract: The term world-class maintenance (WCMt) is being used frequently nowadays
and refers to the collection of best practices in maintenance. Different researchers and
consultants have proposed several frameworks of WCMt representing these best practices.
If an organization or a maintenance manager wants to implement a framework, it may not
be easy for him or her to identify a single framework from a variety of frameworks that are
reported in the literature. Thus the task of choosing a particular framework has become a
major issue for the managers. Hence in this paper, an attempt has been made to perform
an analysis for comparing different WCMt frameworks based on their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT). In addition to this, a comparative study of WCMt
with other maintenance systems has been carried out to understand the similarities and
differences. The SWOT analysis of frameworks revealed a list of best practices in maintenance
to be considered by an organization, when it attempts to achieve a world-class status in
maintenance apart from the weaknesses and threats associated with each framework. Such
an analysis can prove valuable as a decision aid for the operations or maintenance manager
while making a decision of choosing a suitable framework of WCMt.
Keywords: comparative study, maintenance systems, best practices, total productive
maintenance, world-class maintenance, strengthsweaknessesopportunitiesthreats analysis

INTRODUCTION

One of the often neglected areas in operations

management is maintenance. Due importance to
maintenance has not been given by the practitioners
(industries) nor by the academicians. Even very few
journals request contributions related to the area of
maintenance. On the other hand, maintenance is
evolving and developing together with the changes
happening in manufacturing. A review of the literature in maintenance management revealed that the
term world-class maintenance (WCMt) is being used
frequently nowadays and several researchers and consultants have proposed different frameworks to define
*Corresponding author: Mechanical Engineering Group, Birla
Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Vidya Vihar Campus,
Pilani, Rajasthan, 333031, India. email: proframbabukodali@
yahoo.com
JEM810 IMechE 2007

and describe WCMt. Hence it becomes imperative to

understand the following.
1. What is WCMt?
2. How is it similar to or different from existing
maintenance systems such as preventive maintenance (PM), predictive maintenance (PRM), and
total productive maintenance (TPM)?
Further, if an organization or a maintenance manager is planning to implement WCMt, it may not be
easy for him or her to identify and implement one
framework from the variety of frameworks that are
reported in the literature. This paper is an attempt
to answer the above-mentioned questions and to
provide a direction for managers in selecting a suitable framework of WCMt. To accomplish this, the
following methodologies were used.
1. A detailed literature survey on WCMt was carried
out to identify its definition and characteristics.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

1194

R Prasad Mishra, G Anand, and R Kodali

2. A comparative study of WCMt with other maintenance systems such as PM, PRM, and TPM was
performed to understand the similarities and
differences.
3. In addition to this, an analysis was carried out
to compare different WCMt frameworks based
on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats (SWOT) of each framework.
The paper is arranged as follows: section 2 provides
a literature survey, while section 3 describes briefly
the types of maintenance system. It also provides a
comparative analysis of WCMt with various maintenance systems. Section 4 lists the frameworks of
WCMt, while section 5 explains the SWOT analysis,
which is used to compare various WCMt frameworks.
Section 6 ends with the conclusions.

LITERATURE SURVEY

The maintenance department in a contemporary

organization, like other departments, is under continuous pressure to cut costs, to show results, and
to support the mission of the organization, i.e. to be
a world-class manufacturer. The evolving maintenance operation has been charged with supporting
the broader efforts of world-class manufacturing
(WCM) such as six-sigma, lean manufacturing, and
other major manufacturing management initiatives.
To accomplish this, organizations have moved from
traditional maintenance systems such as preventive,
predictive maintenance to reliability-centred maintenance (RCM), and TPM. In recent days, the term
WCMt is being used more frequently. Wireman [1]
in his book on world-class maintenance management stated that many firms are realizing a critical
need for the effective maintenance of production
facilities and operating systems. He also emphasized
that it is vital for maintenance management to be
integrated with corporate strategy to ensure equipment availability, quality products, on-time deliveries, and competitive pricing. The changing needs of
modern organizations necessitated a re-examination
of the role that improved maintenance management
plays in achieving key cost and service advantages, leading them to become a world-class manufacturer. The term WCMt is perhaps not as definitive
as Schonbergers [2] classic terminology of WCM.
The concept of WCMt was used initially by North
American companies within the global concept of
world class, to denominate a model which is new, different, and effective for the maintenance function,
with a strategic vision and contributions to the results
of the business. The function of maintenance with
the optics of world class is interpreted like a strategic
capacity that a company has and allows it to compete
Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

through a good integral management of equipment

throughout the service life.
Many researchers have defined world-class maintenance in different ways. Labib [3] described the
implementation of a computerized maintenance
management system (CMMS) as an effective tool to
support decision making in an organization having
the objective of achieving WCM status. He explained
that the system can be used to analyse the trends and
performance levels; based on this, techniques can be
formulated to eliminate losses. Hiatt [4] stated that
operations supported by WCMt differ from a runof-the-mill operations department only by the degree to which it achieves its primary function: to
ensure that the right amount of equipment is ready
and available. Norman [5] elaborated that an organization aspiring to achieve world-class status in
maintenance will have the following characteristics:
teamwork, CMMS, PM, PRM, etc. He defined WCMt
as a holistic system which is created when organizations combine coherent, visionary leadership with
robust processes and a supportive culture to ensure
that the vision and ownership of appropriate maintenance methods permeate the organization. Blann
[6, 7] stated that organizations that have established
WCMt will possess the following features: operations
will be functioning efficiently in every phase; excellent computerized maintenance management will
be in place with equipment data streaming in; operations and maintenance will be working as partners
continuously and such organizations will also have
good process management and control. Smith [8], a
director of the consulting firm Life Cycle Engineering
Inc., presented a case study about the maintenance
system followed in Alcatel and commented that the
best practices followed in maintenance refer to the
world-class standards and the maintenance practices
of Alcatel were benchmarked with these standards.
Ingalls [9, 10] defined WCMt organizations as those
that consistently demonstrate industry best practices
and produce bottom-line results as well. The latter
part of that statement, produce bottom-line results,
is what separates the best from the rest. He stressed
that the ability to be successful in that charter lies
within the practices and systems that make up the
maintenance function and in fact, regardless of who
does maintenance, whether it is a specialized skilled
or multi-skilled or a highly trained operator or mechanic, maintenance practices are the keystone to
WCMt, leading to world-class operations.
2.1

Maintenance excellence

Ingalls [10, 11] also explained that, although the

jargon such as maintenance excellence or WCMt or
best-practice maintenance are different, they refer
to a common description of optimized maintenance
JEM810 IMechE 2007

SWOT analysis for frameworks of world-class maintenance

work processes. He stated that most manufacturing environments are far from optimized and are
actually in a conflicting state of planned manufacturing and reactive maintenance (REM). He criticized
that typically resources and funding are provided to
ensure that production is planned and scheduled
with great care, but, in the same operations department, maintenance is put into a position to only react
and asserts that this reactive state exists because of
the lack of understanding, organization, leadership,
resources, and funding to plan and schedule maintenance activities. He commented that the manufacturing industry has made incredible productivity
improvements over the century through many different optimization initiatives such as assembly line
or mass production, materials requirement planning, total quality management (TQM) and production,
statistical process control, just-in-time (JIT) initiatives, ISO 9000 quality standards, finite production
scheduling techniques and algorithms, supply chain
management, and six sigma. In the case of maintenance, no such optimization initiatives exist and thus
the concept of maintenance optimization is called
maintenance excellence or world-class maintenance.
In summary, a simple definition for world-class
maintenance systems (WMSs) can be given as the
collection of best practices in maintenance that are
followed and adopted by various organizations to
transform themselves into a world-class manufacturer. It intends to make maintenance resources
more productive through the implementation of
appropriate planning methods, organizational structures, measurement, and control techniques together
with a computer-integrated maintenance management system (CIMMS) so as to manage and control
optimally the maintenance process in terms of its
direction, quality, quantity, standards of performance, economy, and efficiency. Thus the objective
of a WMS is as follows:
(a) to construct competitive capacities for production that are key for the company by means of
best practices in maintenance;
(b) to provide a systematic approach for improving
the efficiency of the production system by eliminating all losses;
(c) to maintain the highest standards of productivity through an increase in overall equipment
effectiveness;
(d) to reduce overall equipment emergencies;
(e) to reduce maintenance purchasing;
(f) to develop equipment, which is designed for
maintainability and reliability to realize reduced
life-cycle cost;
(g) to assure a good product quality through investigation, analysis, and improvement of process,
material, and equipment conditions;
JEM810 IMechE 2007

1195

(h) to aid in achieving zero accidents in a healthy

and clean work environment and to protect the
natural environment;
(i) to develop a flexible multi-skilled organization
with internal experts;
(j) to make sure that the investments which are
made in the assets are highly profitable;
(k) to optimize the maintenance cost and to
provide better services to operations through
a CIMMS, teamwork, use of latest tools and
technologies, etc.

TYPES OF MAINTENANCE SYSTEM

The purpose of this section is to provide a brief

introduction to existing maintenance systems and
to make a comparative analysis of WCMt with the
existing systems to understand the similarities and
differences between them in the briefest way. It is a
known fact that, as manufacturing systems evolved,
the maintenance function also evolved, which resulted in the development of the following types of
maintenance system.
3.1

Reactive maintenance

Literally, REM can be interpreted as performing

maintenance activities in reaction to the breakdown
or failure of equipment or a machine. The following
are the subtypes of maintenance systems in this
category.
1. Breakdown, run-to-failure, or corrective maintenance. This is the oldest type of maintenance. It
may be described as a fire-fighting approach to
maintenance. Swanson [12] stated that equipment
is allowed to run until failure and, after failure, the
failed equipment is repaired or replaced. According to Gallimore and Penlesky [13], under breakdown maintenance, temporary repairs are made
in order to bring back equipment to operation,
with permanent repairs put off until a later time.
If the repair or replacement is only a temporary
solution to bring back the equipment to running
condition and there is a chance that the same failure can repeat in the future also, then it is called
breakdown maintenance (BM) or run-to-failure
maintenance. On the other hand, if countermeasures are taken in such a way that it eliminates
the repetitive breakdown permanently, then it is
called corrective maintenance (CM). In this system, the maintenance activities are not planned
and are mostly used where the consequences of
failure do not result in expenditure. Mostafa [14]
commented that it is suitable for small non-critical
low-price equipment.
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R Prasad Mishra, G Anand, and R Kodali

2. Opportunity-based maintenance. According to

Bevilacqua and Braglia [15], the possibility of
using opportunistic maintenance is determined
by the nearness or concurrence of control or substitution times for different components on the
same machine or plant; i.e. if the machine has
been taken up for maintenance, the engineers
may use that opportunity to check the condition of other components and assemblies, based
on which they will repair or replace the parts
if necessary. This is called opportunity-based
maintenance (OM).

3.2

Proactive maintenance

In proactive maintenance (PAM), breakdowns are

avoided through activities that monitor equipment
deterioration and undertake minor repairs to restore
equipment to the proper condition. To make this
happen, a documented history has to be established.
The uptime and downtime should be charted and
the cause and effect factors should be determined,
as they become apparent. Changes in the operation and maintenance functions should be made as
they affect the overall uptime. The PAM will provide
managers a vehicle to create effectively a reduction
in total maintenance downtime while maximizing
equipment production reliability and useful life.
The following types of maintenance system are part
of PAM.
1. Routine or scheduled maintenance. Routine
maintenance (RM) can be considered as a cyclic
operation recurring periodically. Routines are
established by defining the frequency of the tasks
and the time taken to complete the task. On the
other hand, Nagarrur [16] defined scheduled
maintenance (SM) as the periodic replacement
of parts based on their age. The basic differences
between RM and SM are as follows.
(a) In RM, activities such as cleaning, oiling, lubrication, and minor adjustments are carried out
periodically as per schedule, say at the end of
a shift or before starting the machine operation. It may not require complex repair activities or replacement of parts or testing, etc.
(b) In SM, activities such as repair, replacement,
overhauling, and testing will be carried out.
These activities will be scheduled, say every
month or every fortnight, depending upon
the criticality of the machine and its past
failure records.
2. Preventive maintenance. Mostafa [14] defined PM
as the practice that encompasses all planned,
scheduled, and corrective actions before the equipment fails. According to Bevilacqua and Braglia [15],
Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

the PM tries to determine a series of checks,

replacements, and/or component revisions with
a frequency related to the failure rate. In other
words, PM is effective in overcoming the problems
associated with the wearing out of components.
The most significant activity to occur in PM is
inspection, which should lead to early detection
and correction. PM is a major component in
moving from reactive to proactive through early
detection and early correction.
3. Predictive maintenance. Eade [17] has defined
PRM as measurements and signals that detect
the onset of a degradation mechanism, thereby
allowing casual stressors to be eliminated or controlled prior to any significant deterioration in
the component physical state. All machines give
early warning signs predicting their impending
failure. When one of these indicators reaches a
specified level, work is undertaken to restore the
equipment to the proper condition. This means
that equipment is taken out of service only when
direct evidence exists that deterioration has taken
place.
4. Condition-based maintenance. According to
Bevilacqua and Braglia [15], a prerequisite for
the application of condition-based maintenance (CBM) is the availability of a set of measurements and data acquisition systems to monitor the
machine performance in real time. The continuous survey of working conditions can easily and
clearly point out an abnormal situation (e.g. the
exceeding of a controlled parameter threshold
level), allowing the process administrator to perform punctually the necessary controls and, if
necessary, to stop the machine before a failure
can occur. The monitoring could be made manually or by sensors. Temperature, pressure, and
vibration are examples of monitoring parameters.
Bevilacqua and Braglia [15] have also explained
the differences between CBM and PRM. Unlike
the PRM policy, CBM involves acquiring controlled parameters data which are analysed to
find a possible temporal trend. This makes it
possible to predict when the controlled quantity
value will reach or exceed the threshold values.
The maintenance staff will then be able to plan,
depending on the operating conditions, when the
component substitution or revision is really unavoidable. On the other hand, some researchers
claim that PRM is similar to CBM and the only
difference is that, in the case of CBM, technologically sophisticated instruments are used to identify the deterioration of machines while, in PRM,
the identification of deterioration is based on the
monitoring of physical conditions such as the
colour change of the oil, strange noises produced,
or abnormal changes in the workpiece or job,
JEM810 IMechE 2007

SWOT analysis for frameworks of world-class maintenance

without the use of advanced data acquisition

systems, sensors, etc. Hence the researchers say
that PRM is a subset of CBM or, in other words,
an advanced version of PRM is CBM.
5. Design-out maintenance. Design-out maintenance
(DOM) is a system that strives to eliminate the
cause of failure or to minimize the need for maintenance to the lowest possible level. It is appropriate for items of high maintenance cost, which
arise because of poor maintenance, poor design,
or operation outside design specifications. It is
applied to the product at the design stage itself,
so that machinery, plant, and equipment are so
designed as to need the least possible amount of
attention or maintenance during their life span.
According to Oyebisi [18], DOM is proactive in
nature and is the most effective maintenance
strategy in terms of scientific value and overall
cost implications. By contrast with the other
maintenance strategies, which aim to minimize
the effect of failure, DOM aims to eliminate the
cause of maintenance. Failure is prohibited and
maintenance is simplified already in the design
phase of the equipment and parts.
6. Reliability-centred maintenance. The new developments in maintenance with a focus on reliability tools and techniques such as hazard studies,
failure modes and effects analyses, and development of expert systems with an emphasis on
reliability and maintainability, etc., resulted in
the birth of RCM. Jones [19] defined RCM as
a method for developing and selecting maintenance design alternatives based on safety, operational and economic criteria by employing a
system perspective in its analysis of system functions, failures of functions and prevention of these
failures.
7. Total productive maintenance. TPM is not a
radically new idea; it is simply the next step in
the evolution of good maintenance practices.
According to Ireland and Dale [20], the Japanese
developed the concept of TPM based on the
planned approach to PM. Chan et al. [21] have
discussed the differences between PM, PRM,
PAM, and TPM. According to Swanson [12], TPM
provides a comprehensive life-cycle approach to
equipment management that minimizes equipment failures, production defects, and accidents.
It is an aggressive strategy that focuses on actually
improving the function and design of the production equipment. It involves everyone in the
organization, from top-level management to
production mechanics, and production support
groups to outside suppliers. Chan et al. [21] have
emphasized that TPM aims to increase the availability and effectiveness of existing equipment in
a given situation, through the effort of minimizing
JEM810 IMechE 2007

1197

input (improving and maintaining equipment at

optimal level to reduce its life-cycle cost) and the
investment in human resources which results in
better hardware utilization. These objectives require strong management support as well as continuous use of work teams and small group
activities to achieve incremental improvements.
WCMt has been defined and described in detail
in the earlier section. These maintenance systems
were compared with WCMt as shown in Table 1.
The objective of this comparison is to analyse the
similarities and differences of WCMt with respect to
existing maintenance systems based on various parameters. This comparison can be used as a ready reference for practitioners to understand about different
maintenance systems in the briefest way. Based on
the comparison, it can be concluded that each of
the maintenance systems has its own advantages
and disadvantages. Further, the types of maintenance
system adopted by an organization depends on various factors such as type and cost of machine, type
of process, and product.
4

FRAMEWORKS OF WORLD-CLASS
MAINTENANCE

Blann [7] has used the term WCMt and he described the three steps to achieve world-class status
in maintenance. Wireman [22] stated that achieving
world-class status involves quality, attitude, and
automation and has examined it in detail with respect to the maintenance department of an organization. Similarly many researchers and consultants
have proposed different frameworks for WCMt describing its contents. They have identified and
reported different criteria and attributes in their framework to define WCMt or maintenance excellence.
Aalbregtse et al. [23] defined a framework as a clear
picture of the leadership goal for the organization
which should present key characteristics of the tobe style of business operations, i.e. a framework
represents the modus operandi, the systems to be
developed, the activities to be carried out, and the
ultimate vision of the new style of management in
the organization. A framework may consist of various
elements or blocks, which an organization needs to
follow or adopt, when it tries to implement a change
in the current way of functioning. The purpose of a
framework is as follows.
(a) To illustrate an overview of a philosophy or
change process to be adopted so as to communicate a new vision of the organization.
(b) To force the management to address a substantial list of key issues which otherwise might not
be addressed.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

No
consideration
for losses

Losses

No
consideration
for losses

Check, clean,
lubricate,
tighten,
adjustment

Repair,
replacement,
lubrication,
and minor
adjustment

Techniques

Regular
maintenance
job at frequent
intervals
reduces
breakdown

Same as
previous and
frequency of
maintenance

Machine can
run until
failure and
maintenance
will bring it
back to the
original
condition

Theory
followed

Done routinely
between
every shift,
every day or
every week
irrespective of
wear and tear
of parts or
machines

Routine
maintenance
(RM)

Performance Frequency of
measures
breakdown,
cost of
breakdown

Repair is
undertaken
only after the
failure of the
equipment,
which may be
temporary

Factor

Core focus

Breakdown or
run-to-failure
maintenance
(BM)

Measured in
terms of cost

Follows
checklist for
inspection,
repair,
replacement,
etc.

Number of
machines
under
schedule,
percentage
of backlog

Measured in
terms of idle
hours, time,
and cost for
maintenance

Reconditioning
or redesign of
machines,
cause-andeffect
analysis

Frequency of
breakdown,
number of
failures,
number of
corrective
measures

Correcting a
failed unit, but
ensuring a
permanent
measure that
breakdown will
not repeat
again

Eliminate or
reduce
repetitive
breakdowns

Done as per
schedule
every 3 or 6
months based
on wear and
tear and vary
for different
machines

A type of
maintenance
based on past
failure trend,
machine needs,
and
requirements

Corrective
maintenance
(CM)

Scheduled
maintenance
(SM)

Measured in
terms of idle
hours, time,
and cost for
maintenance

Daily
maintenance,
inspection,
making
preventive
repair

Number of
machines
under PM,
reduction in
breakdown,
maintenance
cost reduction

Taking
proactive
actions for
correcting a
unit before it
fails or to
prevent failure

To prevent
and eliminate
failure

Preventive
maintenance
(PM)

Measured in
terms of idle
hours, time,
and cost for
maintenance

Vibration,
lubrication,
thermographic
and other
testing
techniques

Number of
parameters
monitored,
uptime, mean
time between
failures, mean
time to repair,
availability

Prevent failure
through fixing
condition
parameters,
measurement
and prediction

To prevent and
eliminate
failure by
intervening and
to do
maintenance
only when
needed

Predictive or
conditionbased
maintenance
(CBM)

While
maintaining or
replacing
worn-out
components,
opportunity is
used for
changing other
wearing-out
components
although they
have not failed

Assumption of
other parts that
are wearing out
may fail in the
near future

Opportunitybased
maintenance
(OM)

Chronic loss
and sporadic
loss

Failure mode
effect analysis,
industrial
engineering,
value analysis

Reliability,
availability,
maintainability,
mean time
between failures,
mean time to
failure, failure
rate, etc.

Follows basic
reliability
theory of
series, parallel
and standby
systems and it
is based on
theories of
failure such as
cracks, fatigue,
and burn in

Focus on
equipment
reliability.
It clearly
identifies the
PM tasks
based on
failure
monitoring

Reliabilitycentred
maintenance
(RCM)

No loss
consideration

Focus is on
breakdown
losses

Depends on the Fault tree

requirement of analysis,
the job
failure mode
effect analysis,
root cause
analysis

Reduction in
Reduction in
different types
maintenance
of failure,
time
economical lifecycle span

To eliminate
the
maintenance
on machine
through better
design of
machines

To rectify
design defects
due to improper
installation or
poor material
choice, etc.

Design-out
maintenance
(DOM)

Table 1 Comparison of various maintenance systems

16 major
loss factors
have been
considered

Autonomous
maintenance,
training, audit,
small group
activities

Productivity,
quality,
morale, safety,
cost, 5S
score, etc.

Behavioural
sciences,
system
engineering,
ecology,
terotechnology,
continuous
improvement
of process,
equipment, and
procedures

Achieves PM
through a
comprehensive
system based
on respect for
individuals and
total employee
participation

Total
productive
maintenance
(TPM)

23 losses
have been
considered

Benchmarking,
computerized
maintenance
management,
human
management

Productivity,
cost, quality,
delivery,
inventory,
flexibility,
safety, etc.

Based on best
practices in
maintenance,
small group
activity, and
performance
measures

Achieves PM
through a CMMS
with respect for
individuals

World-class
maintenance
(WCMt)

1198
R Prasad Mishra, G Anand, and R Kodali

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Maintenance Low
cost

High

Breakdown
cost

Less

Financial
implication

Easy and takes

less time

Less

Staffing

Ease and
time to
implement

Less compared More

with other types compared with
previous, as a
routine has to
be established

Data
required

Slightly higher

Slightly less

Easy and takes

less time

Slightly higher
than BM

More than BM

Suitable for
all types of
company

All industries
except
industries
having large
amount of
equipment
such as
process
industries

Type of
industry
following

Dependent on
the number
of machines,
existing status
of machines.
Done at the
start and
end or every
hour, shift, day,
or week

It can start
during the
production setup, i.e. during
changeover
from one
product to
another

When it is
performed

Slightly higher
than RM

Slightly less
than RM

Depends
upon the
equipment,
time, cost, etc.

Slightly higher
than RM

May be the
same as RM

More
compared with
previous, as a
schedule has
to be
established

Suitable for
all types of
company

Dependent on
the number
of machines,
existing status
of machines.
Done as per
predetermined
plan

Slightly higher
than SM

Slightly less
than SM

Depends
upon the
equipment,
failure, cost, etc.

Slightly higher
than SM

May be the
same as SM

More
compared with
previous owing
to reconditioning
and redesign

Suitable for
all types of
company

Dependent on
the number
of machines,
type of failure,
existing status
of machines,
spares
availability, etc.

Slightly higher
than CM

Slightly less
than CM

Needs
training and
scheduling and
hence takes
more time

Slightly higher
than SM

Slightly higher

More
compared with
previous
because of
monitoring

Suitable for
batch
production,
where the
volume is
relatively less

Dependent on
the number of
machines, type
of failure,
existing status
of machines,
spares
availability, etc.

Same as PM
or CBM

More owing to
monitoring of
failure and
design
specification,
etc.

Suitable for
all types of
company
having poorly
designed
machines

Performed,
when there are
repeated
failure, which
is due to poor
design of
machines

Higher than
PM

Less than PM

Needs
training,
installation, and
stabilization
and hence
takes more
time

High

Less than CBM

Depends on
the type of
machine, and
nature of
problem.
Takes a long
time as
the design
process is
longer

Higher than PM Higher as it

requires
complete
redesign

Slightly higher

More because
of monitoring
and
instruments

Suitable for
continuous
production,
where the
volume is high

Performed,
when there are
signs of failure
from noise, oil,
observation,
etc.,
irrespective of
wear,
operations, etc.,
and it depends
on the criticality
of machines
Suitable for
continuous
production,
where the
volume is
high and
critical
processes are
involved

Dependent on
the number
of machines,
existing status
of machines,
frequency of
failures,
criticality of
failures, etc. It
is performed
throughout the
life cycle

Higher

Less

Easy and takes

less time

Might be
costlier
than BM

Same as
BM

Higher

Less

Needs
training,
installation, and
stabilization
and hence
takes more
time

Higher than
PM

Same as PM
or CBM

Less compared More because

with other types of monitoring
and use of
standby or
redundant
components

Suitable for
all types of
company

Dependent on
the complexity
of the
machines and
problems and it
is generally
performed
during
breakdown or
scheduled
maintenance

Higher

Less

Tough and
requires
commitment
and needs
training,
stabilization,
and culture
change, which
takes time

More because
of training and
organization
changes

Higher

More as it is
based on OEE
and 16 losses

Applicable to
large industries
such as process
industries and
to industries
where
Japanese
working culture
prevails

Usually takes
35 years to
give a notable
change over the
maintenance
process

Higher

Less

Tough and
requires
commitment
and needs
training,
stabilization,
and culture
change, which
takes time

More because
of training and
organization
changes

Higher

More as it is
based on a
computerized
maintenance
system and
23 losses

Applicable to
large industries
such as process
industries and
can be
customized to
small
industries

Usually takes
35 years to
give a notable
change over the
maintenance
process

SWOT analysis for frameworks of world-class maintenance

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R Prasad Mishra, G Anand, and R Kodali

(c) To give an insight into the organizations

strengths and weaknesses.
These frameworks can also be used as a reference
guide during the implementation. Table 2 shows the
list of frameworks for WCMt and its elements.

Table 2 Different frameworks of world-class maintenance

Wiremans framework
It consists of
11 elements [22]:
1. PM
2. Inventory and
procurement
3. Work order systems
4. CMMS
5. Technical and
interpersonal training
6. Operational
involvement
7. PRM
8. RCM
9. TPM
10. Statistical financial
optimization
11. Continuous
improvement

Ingallss framework
It consists of
12 elements [9]:
1. Leadership and policy
deployment
2. Organizational structure
3. Inventory control
4. CMMS
5. PM
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

PRM
Planning and scheduling
Work flow
Financial control
Operational
involvement
11. Staffing and
development
12. Continuous
improvement
Heislers framework
It consists of eight
elements [25]:
1. Maintenance planners
2. CMMS
3. Spare parts
management
4. Work management
process
5. PM programmes

Hiatts framework
It consists of
13 elements [4]:
1. Philosophical and
theoretical shifts
2. Understanding change
3. Teamwork
4. Training
5. Asset management
6. Warehouse and
inventory control
7. CM
8. PM
9. PRM
10. Purchasing
11. PAM

Table 2 Continued
6. PRM programmes
7. Training
8. Performance tracking

Rock Products framework

It consists of eight
elements [27]:
1. Maintenance organization
2. Training programmes
3. Work order system
4. Planning and scheduling
5. PM
6. Inventory and purchasing
7. Reporting
8. Automation

2.

Invensys Avantis framework

It consists of ten
elements [24]:
1. PM

3.
4.
5.

Idhammars framework
It consists of nine
elements [26]:
1. Leadership and
organization
2. Planning and scheduling
of operations and
maintenance
3. Maintenance prevention
and preventive
maintenance
4. Technical database
5. Root cause problem
elimination

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

Saunders framework
It consists of 13
elements [28]:
1. Strategy management
2. Performance measures
3. Continuous improvement
4. Information management
5. Work planning and control
6. Organization and
manpower
7. Autonomous maintenance
8. Contractor management
9. Maintenance tactics
10. Spares and materials
11. Tools and workshops
12. Financial management
13. Asset acquisition and
disposal

Welchs framework
It consists of eight
elements [29]:
1. Maintenance leadership

12. Accountability
13. RCM

2. Inventory and
procurement
3. Work flow and controls
4. Enterprise asset
management system
usage
5. Operational
involvement
6. PRM
7. RCM
8. TPM
9. Financial optimization
10. Continuous
improvement

6. Stores management
interface with maintenance
7. Facilities, tools, and
workshops
8. Engineering interface with
maintenance
9. Skills development

6.
7.
8.

Murrays framework
It consists of nine
elements [30]:
1. RCM, equipment condition
survey
Planned and scheduled
2. Maintenance process
maintenance
evaluation
PM and PRM
3. Develop solution panels
Reliability improvement
4. Level of awareness training
Maintenance materials
5. Implementation of RCM
management
results
Contractor relations
6. Work process design
Human resource
7. Implementation of
development
maintenance based on
RCM and condition
Maintenance technologies 8. Planning and scheduling
9. Living programme

Armys framework

Amocos (BP Amoco) excellence

model
It consists of 23 elements [31]: It consists of eight key elements
and 16 key maintenance
and reliability processes [32]:
1. Work identification/
Eight elements
prioritization
1. Leadership and
2. Planning and scheduling
accountability
3. Work execution and review 2. People
4. Materials management
3. Health and safety
5. CMMS and metrics
4. Environment
6. Managing system
5. Productivity
7. PM
6. Strategy
8. Equipment history
7. Reliability
9. Craft skills enhancement
8. Technology
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Condition monitoring
Failure analysis
Asset healthcare
PRM
Organizational process
management
External benchmarking
Maintenance and
operations integration
Craft flexibility
RCM

19. Vendor reliability

16 processes
9. Delivering assurance
10. Performance targets
11. Reliability management
12. CMMS
13. Equipment ownership
14. Equipment improvement
teams
15. Root cause failure analysis
16. Early equipment
management
17. REM to PAM

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SWOT analysis for frameworks of world-class maintenance

Table 2 Continued
20. Life-cycle analysis
18.
21. Equipment standardization 19.
22. Reliability asset
20.
management
23. Asset management
21.
22.

Planning and scheduling

Spare parts management
Contractor management

Turnaround processes
Equipment inspection and
integrity
23. Knowledge management
24. Maintenance tool box

Rohm and Hass maintenance

excellence model
It consists of ten elements [32]:
1. Leadership
2. Planned maintenance
3. Process and equipment
reliability
4. RCM
5. Maintenance materials
management
6. Contractor administration
7. Human resources
development
8. Information systems
9. Performance measures
10. Assessments

Alcoa maintenance excellence

model
It consists of ten elements [32]:
1. Leadership
2. Planned maintenance
3. PM
4. PRM
5. Reliability focus
6. Materials management
7. Contracted maintenance
8. Human resources
9. Research
10. Networking

Paaschs framework
It consists of ten elements [33]:
1. Maintenance engineering

McKays framework
It consists of ten elements [34]:
1. Management support and
measures of effectiveness
2. Supply chain management 2. Shop stores inventory
3. Personnel development
3. Work control
4. Organization structure
4. Maintenance organization
and structure
5. Equipment database
5. Personnel skills and training
6. Computer information
6. Failure evaluation,
system
continuous improvement,
and reliability engineering
7. Safety
7. CMMS
8. Planning and scheduling
8. Maintenance planning
scheduling
9. Job plans and procedures 9. Maintenance task and
procedures
10. Score keeping
10. Equipment database
Life Cycle Engineering Inc.
model

Tompkins Associates
scoreboard for maintenance
excellence
It consists of 23 elements [35]: It consists of 17 elements [36]:
1. Management commitment 1. Work authorization and
work control
2. Cooperative maintenance 2. Budget and cost control
and production partnership
3. Governing principles and
3. Maintenance planning and
concepts
scheduling
4. Work order systems
4. Maintenance storeroom
5. Cost distribution
5. PM and PRM
6. Computer support
6. Lubrication programme
7. Scheduling and
7. Overall equipment
coordination
effectiveness (OEE)
8. Work and job planning
8. Operator-based
maintenance
9. Work measurement
9. Engineering support
10. Material support and
10. Craft skill development
control
11. Equipment history
11. Safety housekeeping and
regulatory compliance
12. Maintenance engineering 12. Maintenance performance
measurement
13. PM and PRM
13. Maintenance supervision
and leadership
14. Pride quality and
14. CMMS
workmanship
JEM810 IMechE 2007

1201

Table 2 Continued
15. Facilities and equipment
16. Training
17. Supervision and practices

15. Maintenance facilities,

equipment, and tools
16. Maintenance and
organization culture
17. Organization and
administration

18. Organization
19. Management reporting and
control
20. Budgetary control
21. Master plan
22. Objectives, goals, and targets
23. Status assessment
Elliss framework
It consists of ten elements [37]:
1. Maintenance administration
2. Manpower
3. Tools
4. Spares
5. Planning
6. Scheduling
7. Controlling
8. Culture
9. Marketing (of maintenance)
10. Budget

To compare these frameworks, a strategic management tool called SWOT analysis was used to analyse
the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats
of each framework. Before the SWOT analysis and its
application in WCMt are discussed, it is necessary to answer some of the most commonly asked
questions.
1. A general question which is frequently asked is:
which framework will be applied for what types
of industry? It must be noted here that the identified frameworks are assumed to be more generic
in nature because researchers or consultants will
be providing maintenance consultancy based on
their framework to various industries (be it a largeor medium- or small-scale industry or it might
be industries in different sectors such as automobile, electronics, or machineries) in different parts
of the world. If it is not generic in nature, it cannot
be applied uniformly across a vast spectrum of
industries. Based on this reasoning, the discussion
on the context of use for each framework was
avoided.
2. Another question of interest to be addressed is:
are the identified frameworks dependent on the
operational environment or not? It is a known
fact that any change management programme
needs to be adapted to the situation prevailing in
an organization. For example, the JIT production
system, which was successful in Toyota cannot
be exactly replicated in another auto industry.
Many companies which have implemented such
a system would have customized and implemented those elements based on the prevailing
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R Prasad Mishra, G Anand, and R Kodali

internal environment. The same reasoning can be

extended to WCMt also. Implementation of a
WCMt framework does depend on the operational
environment. For example, a small-scale industry
may not devote a portion of its resources for establishing a fully fledged CIMMS but may opt for
simple cost-effective packages such as Microsoft
Office for documenting the equipment problems
and solutions, collecting equipment data, and
analysing it. However, for effective implementation of WCMt, some of the prerequisites as
mentioned in the definitions of WCMt given by
Norman and Blann should be satisfied.

Table 3 Elements of a SWOT analysis

Strengths

Weaknesses

refers to a resource or the

capacity that the
organization can use
effectively to achieve
its objectives

refers to a limitation, fault or

defect in the organization
that will keep it from
achieving objectives

Opportunity

Threat

refers to an unfavourable
refers to any favourable
situation in the
situation in the organizations
organizations environment
environment that is
potentially damaging
to its strategy

Table

SWOT ANALYSIS

This methodology originally seems to be from the

business management literature and it was developed by researchers at Stanford Research Institute.
The background to SWOT stemmed from the need
to find out why corporate planning failed. According
to Kotler and Armstrong [38], SWOT is the acronym
for a companys strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Mintzberg [39] described how a
SWOT analysis evaluates an organizations internal
strengths and weaknesses and its external opportunities and threats. According to Johnson and Scholes
[40], the aim of SWOT analysis is to identify the
extent to which the current strategy of an organization and its more specific strengths and weaknesses
are relevant to and capable of dealing with the
changes taking place with business environment.
Several researchers have used SWOT analysis, e.g.
Weihrich [41], Piercy and Giles [42], Dealtry [43],
and Dalu and Deshmukh [44]. According to them,
SWOT analysis aims to reveal the competitive advantages of the organization. It also aims to prepare an
organization for problems that may arise, allowing
for the development of contingency plans. The four
elements of a SWOT analysis undertaken as part of
a wider strategic planning are presented in the
Table 3.
According to Dealtry [43], the actions to be undertaken by the organizations after SWOT analysis are
as follows: to build on strengths, to eliminate weaknesses, to exploit opportunities, and to mitigate the
effect of threats. To succeed in any field, weaknesses
must be overcome through strengths, and threats
must be transferred into opportunities. When SWOT
analysis is applied to WCMt frameworks, the following questions may arise: how can SWOT analysis be
conducted for frameworks, and whose perspective
was considered during the analysis? The SWOT analysis has been slightly modified and adapted as
shown in Table 4 to analyse the frameworks of
WCMt.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

4 Adaptation of
frameworks

SWOT

analysis

for

WCMt

Strengths

Weaknesses

If any WCMt framework has

a unique element or feature
when compared with others,
then it is considered as the
strength for that framework

If the common elements of

WCMt that were identified
in comparative analysis are
missing in a framework,
then it is considered as the
weakness for that framework

Opportunity

Threat

In a WCMt framework,
If
if an element, which may not
be an important element for
WCMt implementation or if it
is not directly related to WCMt,
but if incorporated can
provide significant competitive
advantage to the organization,
then it is considered as the
opportunity for other
frameworks

an element in the framework,

which may not be an
important element for
WCMt implementation,
but if it is not present or
implemented can spoil the
entire implementation,
then it is considered
as a threat

It should be noted here that SWOT analysis is a tool

used at a strategic level and hence the analysis should
be considered as being carried out from the perspective of an external consultant or a senior-level manager, who has the authority to adapt or implement
WCMt systems.

5.1

SWOT analysis for world-class

maintenance systems

It is a known fact that WCMt is an evolving concept

and includes the collection of best practices. For
better understanding, it was proposed to conduct a
SWOT analysis for WCMt by comparing it with the
existing maintenance systems, in particular TPM as
it is being frequently used by many large industries.
Table 5 provides the details of the SWOT analysis
for WCMt as a concept.
Among the different frameworks reviewed, there
are certain frameworks that have similar pillars.
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SWOT analysis for frameworks of world-class maintenance

1203

Table 5 SWOT analysis for the world-class maintenance

concept

Table 6 Grouping of various frameworks of world-class

maintenance

Strengths

Weaknesses

Group

Remarks

Proper capture and analysis

of data because of the use
of a CMMS
Better coordination with
other functions through the
use of a CMMS
Helps to reduce and control
inventory through spare parts
management
Provides good organization of
work through work flow
control or a work order
system
Main focus on RCM
Importance given to planning
and scheduling
Based on the best practices
representing the basic
activities of TPM

High investment due to the

focus on a CMMS
Loss of revenue for the
manufacturers as initial
costs are high
Implementation needs
expertise in maintenance
systems
It is not implemented as
widely as TPM, as it is in the
beginning stage

Authors, consultants,
or practitioners

Wireman [22];
Invensys Avantis [24]

Heisler [25]; Rock

Products [27]

Opportunities

Threats

Should be implemented in
many companies for gaining
acceptance
Should be updated regularly
based on best practices
obtained from other worldclass maintenance
frameworks and
organizations
Should be integrated with
corporate and business goals
Should be integrated with
other continuous
improvement programmes
Should facilitate intraorganizational interfaces

Requires restructuring and

changes
A widely accepted model
similar to the Japan Institute
of Plant Maintenance model
for TPM is not available
Non-compliance to external
standards such as ISO 9000
or ISO 14000
Difficult to obtain an
experienced consultant for
implementation
Leakage of confidential
information via the
consultant
Data security is an issue

Maintenance
excellence models of
Alcoa [32] and Rohm
and Hass [32]
Hiatt [4]; Ingalls [9],
Idhammar [26];
Saunders [28]; Welch
[29]; Murray [30]; Army
[31]; Amoco [32];
Paasch [33]; McKay
[34]; Life Cycle
Engineering Inc. [35];
Tompkins Associates
[36]; Ellis [37]

The ten pillars present

in the model of
Invensys Avantis are
the same as those
present in the
Wireman framework
Each framework
consists of eight
elements and all the
elements are exactly
the same in both
frameworks
They consist of ten
elements and all the
elements are almost
the same
The number of elements
vary and are completely
different in each
framework

Logically, they may have same strengths, weaknesses,

opportunities, and threats. Hence it was decided to
categorize them into a group. Three groups namely
group A, group B, and group C, were formed. Those
frameworks which were unique were categorized
under group D. The SWOT analysis for frameworks under this group was performed individually.
Table 6 shows the details regarding the grouping of
frameworks.
A cursory review of these WCMt frameworks
revealed that the following elements were addressed
by many frameworks. Hence they were considered
to be common elements:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

PM;
inventory control or spare parts management;
work flow and control or work order systems;
CMMS;
training and personnel development;
RCM;
planning and scheduling.

JEM810 IMechE 2007

These elements were considered to be common,

based on the rule that, if an element is considered
by a minimum of ten or more authors in their
framework, then it will be considered as common
elements. The logic of choosing a minimum of ten
authors or more is based on the following premise:
about 20 frameworks of WCMt have been studied.
If ten authors or more have explained or used an
element, then it means that the occurrence of such
an element within a sample size of 20 is quite high.
In other words, it implies that 50 per cent of the surveyed authors feel that it is an important aspect of
the WMS. For more details, see Mishra et al. [45].
The seven elements listed above are considered
to be the common strengths of WCMt frameworks.
If a framework did not include any of these elements,
then it is considered as a weakness for that framework. Similarly, the guidelines given in Table 4 were
followed during the SWOT analyses for each group
(group A, group B, and group C) as well as for the
analysis of individual frameworks (group D).

5.2

SWOT analysis for group A frameworks

Although the two frameworks by Wireman [22]

and Invensys Avantis [24] vary in the number of
elements (Wiremans framework consists of 11 elements, while Invensys Avantiss framework consists
of ten elements), almost all the elements are exactly
the same. Hence these frameworks were grouped
Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

1204

R Prasad Mishra, G Anand, and R Kodali

Table 7 SWOT analysis for the group A frameworks of

Wireman [22] and Invensys Avantis [24]

Table 8 SWOT analysis for the group B frameworks of

Heisler [25] and Rock Products [27]

Strengths

Weaknesses

Strengths

Weaknesses

Maintenance expenses are

planned and controlled as
it focuses on financial
optimization
Fits well with TQM as
continuous improvement
is stressed
Emphasis on TPM
activities, which reveals
that it is built over the
TPM pillars
Other strengths are more
or less similar to the
strengths listed in Table 5

No importance given to
cultural change or
change management
Less importance given to
organizational structure
No importance given to
planning and scheduling
No importance given to
performance
measurement
No importance given to
management support and
leadership
No focus on quality
No focus on workplace
health and safety risks
Other weaknesses are
more or less similar to
the weaknesses listed
in Table 5

Organization structure is
emphasized (Rock
Products)
Highlights the role of
reporting and
performance evaluation
(Heisler)
Use of automation and
latest technologies in
maintenance (Rock
Products)
Other strengths are more
or less similar to the
strengths listed in
Table 5

Opportunities

Threats

Opportunities for
improvement can be
obtained from best
practices of other
frameworks, which
are as follows:
asset management
should be given
importance;
strategic direction
should be provided
through leadership,
management
involvement, and
commitment;
good performance
measures and feedback
system should be
established;
maintenance tools,
workshops, and facilities
should be stressed;
accountability should
be given
Other opportunities are
more or less similar to
the opportunities listed
in Table 5

Risk of losing core

competency owing to the
lack of focus on contractor
relations and contracted
maintenance
Non-compliance with
regulatory requirements
Other threats are more or
less similar to the threats
listed in Table 5

No stress on operational
involvement
RCM is missing
Lack of focus on all TPM
activities and elements
Financial focus is missing
No importance given to
cultural change or change
management
No emphasis on
intra-organizational
interface such as
cooperation between
maintenance and
production
No consistency in the
quality, as it is not
emphasized
No importance given to
management support and
leadership
No focus on workplace
health and safety risks
Other weaknesses are
more or less similar to
the weaknesses listed in
Table 5

Opportunities

Threats

Opportunities for
improvement can be
obtained from best
practices of other
frameworks, which
are as follows:
asset management
should be given
importance;
strategic direction
should be provided
through leadership,
management
involvement, and
commitment;
maintenance tools,
workshops, and facilities
should be stressed;
there should be a focus
on cost minimization;
accountability should
be ensured for employees
with well-defined
organization structure,
roles, and responsibilities
Other opportunities are
more or less similar to
the opportunities listed
in Table 5

Risk of losing core

competency owing to the
lack of focus on contractor
relations and contracted
maintenance
Non-compliance with
regulatory requirements
Other threats are more or
less similar to the threats
listed in Table 5

under group A. Table 7 shows the SWOT analysis

for group A.

5.3

SWOT analysis for group B frameworks

The frameworks of Heisler [25] and Rock Products

[27] consist of the same number of elements and
all the elements are exactly the same, but they are
different from group A frameworks. Hence these
frameworks were categorized under group B. Table 8
shows the SWOT analysis for group B.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

5.4

SWOT analysis for group C frameworks

The maintenance excellence model of Alcoa [32]

and Rohm and Hass [32] consists of ten elements
and all the elements are exactly the same, but they
are different from group A and group B frameworks. Hence these frameworks were grouped under
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SWOT analysis for frameworks of world-class maintenance

1205

Table 9 SWOT analysis for the group C frameworks of

Alcoa [32]; Rohm and Hass [32])

Table 10

Strengths

Weaknesses

Strengths

Weaknesses

Provides strategic
direction through
leadership, management
involvement, and
commitment
Highlights the role of
contractor relations and
contracted maintenance
Highlights the role of
reporting and
performance evaluation
(Rohm and Haas)
Focus on developing
human resources and
people
Highlights the role of
assessment (Rohm
and Hass)
Other strengths are more
or less similar to the
strengths listed in Table 5

Lack of focus on work flow

activities or work order
system
No role of CMMS
Lack of focus on all TPM
activities and elements
Financial focus is missing
Lack of continuous
improvement activities
No importance given to
cultural change or change
management
No emphasis on
intra-organizational
interface such as
cooperation between
maintenance and
production
Less importance given to
organizational structure
No importance given to
planning and scheduling
No focus on quality
No focus on workplace
health and safety risks
Other weaknesses are
more or less similar to
the weaknesses listed
in Table 5

Provides strategic direction

through leadership,
management involvement,
and commitment
Focus on root
cause problem
elimination
Emphasis on maintenance
tools, workshops, and
facilities
Great emphasis on intraorganizational interface such
as cooperation between
maintenance and production
Other strengths are more or
less similar to the strengths
listed in Table 5

Lack of focus on work flow

activities or work order
system
No stress on operational
involvement
Lack of focus on all TPM
activities and elements
Financial focus is missing
Lack of continuous
improvement activities
No importance given to
cultural change or change
management
Less importance given
to organizational structure
No importance given
to performance measures
No clear explanation on the
modules of maintenance
information system and
stresses technical database
only
No focus on quality
No focus on workplace health
and safety risks
Other weaknesses are more
or less similar to the
weaknesses listed in Table 5

Opportunities

Threats

Opportunities

Threats

Opportunities for
improvement can be
obtained from best
practices of other
frameworks, which
are as follows:
asset management
should be given
importance;
good performance
measures and feedback
system should be
developed;
maintenance tools,
workshops, and facilities
should be stressed
there should be a focus
on cost minimization;
there should be a focus
on the basic activities
of TPM;
accountability for
employees should be
ensured
Other opportunities are
more or less similar to
the opportunities listed
in Table 5

Non-compliance with
regulatory requirements
Other threats are more or
less similar to the threats
listed in Table 5

group C. Table 9 shows the SWOT analysis for

group C.
5.5

SWOT analysis for group D frameworks

The remaining frameworks are completely different

as was evident from the number of elements and
JEM810 IMechE 2007

SWOT analysis for the sample group D WCMt

framework of Idhammar [26]

Opportunities for
Lack of focus on contractor
improvement can be
relations and contracted
obtained from best practices
maintenance which builds
of other frameworks, which
core competency
are as follows:
Non-compliance with
asset management should
regulatory requirements
be given importance;
Inaccuracy or unreliability of
good performance
maintenance data and
measures and feedback
information and hence
system can be developed;
inadequate feedback to
importance can be given to
planners, designers, and
status assessment and
management
equipment condition survey Other threats are more or less
Technical database can be
similar to the threats listed
extended to a fully fledged
in Table 5
CMMS
Consistency in the reliability
of equipment can be
maintained, as RCM is not
directly mentioned
A platform for making
changes in the design of
equipment to eliminate
maintenance can be provided
Other opportunities are more
or less similar to the
opportunities listed
in Table 5

names of each element. Hence SWOT analysis was

performed individually on the following frameworks: Hiatt [4], Idhammar [26], Saunders [28],
Welch [29], Murray [30], Army [31], Amoco [32],
Paasch [33], McKay [34], Life Cycle Engineering Inc.
[35], Tompkins Associates scoreboard of maintenance excellence [36], and Ellis [37]. Table 10
Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

1206

R Prasad Mishra, G Anand, and R Kodali

Table 11

SWOT analysis for the sample group D maintenance excellence framework of Amoco [32]

Strengths

Weaknesses

All related area of

maintenance covered
Realistic framework
as it has been
implemented
Encouragement of
commitment through
equipment ownership
Proper accountability
provided to employees
Highlights about PAM
Provides strategic direction
through leadership,
management involvement,
and commitment
Highlights the role of
reporting and performance
evaluation
Emphasis on maintenance
tools, workshops, and
facilities
Use of automation and latest
technologies in maintenance
Highlights the role of
contractor relations and
contracted maintenance
Focus on developing human
resources and people
Importance given to safety,
health, environment,
and regulatory compliances
Focus on failure analysis and
hence improved reliability
Focus on delivering
assurance, performance
targets, equipment
improvement teams, and
early equipment management
New elements added that
focus on equipment
inspection and integrity,
turn-around processes, etc.
Better documentation
through knowledge
management
Other strengths are more or
less similar to the strengths
listed in Table 5

Suboptimal maintenance
practices
Lack of focus on work flow
activities or work order
system
No importance given to
training or personnel
development
Lack of focus on all TPM
activities and elements
Financial focus is missing
Lack of continuous
improvement activities
Other weaknesses are more
or less similar to the
weaknesses listed in Table 5

Opportunities

Threats

describes the SWOT analysis for a sample WCMt

framework in group D while Table 11 discusses the
SWOT analysis for a sample maintenance excellence
framework in group D.
6

CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, to become familiar with the concept of

WCMt, its definitions and characteristics that are
proposed by different researchers were reviewed.
To understand the similarities and differences between WCMt and the existing maintenance systems,
a comparative analysis was carried out on the basis
of various factors. The comparative analysis can
prove to be a valuable reference tool for the practitioners as it provides details about the different
maintenance systems in the briefest way. In addition
to this, various frameworks of WCMt identified from
the literature were compared and analysed using a
SWOT analysis. Based on the SWOT analysis, it
has been found that every framework has its own
strengths and weaknesses as evident from the unique
element and practice proposed in each of these
frameworks. The distinct feature of this paper is that
an attempt has been made to uncover the weaknesses and threats of various frameworks which can
help managers to choose an appropriate framework
for implementation. Thus SWOT analysis can act
as a decision aid in the strategic decision-making
process of implementation of WMSs to achieve
competitive advantage.
REFERENCES

Opportunities for
Complexity strangles
improvement can be
performance as it is
obtained from best practices
hierarchical
of other frameworks, which
Lack of importance to basic
are as follows:
activities such as training and
Asset management should
continuous improvement
be given importance
Other threats are more or less
Importance can be given to
similar to the threats listed in
status assessment and
Table 5
equipment condition
survey;
The remaining aspects of
TPM such as process
quality, and support
systems can be covered
Other opportunities are more
or less similar to the
opportunities listed in Table 5

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

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Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

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R Prasad Mishra, G Anand, and R Kodali

APPENDIX
Notation
BM
CBM
CIMMS
CM
CMMS
DOM
JIT
OEE
OM

breakdown maintenance
condition-based maintenance
computer-integrated maintenance management system
corrective maintenance
computerized maintenance management
system
design-out maintenance
just-in-time
overall equipment effectiveness
opportunity-based maintenance

Proc. IMechE Vol. 221 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture

PAM
PM
PRM
RCM
REM
RM
SM
SWOT
TPM
TQM
WCM
WCMt
WMS

proactive maintenance
preventive maintenance
predictive maintenance
reliability-centred maintenance
reactive maintenance
routine maintenance
scheduled maintenance
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats
total productive maintenance
total quality management
world-class manufacturing
world-class maintenance
world-class maintenance system

JEM810 IMechE 2007

Journal of the Operational Research Society (2007), 1 --7

2007 Operational Research Society Ltd. All rights reserved. 0160-5682/07 $30.00
www.palgrave-journals.com/jors

Preventive maintenance scheduling of

multi-cogeneration plants using integer programming
M Alardhi1 and AW Labib2
1 University

of Manchester, Manchester, UK; and 2 University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK

Maintenance scheduling of cogeneration plants, which produce both electric power and desalinated water, is a
typical complex process with long-term operations and planning problems. The plants maintenance scheduling
process has to determine the appropriate schedule for preventive maintenance, while satisfying all the system
constraints and maintaining adequate system availability. It is an optimization problem and the maintenance and
system constraints include the crew constraint, maintenance window constraint and time limitation constraint.
In this paper, an integer linear-programming model, which has been developed, is described which schedules
the preventive maintenance tasks in a multi-cogeneration plant. Results of a test example of such a plant
situated in Kuwait are presented to show the applicability of the approach.
Journal of the Operational Research Society advance online publication, 11 April 2007
doi:10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602386
Keywords: cogeneration plant; maintenace scheduling; zero-one integer programming; preventive maintenance

Introduction
Desalting/desalination/desalinization mean the same thing,
that is the removal of salts from seawater or brackish water.
Over three quarters of the earths surface is covered with salt
water. This water is too salty to sustain human life, farming
or industry. The importance of salt removal from ocean water
or other saline water resources reaches far beyond its mere
technological aspects, because the availability of fresh water
has a decisive effect on the pattern of human development.
The growth in world population and increased industrialization coupled with global warming have intensified the quest
for fresh water. Control of water supplies can be a potential
source of conflict among nations. Recent fresh water shortages in Kuwait and in many parts of the world have cast a
spotlight on the problem and led to a greatly increased interest
in it. Cogeneration plants are the main source of fresh water
in many regions of the world and are now used in about 120
countries. Of this total, approximately 50% of this desalting
capacity is used to desalt seawater, mainly in the Middle East
(Klaus, 1990).
Kuwait is an arid country, situated in the north-western
corner of the Arabian Gulf. The Government, through the
Ministry of Electricity and Water (MEW) is responsible for
supplying water to the population. The MEW has met 700%
growth of demand for electricity and water in the last 25
years by the construction of a system of cogeneration plants
Correspondence: M Alardhi, School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil
Engineering, P.O. Box 88, University of Manchester, Manchester M60
1QD, UK.
E-mail: [email protected]

using multi stage flash desalination, now totalling 9.0 GW

and 320 MIGD (million imperial gallons per day) (Statistic,
2003). The plants are identical in layout but different in size
and installation capacity. The plants have several units, each
unit consists of a boiler, a turbo-generator and a distiller as
shown in Figure 1.
The units have the following component:
boilers producing high-pressure steam from fuel,
turbo-generator producing electric power from highpressure steam,
desalination producing desalination water from salt water
low-pressure steam.
The units in a plant are connected to each other by means of
common steam headers forming a steam piping network in
the plant. The steam headers connect the units so that steam
from a boiler in one unit can supply the distiller in another
unit. The water produced by a plant is stored in a reservoir
facility. This is then used to serve a predicted demand at each
time step of the planning horizon. The system should also
satisfy a demand for electric power at each time step.
The structure of this paper is as follows: problem background and definition are given in the next section, followed
by a section focussed on mathematical formulation, an illustrative example is given and a conclusion is presented in the
final section.

Problem background and definition

Cogeneration for power and fresh water production has been
practiced by utilities in the Middle East for many years as

Journal of the Operational Research Society

BOILER

Production Electricity
(MW)

Steam

TURBINE

Production Water
(MIG/Day)

DISTILLER

Figure 1

Maximum
RESERVOIR
Minimum

Layout of one unit of a cogeneration plant.

a reliable, efficient and economic means of both generating

power and desalting sea water. An important problem in a
cogeneration plant is the long-term maintenance scheduling
(MS) of generation and desalination units. MS outage has a
great effect on system reliability, unit availability and production cost. Past experiences have shown that effective scheduling could save considerable operational costs that would help
the electric and water utilities to be more competitive in terms
of the energy and water price while increasing system reliability (El-nashar and Khan, 1991; El-Sharh et al, 1998).
Zurn and Quintana (1975) define MS process as one in
which the maintenance outages of each unit have to be scheduled in some optimal way and satisfying a number of constraints, over a planning interval of m periods. According to
Yamayee (1982), the MS process is specifying dates at which
manpower is to be allocated to an overhaul of a major functional element or group of elements in a single power plant
such that overall system security level is acceptable. Therefore, the cogeneration plant MS process is concerned with
when, and in what sequence, units should be taken down for
maintenance in order to maximize the unit utilization level
(minimize unit idle time) and make the best use of available
manpower and maintenance equipment (El-Sharh et al, 1998;
Moro and Ramos, 1999; Leou and Yih, 2000).
There are similarities between steam power plants and cogeneration units. Both are complex systems, with (typically)
oil-fired boilers generating steam for feeding into the steam
turbine, which is coupled with a turbo generator to generate
electrical power. In cogeneration units, the boiler and steam
turbine are linked to the desalination unit. The combined production of power and water is the most economical way to
simultaneously satisfy the demands for electricity and water;
similar process to the cogeneration problem have been treated
in, for example, Baughman et al (1989), Bos et al (1996)
and Puttgen and MacGregor (1989). References treating desalination include El-nashar and Khan (1991), Kent Coleman
(1971) and Moslehi et al (1991).
Several methods have been proposed in the literature to
solve turbo-generators MS which have similarities with cogeneration units. The solution methods can be categorized
as follows: exact and heuristic approaches, which can then
be further separated on a lower level into branch-and-bound
decomposition, column generation, and techniques such as

tabu search, simulated annealing, evolutionary algorithms and

others including meta-heuristics. References treating MS for
turbines include Dopazo and Merrill (1975), Zurn and Quintana (1975), Edwin and Curtius (1990), Satoh and Nara (1991)
and Yellen et al (1992).
The MS problem can be defined as a constrained optimization problem with constraints reflecting the nature of the
system under study. The following two types of objective
functions have been used:
A cost-objective function; which is composed of the sum
of production cost and the maintenance cost.
A reliability objective function, which involves deterministic reliability objective that levels the capacity reserve, and
stochastic reliability that includes load uncertainties and
generating forced outage (Yamayee, 1982).
This paper presents a zero-one integer programming model
for the design of an optimal MS for cogeneration plants in
order to maximize the available number of operational units
in each plant. This objective function can be extended to include the cost for maintenance and also it can be extended
to include production demand, but the aim of this paper is
to formulate the objective so as to maximize the available
number of operational units in each plant. The results of
the model are the values of the decision variables of zero-one
value which indicate if the studied equipment should start its
maintenance through the planned period or not, for all equipment in the plant. As mentioned above, the studied cogeneration plant consist of several units, each unit includes three
types of equipment and the maintenance planned horizon is 1
year, that is 52 weeks. Our goal is to schedule the preventive
maintenance task for a number of (r plants) which consist of
(unit i = 1, . . . , m and equipment j, j = b for boiler, j = t
for turbine and j = d for distiller) in order to maximize the
available number of operational units in each plant over the
operational planning period k, subject to the following units
maintenance constraints:

maintenance window constraint,

maintenance completion,
crew availability,
precedence relationship.

M Alardhi and AW LabibPreventive maintenance scheduling of multi-cogeneration plants

The mathematical model of the water distillers maintenance

planning and scheduling is introduced in the next section
using zero-one integer programming and it is an extension to
Alardhis work in Alardhi and Price (2004).

preventive maintenance. Mathematically, the preventive maintenance window can be expressed as


1 if k < Eri jk or k > L ri j
yri jk =
(4)
0 if Eri jk
k
L ri j

Mathematical formulation

where Eri j is the earliest time equipment j in the unit i in

plant r can be taken for maintenance; and L ri j the latest
time equipment j in the unit i in plan r can be taken for
maintenance.
Thus, yri jk is fixed to 1 before the earliest and after the
latest allowable starting period for equipment js maintenance
in unit is in plant r s and can be or 1 between those times.

Problem formulation
Decision variables

1 if the equipment j in unit i in plant r
xri jk =
during period k in operational status
0 otherwise

(1)

Also define

1 if the equipment j in unit i in plant r is not in
yri jk =
preventing maintenance during period k (2)
0 otherwise
where r represents the plant number. r = 1, 2, 3, . . . , g; i
represents the unit number. i =1, 2, 3, . . . , m; j represents the
equipment type. j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n; k represents the number
of maintenance period. k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , h.
The decision variable xri jk is set to 0 for two reasons:
either the equipment j in unit i in plant r is down for
preventive maintenance during period k, that is yri jk = 0, or
if the equipment is not on preventive maintenance but idle,
that is yri jk = 1. This implies that equipment might not be
on maintenance (yri jk = 1), but does not necessarily imply
that the equipment is in operation (xri jk = 1). The equipment
could simply be idle. Therefore, the following constraints are
needed to link variables xri jk with variables yri jk .
xri jk
yri jk for all r, i, j and k

(3)

Maintenance completion
This constraint will ensure that the maintenance time for each
equipment must occupy the required time duration without
interruption. This means that once the maintenance of equipment has begun we cannot move the maintenance tools and
manpower or other resources to other equipment. For example, if equipment t in unit i in plant r starts maintenance on
week 6, and the maintenance duration for equipment t is 4
weeks, this implies that yrit6 = yrit7 = yrit8 = yrit9 = 0. To
model this constraint mathematically, we introduce another
zero-one decision variable that will represent the equipment
starting maintenance period.
Let

0 if equipment j in unit i in plant r starts its
sri jk =
1

maintenance window,
maintenance completion,
logical constraints,
resource constraints,
maintenance crew.

Maintenance window
It is a requirement that each equipment must be maintained
regularly. This is necessary to keep its efficiency at a reasonable level, to keep the incidence of forced outages low and
to prolong the life of the equipment. This can be achieved by
specifying a latest time that the equipment can be operating
without maintenance and the earliest time it can be put on

(5)

Then the maintenance completion will have the following

form

k

Sri jq for Eri j
k
Eri j +Dri j 1 (6)
yri jk = 1k+
q=1

Set of constraints
The MS problem is a constraints optimization problem, where
we have quantities to be maximized or minimized according
to certain constraints. In this model, the following constraints
are taken into account:

preventive maintenance on period k

otherwise

yri jk =

1 Dri j

k


Sri jq

for Eri j +Dri j
k
L ri j

(7)

q=k=1Dri j
L ri j Dri j +1

sri jk = L ri j Dri j

(8)

k=1
L ri j


sri jk = L ri j Eri j

(9)

k=1

where Dri j is the duration of maintenance for equipment j in

the unit i in plant r.
When a preventive maintenance job starts on any equipment
j in period k, Equations (6) and (7) ensure that this job will
complete its maintenance duration before it starts another job.
Equations (8) and (9) will ensure that in period (L ri j Dri j )
and onwards there will be no new maintenance job to start,
but in these periods we can complete the maintenance jobs

Journal of the Operational Research Society

Erijk Erij+Drij1
Erij

Erij+Drij

Lrij Drij

Lrij

Erij+Drij k Lrij

Figure 2

Illustration of maintenance completion example.

which have been started before as illustrated in Figure 2. For

example, if we take Eri j to be 1, L ri j to be 10 and Dri j to
be 2, then in period 8, hence (L ri j Dri j ) and onwards there
will be no new maintenance job to start, but we can complete
the maintenance jobs which have been started before.

Resource constraints. The following constraints will ensure

that no more than the available amount of resources for maintenance is committed
m


(1 yrr jk )Rr jkp
T R r jkp

i=1

Logical constraints. Logical constraints are used to model

certain relationships among the plants and the units operational status. These constraints fall into the following categories: only two units in each plant can be down at the same
time, for example (u) unit in each plant. These units should
not be down simultaneously under any circumstances, since
there would be a huge loss in production. This constraint can
be represented mathematically as follows:
m


xri jk  m u

(10)

i=1

j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n
(k runs over all time intervals) k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , h
(u is input data which indicate the number of maximum
unit that are allowed for maintenance in period k)
Since both decision variables are binary (0 or 1), the above
constraint assures that in any time interval at most u units in
each plant could be under maintenance.
The other logical constraints are the required (must) relationship between equipment. Most relationship constraints
for any equipment specify the other equipment that must be
concurrently operational. For example, if one of the turbines
in unit i is operational, then the boiler in the same unit i must
also be operational. This is modelled as follows:
xritk
xribk ; r = 1, 2, 3, . . . , g, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , m

(11)

yritk
yribk ; r = 1, 2, 3, . . . , g, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , m

(12)

The above constraint assures that in any time interval when

the steam turbine xritk is on xritk = 1, the boiler xribk must
also be on xribk = 1. Note that if xribk is on, the constraint
does not force xritk to be on. Similarly, it will ensure that in
any time interval when yritk is not in maintenance yritk = 1,
then yribk must not be in maintenance. Note that if yritk = 0,
which means it is under maintenance, it will not force yribk
to be under maintenance.

r = 1, 2, 3, . . . , g
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , h
p = 1, 2, 3, . . . , f
j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n

(13)

where Rr jkp is the amount of resource type p needed by

equipment j in plant r during period k; T R r jkp the total
amount of p resource available for equipment j in plant r
during period k; and p the number of resources.
Maintenance crew. An essential requirement for modelling
this problem is the maximum number of units that can be
taken down for maintenance at the same time. This constraint
is related to the manpower availability. Two issues must be
considered: there should be no simultaneous shutdown of
units that require maintenance by the same crew, and no more
than a fixed number of units can be served at one time because of the limited availability of crew. This constraint can
be represented mathematically as follows:
m


(1 yri jk )Cr jk
T C r jk

i=1

r = 1, 2, 3, . . . , g
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , h
j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n

(14)

where Cr jk is the amount of manpower required for equipment

j in plant r during period k; and T C r jk the total amount
of manpower available for equipment j in plant r during
period k.
Objective function. The objective function of the model is
given by:
Max

g
m 
n 
h


r =1 i=1 j=1 k=1

xri jk

(15)

M Alardhi and AW LabibPreventive maintenance scheduling of multi-cogeneration plants

Figure 3 LINGO solver status.

where xri jk represents the available number of all equipments j in all units i in all plants r through the studied period k. So the mathematical formulation of the preventive
maintenance scheduling for the desalination plants takes the
following form:
Max

g 
m 
n 
h


xri jk
yri jk

1k

+
S

q=1 ri jq
yri jk =
1Dri j

q=K =1+Dri j

i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , m
j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n
for Eri j
k
Eri j +Dri j 1

Sri jq for Eri j +Dri j
k
L ri j

sri jk = L ri j Dri j

k=1
L ri j

k=1
m


sri jk = L ri j Eri j
xri jk  m u

i=1

xritk
xribk
yritk
yribk
m

(1 yr jk )Rr jkp
T R r jkp
i=1
m

(1 yri jk )Cr jk
T C r jk
i=1

k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , h
p = 1, 2, 3, . . . , f

L ri j Dri j +1

xri jk , yri jk , sri jk  0

0
0
0
, yri jk =
, sri jk =
xri jk =
1
1
1
r = 1, 2, 3, . . . , g

xri jk

r =1 i=1 j=1 k=1

subject to :

and

Illustrative example and discussion of results

To test the model outlined in this paper, a scheduling of
preventive maintenance task for Kuwait cogeneration plants
is investigated. The example consists of two plants, each one
consists of seven units. The planning horizon is 52 weeks and
the total number of equipment included is 15 in each plant.
The maintenance constraints included are the following: maintenance window, maintenance completion, maintenance crew,
resource constraint and must relationship constraint between
equipment as outlined earlier.
For the maintenance window, the earliest and latest maintenance limits can be determined from previous experience
of people work in the plants; usually the maintenance period starts at the season of the low demand, for this example
the earliest choosing is 1 Eri j = 1, and the latest choosing
is 52, L ri j = 52 maintenance duration on average take 24
weeks on order to complete. In this example, the maintenance

Journal of the Operational Research Society

Table 1
Equipment
Plant Unit type
1

Equipment maintenance schedule for the seven units in two plants

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller
Boiler
Turbine
Distiller

duration has been taken to be 2 weeks for all equipment.

Maintenance crew and resource constraints generally have
a limitation (eg limitation of available crew and obtainable
resource). In this example, we assume there are no shortage
on those constraints.
An integer programming approach has been used to solve
the illustrative model using the LINGO modelling and optimization package (Schrage, 2002). LINGO solver status are
shown in Figure 3 and results of the solving example are
shown in Table 1, where shaded bars represent the weeks in
which equipments are on maintenance. Examining Table 1 reveals that all constraints outlined earlier have been satisfied;
maintenance window constraints in this example is between
week 1 and week 52.
And the example shows that all the preventive maintenance
tasks are scheduled between week 1 and week 52. The example also shows that when any preventive maintenance task
starts, it will continue until it completes its duration. The logical constraints shown in constraints 10, 11 and 12 are satisfied in this example. If one examines unit one in plant one, it
can be seen that the preventive maintenance of the boiler and
the turbine occur in the same period and hence it satisfies the
logical constraints (11) and (12) in this unit.
In this example the resource and crew constraints kept constant, if we vary these two constraints, the final schedule of
the preventive maintenance task will change.

Conclusion
This paper presents a method for solving MS problem and
the method has been illustrated for a cogeneration plant in
Kuwait. The basic idea of the method is to model the problem
as zero-one integer problem. Mixed integer programming has
been shown to be a useful model for scheduling maintenance
tasks. An illustrative example shows the applicability of the
method, making its application for use in the cogeneration
plants.
The objective function of the model was to maximize the
available number of operational units in each plant. This objective function can be extended to include the cost for maintenance and also it can be extended to solve the MS and the
production of the units simultaneously by adding more system
constraints that deal with the demand of electricity and water,
since this will help both structure problem as well as facilitate decision-making process. Also, fuzzy parameters can be
studied to cover any variation in the input data.
Benefits of the model are that it will help the people working in maintenance to have an estimated scheduling for there
process and it will also aid people who work in OR to understand the relationship among different processes in order to
work with this kind of issues.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the two anonymous
referees for their valuable feedback and constructive criticism.

M Alardhi and AW LabibPreventive maintenance scheduling of multi-cogeneration plants

References
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International Conference of Maintenance Societies: Sydney,
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Bos MFJ, Beune RJL and van Amerongen RAM (1996). On the
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Dopazo JF and Merrill HM (1975). Optimal generator maintenance
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PAS-94: 15371545.
Edwin KW and Curtius F (1990). New maintenance-scheduling
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El-nashar AM and Khan MS (1991). Economic scheduling of the UAN
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El-Sharh MY, Yaser R and El-Keib AA (1998). Optimal maintenance
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Kent Coleman A (1971). Optimization of a single effect, multi-stage
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Klaus W (1990). IDA Report No.11. International Desalination
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Moslehi K, Khadem M, Bernal R and Hernandez G (1991).
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484490.
Puttgen HB and MacGregor PR (1989). Optimum scheduling
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Satoh T and Nara K (1991). Maintenance scheduling by using
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Schrage L (2002). Optimization Modeling with Lingo. Lindo Systems
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Received August 2005;

accepted November 2006 after one revision

ADVANCE MAINTENANCE PLANNING AND SCHEDULE

Samuel L. Dreyer, CPL. PMP
BAE Systems
16250 Technology Drive
San Diego, CA 92127
(858) 675-3880
sam .d [email protected]

Abstract - Advance Maintenance Planning and

Scheduling (AMPS) performs an integral role
in reducing maintenance turnaround time and
increasing system availability. The virtues of
well-executed maintenance planning and
scheduling are well documented. One reason
for implementing the maintenance planning
and scheduling process is because it can be
an effective method to leverage real-time
health and status data of the mission system,
maintenance
significantly
increasing
productivity. When the occurrence of a failure
is discovered while the mission is still
underway, maintenance resources can be
The capability to
prepared in advance.
prepare maintenance resources in advance
requires the implementation of AMPS and a
maintenance planner to facilitate that process.

WHAT IS AMPS?
AMPS is a systematic approach for implementing
a planning and scheduling capability focused on a
system mission context. Planning is the function
of defining how to do the job, while scheduling is
the function of determining when to do the job.

AMPS improves maintenance productivity by

reducing the number of work interruptions and
scheduling enough work to take advantage of the
increased productivity. Keith Mobley of ISI says
"Typical maintenance technicians spend less than
25% of their time actually maintaining critical
equipment. The balance of the time is spent on
nonproductive tasks." [2] Studies show that even
"world class" organizations achieve a 55% ratio of
direct to indirect maintenance. The same studies
show that organizations believe that their
maintenance productivity is over 85%. This
makes it difficult for them to see the need for
change.

INTRODUCTION
Many programs are actively pursuing sensor
technology that will provide useful failure
information for the maintenance planner. The
main opportunity provided by early failure
detection is the ability to plan and schedule
maintenance in order to increase maintenance
In order to
efficiency and effectiveness.
investigate the process of maintenance planning
and scheduling, this paper initially defines
maintenance planning and scheduling. Next, the
importance of system operational context on the
maintenance approach is addressed. The role the
maintenance planner has in facilitating
maintenance planning and scheduling and his
utilization of the work order system is investigated.
The benefits and keys to implementation success
are presented to complete the investigation.

1-4244-0052-X/06/$20.00 2006 IEEE

Improved system quality is also a benefit to be

gained from having extra time for planning and
scheduling. "Tangible quality savings come from
planning in two ways. First, planning focuses on
correctly identifying work scopes and provides for
proper instructions, tools, and parts being used on
the jobs, thereby facilitating quality work. Second,
productivity improvement frees up craft,
supervision and management time to do more
proactive work. This includes root cause analyses
on repair jobs, project work to improve less
reliable equipment, and attention to preventative
and predictive maintenance." [1]

341

with the required performance and the priorities

and timing of their prevention and/or remedy is
derived from the readiness, reliability and
supportability parameters that the maintenance
system must support. Based on maintenance
analysis processes focusing on the system
mission context, the timing of the identification
and the corresponding actions are determined.
Reliability Centered Maintenance is a process that
addresses maintenance from the perspective of
the system mission.

HOW DO WE KNOW WE NEED IT?

In nearly every maintenance productivity
improvement initiative the prerequisite to success
is typically stated, "the organization's approach to
maintenance must have achieved a level of
maturity that ensures accurate and complete
asset data" [3].
From the maintenance
perspective, there must be a well-established,
documented maintenance process and a welldeveloped preventive maintenance program. The
task of assessing how implementing AMPS will
improve system productivity must address what
impacts the new capability has on the system
operational concept.

The readiness, reliability and supportability

aspects of a system are very specific to the
system mission context. A fixed asset has very
different requirements than a mobile asset. Land,
air and sea mobile assets each have unique
requirements. Beyond these obvious differences,
the specific mission of an asset is a significant
part of the user's definition of intent. Management
of failure consequences on meeting the specific
mission requirement defines the maintenance
system requirements. Therefore sophisticated
maintenance solutions must be tailored to the
specific system requirements.

The new capability can only have a measurable

effect on the productivity of the existing system if
the system has an identifiable capability gap.
However, the system was likely established with
the technology parameters that existed at the time
of its development. The question in many cases
becomes, can this new technology improve the
existing system? This is essentially mining for a
capability gap with the desire of implementing
productivity improvement. In order to determine
an improvement approach, it is essential to
identify (from a capability gap mining perspective)
how the virtues of well executed maintenance
planning and scheduling relate to a specific
maintenance environment.

BENEFITS
The following adaptation of Doc Palmer's "What's
in it for me?" [1], provides a concise view of the
benefits of maintenance planning. Technicians
benefit from a continuously improving process that
is committed to avoiding maintenance
The
interruptions identified on past work.
maintenance planner provides technicians a head
start on the task as well as data on anticipated
problems that may be encountered. Planning and
scheduling gives the supervisors more control
over work by knowing how many jobs they can
The
assign to which skilled technicians.
supervisors have the confidence of knowing that
the schedule includes both proactive and reactive
tasks.
With the implementation of the
maintenance planner, management has the
means to increase productivity by knowing how
much work a maintenance crew should execute
and how to allocate it. The organization realizes
increased availability of the assets required to
complete missions.

If AMPS is to improve maintenance productivity, it

must reduce work interruptions and improve
scheduling. In the existing system, these factors
typically affect the maintenance system in some
measurable way. This could be through their
impacts on readiness, reliability, supportability and
lifecycle costs of the system that the maintenance
operation supports. The mission of the system
that the maintenance system supports establishes
the readiness, reliability and supportability
parameters. The hypothesis is information from a
system that employs an early failure detection
mechanism can be utilized to improve
maintenance productivity and therefore increase
system availability by reducing maintenance
downtime.

WHAT ARE WE MAINTAINING?

As an example, consider this hypothetical set of

mission requirement assumptions:

The warfighter has a functional requirement from

the system that he intends to use and an
expectation that it will perform that function when
required. The identification of failures associated

There are a limited number (2 to 4 per

campaign) of high value aircraft assets to be
maintained.
342

THE MAINTENANCE PLANNER

*
*

Typical flights are 20 to 30 hours in duration.

Mean maintenance turnaround time between
flights is required to be 5 hours.
These few assumptions establish a timeline that
can be used to frame boundaries in which to
analyze the impact of an AMPS implementation.
Failures can be discovered anytime during the 20
to 30 hour flight. Associated actions are taken
that coordinate tasks that will be performed in
order to meet the five-hour turn-around time.

The maintenance planner is a separate function

whose job is to coordinate the execution of
equipment maintenance, much like the service
planner, who greets customers at a car service
center. The service planner identifies required
maintenance from listening to the customer.
Priority maintenance is done first, other tasks are
put on a list for future visits. "Each hour of
effective planning typically returns three to five
hours in mechanic time of equivalent savings". [4]

The main benefit realized from detection of

failures during mission is that time is available for
planning and scheduling of maintenance. The
impact sharpens and re-focuses utilization of the
work order system to support planning and
scheduling.

"The vision of planning is simply to increase labor

productivity. The mission of planning is to prepare
the jobs to increase labor productivity. The
mission of scheduling is to allocate the jobs
necessary for completion. Scheduling forms an
integral part of planning." [1]

The types of tasks required for preparation of the

next flight will, at minimum, include post-flight and
pre-flight servicing and inspection. Other tasks
could include mission configuration changes,
corrective
and
scheduled
maintenance,
maintenance. Considering each of these tasks,
there is not much time for non-productive work. A
benefit of the maintenance planner is their longerrange focus on system maintenance that allows
workload planning and ensures that preventative
and proactive maintenance is scheduled and
completed.

Justification for using a maintenance planner can

be seen in research which shows that a good
performing workforce moves from 35% wrench
time without planning to 55% with planning. [1] "It
is intuitive if a planner could help multiply the
productivity of a single craftsperson by a factor of
1.57 (55% divided by 35%), that a breakeven
point would be to take one of every three craft
persons and convert them to planners.
Furthermore, experience has shown that a single
planner can plan for 20 to 30 persons." [1]

Critical or priority work should not be done at the

expense of routine service and backlog relief.
The workload bandwidth should be sufficient to
accommodate critical, priority, and routine work.
"Unfortunately, many organizations attempting to
meet a quick turnaround time build up a backlog
of scheduled maintenance and lower priority work.
The important portions of maintenance workload
are reliable routine service and timely backlog
relief. Proper attention here provides asset
reliability, minimizes future emergencies, leads to
a pro-active environment, and provides sustained
viability of the organizational entity." [4]

There is significant documentation showing the

benefits of separating the maintenance planner
from the maintenance workers; the main reason is
to keep the maintenance planner focused on
future work. If allowed to perform maintenance,
the day-to-day tasks will become the focus and
future work will have a lower priority. "When
mechanics are engaged in planning, they are not
performing productive work. Furthermore, people
preparing for their own work, one job at a time,
are less effective than staff professionals
specialized in the coordination of resources (labor,
materials, parts, tools, equipment, technical
and
documentation,
support
personnel,
transportation) required to perform a number of
jobs in a given period of time." [4]. The separation
of the maintenance planner needs to be made at
an organizational level to ensure that the reporting
structure is conducive to maintaining the
separation, and therefore the focus on future
work.

In most cases, maintenance budgets are not

unlimited. "Proactive maintenance programs stay
involved with the equipment to prevent decline or
loss of capacity. In this sense, maintenance
produces a product which is capacity;
maintenance does not just provide a repair
service." [1]

Work identified on work orders may be in many

states. Status of work is indicated by the work
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order status code. Total backlog refers to all work

yet to be done in the work order system. "Ready
backlog" tasks are work orders that are ready to
be scheduled. "Total backlog includes ready
backlog plus all the other open work orders for
which something is missing. The job could be
missing parts, authorization, budget, or some
other element." [4]

Scheduling is the function of determining when to

do the job. "Scheduling is the assignment of
many planned jobs into a defined period of time in
order to optimize the use of the resources within
their constraints." [5]

*
*

Work Order Induction

Work orders are created by many methods. The
maintenance planner would create work
documents based on early failure warning
information.
Maintenance technicians and
operators create work orders when work is
identified. Scheduled maintenance tasks could be
automated based on the progress against the
scheduled interval (hours, days, flights, etc). The
main point is that work orders are created to
induct identified work into the maintenance
process. The maintenance planner plans all work
orders, not just the ones they identify.

The maintenance planner's job is to:

.

*
*
*
*
*
*

Interpret health management data during flight

to identify maintenance requirements

Identify backlog work to be completed

Prepare and analyze documentation to
establish a maintenance approach for the
vehicle in flight.
Review feedback and historical records of
previously executed maintenance approaches
Set in motion resource requests
Schedule all ready backlog work
Resolve resource conflicts

Work Order Coding

The work order coding system is essential to the
scheduling and planning of the identified work.
Criticality and priority codes tell the planner which
tasks to plan first. The maintenance planner
knows which tasks are ready to work using the
status code. "It is essential that planners know
the current status of each job in the backlog. This
code (Status) brings order out of chaos, and is the
most important code in the entire system." [4].
Outage/downtime requirement tells the operations
scheduler the potential unavailability of the
system.

AMPS WORK ORDER INTEGRATION

The core of a maintenance management system
is the work order function. "A strong Work Order
System must be instituted because control of
maintenance work is instituted through the work
order system." [4] The following list describes the
main functions of a work order system that the
maintenance planner would utilize.
The
remainder of this section addresses how the
maintenance planner can impact work efficiency
and productivity with each of the work order
functions.

Work Order coding system elements identify:

0
0

Work Order System:

*
*

O Requesting resources
Work Scheduling
O Monitoring requests
o Identifying tasks as ready
o Scheduling tasks
Work Controlling
O Documentation of status
o Sign-off of trackable events
o Closure
Work History
Work Metrics

0
0

Work Order Induction (initial identification of

work)
Work Order Coding (coding process)
Work Planning
O Preplanned maintenance tasks
o Resource Identification
o Scope Identification

0
0

0
0

0
0

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Criticality of the work

Priority of the work

Status
Outage/downtime requirement
Work type (proactive or reactive)
Department or crew
How found
Unit
Equipment group and system
Equipment type

*
*

come from the technical manual or a data source

that is exported from technical manual data):

Action taken
Reason, cause, and failure

Technician type required for each task

* Support equipment required for each task
* Test equipment and interface test adapters for
each task
* Parts required for each task
* Consumable materials required for each task
* Facilities setup
* Task duration estimate
When all of the tasks are identified, the planner
can estimate the time required to complete each
task. This information along with the Work Order
priority codes are used to define the overall scope
of work for the specified maintenance period. Job
plans created from multiple technical manual
tasks are saved for retrieval the next time that
plan is required. This increases the planner's
productivity, giving the planner more time to plan
proactive work and to review feedback on
historical work.

Work Planning (Technical

Orders/Manuals)
Military system technical manuals describe how to
do a task. This puts the defense industry ahead
of other industries that must write a procedural
plan upon identifying the work. However, there
are still planning tasks. The planner needs to
identify required work from the documentation.
Each of the following could interrupt the
technician's workflow if not determined in
advance:
*

Multiple configurations covered in a common

document
* Required pre- and post tasks
Specific subsystem work from a document
covering a larger task
Which tasks need to be combined in order to
complete the job
Many technical manuals cover multiple
configurations of a system in a single document.
In order to use this document in an effective plan,
the correct configuration must be determined and
identified. The plan should then reference the
specific tasks for the configuration to be
maintained. Often there are tasks that must be
performed prior to, or in order to prepare for, the
identified maintenance task. If there are multiple
identified maintenance tasks, some of the pre- or
post tasks may overlap. To maximize efficiency,
tasks with the same pre- and post task should be
grouped. However, personnel safety must always
be considered. It is also possible that the system
to be maintained is a subsystem that is
documented in the maintenance of a larger
system. Again, the planner must extract and
identify the specific work tasks that are to be
performed and the associated pre- and post tasks
that correspond with this subset of tasks.
Conversely, if there are a number of separate
technical manual tasks that need to be assigned
and worked in order to complete a job, the planner
will need to identify each of them, and sequence
them properly.

The status codes of each work order are updated

as the resources for the identified work are
ordered and received. When the status codes
change to ready-to-work, the jobs are scheduled.

Work Scheduling
The scheduling function tracks the status codes in
order to determine jobs ready for scheduling. As
the jobs are ready for scheduling, personnel and
resources are allocated to them and put on a
calendar. Scheduling success is measured in
terms of:

Schedule compliance - Percent of scheduled

labor hours completed in the timeframe
* Schedule performance - Percent of
scheduled work verses completed work
* Schedule effectiveness - Ratio of productive
verses non-productive work completed in a
timeframe.
Of course, the ultimate goal of planning and
scheduling maintenance work is to maintain the
equipment such that it is available and reliable.

At this point, with the specific tasks identified, the

maintenance planner can address the resources
required (much of this information should also

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Factors of impacting scheduling success are:

Work History

*
*
*
*

An important part of continuously improving the

maintenance system is to learn from history. It is
one of the maintenance planner's jobs to review
historical work and equipment trends. At a
minimum, when planning a task for a piece of
equipment, the planner should review the
equipment usage history and its maintenance
history. The following are recommended for the
planner to review:

Sufficient time to plan and schedule the task

Accurate evaluations of job priority
Optimum backlog level
Availability of maintenance personnel and
resources
"Either you schedule the team yourself, or you
allow equipment and impatient customers to
dictate how and when resources are consumed
(and wasted)." [4] The reference books
recommend a wide range of scheduling
techniques from lists of allocateable tasks to
critical path methodology implementation. The
selected method will depended on the specific
mission context.

Historical view of job type:

o How long it took
O What the failure was
o Technician Feedback
* Historical view of specific system/item
o Scheduled maintenance pending
- Scheduled maintenance tasks for the
system/item
- Interval status of each scheduled
maintenance task
o Scheduled maintenance history
- Tasks recently performed
- Who, when, where
o Corrective maintenance performed on this
system item
* System reliability and availability numbers
* Relevant usage data: hours, cycles, landings
Downtime trends
* Comparison of this system to similar systems
"Use labor and equipment libraries to determine if
the job had been previously performed. When
was it previously done?
Is the frequency
excessive? If so, consider if anything can be done
to avoid recurrence. Always ask, 'Is this the best
solution to the problem?"' [4]
From this
information, the maintenance planner can identify
and implement corrective actions that will improve
maintenance planning as well as increasing the
availability of the equipment.

Work Controlling
Controlling applies to planned and scheduled
work. The crew chief or maintenance supervisor
is in charge of the performance of work. They
have the responsibility to keep the schedule and
"When jobs go awry,
prepare the aircraft.
materials, parts and tools are the most common
culprits. Obviously, there were shortfalls in the
planned job package, provide feedback to the
planner." [4]. The planner reschedules tasks that
are not completed in the timeframe, into the next
schedule.
It is essential to collect job close-out feedback.
Simple, direct, and easy-to-input data collection
screens designed to improve the planning,
scheduling and maintenance process need to be
part of the closeout process. The basic elements
are labor hours charged and additional/excess
parts or material needed per job. Feedback on
the work order, such as expanded or corrected
description and job steps, additional special tools
required, and interruptions encountered is also
valuable. "Upon job closure, planners have an
opportunity to acquire an excellent snapshot of
what it takes to perform a given job and to add
that knowledge to the building of a valuable library
of planned job packages." [4]

Special attention should be given to maintenance

data collection on system breakdowns or failures.
"Breakdown information is the most important part
of Equipment History, as it is this work that
requires Root Cause Analysis." [4] Again,
corrective maintenance planning tasks should
also be added to the planning library.

Work Metrics
"The purpose of an index [metrics] is to help
predict future activity or to compare current
activity to a standard. Indices can help identify
negative trends before they become too costly."
[5] Metrics should be traceable to mission
346

requirements as well as selected with a focus on

system improvement. It is also important to
consider the relationship between the value of the
data verses cost of collecting it.

SUMMARY
Maintenance productivity enhancement is an
effective utilization of real-time interpretation of
health and status information. However, it is
possible to achieve significant enhancements in
maintenance productivity with a maintenance
planner. A well thought out maintenance planner
implementation, focused on the system mission,
will increase the availability of the assets
supporting the mission.

Depending on the mission requirement goals,

metrics should be selected that measure the
impact of planning and scheduling on system
availability and maintenance cost. These include
measures that show maintenance effectiveness
and efficiency trends. Valuable trends include
proactive
maintenance
verses
reactive
maintenance, system availability improvement,
and higher direct maintenance hours verses nonmaintenance hours.

REFERENCES
[1] Doc Palmer, Maintenance Planning and Scheduling
Handbook. New York: McGraw Hill, 2006.
[2] Keith Mobley, Barriers to Plant Performance: Real or
Imagined? Plant Services 18(7), 1997.
[3] Terry Wireman, Developing Performance Indicators
in Managing Maintenance. New York: Industrial Press,
1998.
[4] Don Nyman and Joel Levitt, Maintenance Planning,
Scheduling, and Coordination. New York: Industrial
Press, 2001.
[5] Michael Brown, Managing Maintenance Planning
and Scheduling. Wiley Publishing, 2004.

KEYS TO SUCCESS
One main key to success is organizational
commitment to the value of implementing both the
systems that detect and identify failures during
missions and the maintenance planner that
utilizes this information to improve maintenance
efficiency.
An analysis of the existing system to initially focus
on issues that this capability can impact will aid in
the success of the implementation effort. This
process could identify candidate systems, or
processes that adversely effect maintenance
turnaround.

Many implementations of maintenance planners

have failed because of less than optimal
The maintenance
organizational separation.
planner needs to be at a level in the organization
that is conducive to keeping focus on future work.
If assigned to the maintenance supervisor, the
goal of the day will be the focus. If assigned
numerous other tasks such as part running or tool
setup, again, the current task at hand will be the
focus. The maintenance planner needs to be able
to focus on the asset currently in mission
execution and its next maintenance period. Other
personnel on staff are focused on maintenance
execution.
An important aspect of this type of system
implementation is to create the right team
environment
to
develop the concept,
requirements, analysis, and implementation
approach. An integrated process team to manage
the development approach should include
representation from all the stakeholders of the
system, but specifically the operators and the

maintainers.

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