Construction

Sika CarboDur FRP

Composites

for
Repair & Strengthening
of
Structures.
MARCH 2003

CONTENTS

PREAMBLE ....................................................................................................................................3
2.1. Significance of repair, strengthening and seismic retrofit ................................................3
2.2. Definitions ...............................................................................................................................3
2.3. Scope of the manual..............................................................................................................4
3. DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING ...........................................5
3.1. Accurate assessment of as built capacity.........................................................................5
3.2. Re-estimation of loading .......................................................................................................5
3.3. Elimination of conceptual or construction errors ...............................................................6
3.4. Prudent choice of structural intervention ............................................................................6
3.5. Selective repair techniques ..................................................................................................6
3.6. Strengthening of the structure..............................................................................................6
3.7. Engineering Assessment: Flow Chart of the Process ......................................................7
4. STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING TECHNIQUES .......................................8
4.1. Repair Techniques.................................................................................................................8
4.1.1. Resin Injection ................................................................................................................8
4.1.2. Patch Repair ...................................................................................................................8
4.1.3. Shotcrete / Gunite ..........................................................................................................8
4.2. Strengthening Techniques....................................................................................................9
4.2.1. Strengthening of the Reinforcement ...........................................................................9
4.2.2. Reinforced Concrete Jacketing....................................................................................9
4.2.3. Externally Bonded Plates or Fabrics ...........................................................................9
4.2.4. Prestressed Externally Bonded Plates .....................................................................10
4.2.5. Steel Jacketing .............................................................................................................10
4.2.6. Strengthening with Lateral External Tensioning (FRP Jackets)............................10
5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS .........................................................11
5.1. Conventional Strengthening Techniques .........................................................................11
5.2. Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites .................................................................11
5.3. FRP Constituent Materials..................................................................................................13
5.3.1. Fibres .............................................................................................................................13
5.3.2. Adhesive........................................................................................................................14
5.3.3. Matrix .............................................................................................................................14
5.4. FRP Material Safety Factors ..............................................................................................15
5.5. Mechanical properties of FRPs..........................................................................................15
5.6. Comparison of FRP systems: Plates-Fabrics ..................................................................17
5.7. Long term durability of FRPs..............................................................................................19
5.7.1. Fire protection...............................................................................................................19
5.7.2. UV Radiation.................................................................................................................19
5.7.3. Fatigue...........................................................................................................................20
5.7.4. Creep .............................................................................................................................20
5.7.5. Impact ............................................................................................................................20
5.7.6. Temperature .................................................................................................................20
5.7.7. Moisture.........................................................................................................................21
5.7.8. Galvanic Corrosion ......................................................................................................21
5.7.9. Alkalinity/Acidity............................................................................................................21
5.8. Advantages and disadvantages of FRPs .........................................................................21
5.9. Possible applications of FRPs...........................................................................................22
6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE ............................................................................23
6.1. Theoretical Background ......................................................................................................23
6.1.1. Flexural Strengthening ................................................................................................23
6.1.2. Shear Strengthening....................................................................................................29
6.1.3. Confinement..................................................................................................................31
6.2. Use of CarboDur FRP Analysis Software.........................................................................34
6.2.1. General..........................................................................................................................34
6.2.2. Flexural Strengthening ................................................................................................35
6.2.3. Shear Strengthening....................................................................................................45
6.2.4. Confinement..................................................................................................................49
6.2.5. Options ..........................................................................................................................52
6.2.6. Printing...........................................................................................................................53
2.

Construction

CONTENTS

Construction

7.

CARBODUR FRP SOFTWARE EXAMPLES ..........................................................................54

7.1. Flexural Strengthening Example .......................................................................................54
7.2. Shear Strengthening Example ...........................................................................................55
7.3. Confinement Example .........................................................................................................55
8. CARBODUR FRP DETAILING RULES....................................................................................57
8.1. Flexural Strengthening ........................................................................................................57
8.1.1. Recommendations .......................................................................................................57
8.1.2. Multiple Layers .............................................................................................................58
8.1.3. Anchorage Zones.........................................................................................................58
8.2. Shear Strengthening............................................................................................................58
8.2.1. Recommendations .......................................................................................................59
8.3. Confinement .........................................................................................................................60
8.3.1. Recommendations .......................................................................................................60
8.4. Moisture Issues ....................................................................................................................61
8.4.1. Recommendations .......................................................................................................61
9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES ......................................................................................62
9.1. Sika Technologies in Action ...............................................................................................62
9.2. CarboDur FRP Systems .....................................................................................................63
9.2.1. Sika CarboDur System................................................................................................63
9.2.2. SikaWrap System.........................................................................................................64
9.2.3. Sikadur Adhesives and Impregnating Resins ..........................................................66
9.3. CarboDur Complementary Systems .................................................................................67
9.3.1. CarboShear L System .................................................................................................67
9.3.2. CarboHeater .................................................................................................................69
10. CARBODUR FRP CASE STUDIES .......................................................................................73
10.1.
EURIPOS BRIDGE, CHALKIDA....................................................................................73
10.2.
KATERINI BRIDGE, NATIONAL ROAD KATERINI-THESSALONIKI .....................73
10.3.
SPORTS INSTALLATION, ATHENS ............................................................................74
10.4.
HOTEL BUILDING, CRETE ...........................................................................................75
10.5.
TRADITIONAL HOUSE, ATHENS ................................................................................75
10.6.
TOBACCO FACTORY, KILKIS......................................................................................76
10.7.
GALIKOS RIVER BRIDGE, KILKIS ..............................................................................76
10.8.
MASONRY HOUSE, THESSALONIKI..........................................................................77
10.9.
COMMERCIAL COMPLEX, ATHENS ..........................................................................77
10.10. RETIREMENT HOME, IOANNINA................................................................................78

2. PREAMBLE

2. PREAMBLE
2.1. Significance of repair, strengthening and seismic retrofit

Construction

The issue of upgrading existing civil engineering infrastructure and building

structures poses great importance compared to new construction.
Deterioration of bridge decks, beams, girders and columns, buildings and
parking structures may be attributed to various reasons and include:

Durability problems due to poor or inappropriate construction

materials.
Design or construction errors.
Aggressive environments not properly understood during the design
stages.
Increased loading requirements due to changes of policy or use of
structures.
Increased life-span demands made on ageing infrastructure.
Exceptional or accidental loading.
Varying life span of different structural or non-structural
components.

Due to the increasing decay of infrastructure and buildings, which is

frequently combined with the need for upgrading so that structures can
meet more stringent design requirements (e.g. increased traffic volumes on
bridges exceeding the initial design loads), the issue of structural renewal
has received considerable emphasis over recent throughout the world. At
the same time, seismic retrofit has become of equal importance in areas of
high seismic risk.

2.2. Definitions
Required Resistance (VB): is defined as the capacity of the structure after
the completion of strengthening interventions.
Available Resistance (VC): is defined as the capacity of the structure prior
to the deterioration due to one or all of the parameters given in 1.1.
Residual Resistance (VD): is defined as the capacity of the structure after
the deterioration due to one or all of the parameters given in 1.1.
Loss of Resistance: is defined as the difference (VC-VD).
Repair: is defined as reinstatement of the original characteristics (strength,
stiffness, ductility) of the structure. VD is increased with the repair at least up
to the value of VC.

2. PREAMBLE

Strengthening: implies the enhancement of the structures characteristics

beyond the levels envisaged or achieved initially by repair. The resistance
becomes equal to VB or to a predefined percentage of it.
Seismic Retrofit: is used to indicate post earthquake measures. It can be
either repair or strengthening.

Construction

VC-VD / VC [%]
VB
VC
VD
REPAIR
STRENGTHENING

Structure Resistance V
Fig. 1.1 Schematic Representation of VB, VC, VD.

The above figure is a schematic representation of the required (VB),

available (VC) and residual (VD) resistance respectively.

2.3. Scope of the manual

The aim of this manual is to be a useful tool for the Engineer as an
overview of repair and strengthening methods using Sika FRP materials.
There is a range of composite systems mentioned, for example Sika
CarboDur, SikaWrap and SikaDur epoxy resins.
The manual incorporates experience and knowledge gained in the last
years through many projects in Greece. Moreover, the manual includes
details of application, design guidelines and examples.

3. DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING

3. DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING

Structural damage is very often not identified as such, and cosmetic repairs are
undertaken to conceal the obvious defects. Hence, the strategy for repair should
involve the actual redesign of the structural requirements so as to achieve an
acceptable level of safety. The most common stages of the design of structural
repair and strengthening will be briefly mentioned.

Construction

A usual flowchart for the redesign of structures is given below:

Collapse
factor

Use of structural
analysis

Final design and detailing.

Design of selective repairs
on members as assumed in
structural analysis

c>1

c<1

Assessment of as
built strength
(damaged members
assumed repaired)

1st stage re-design.

Diagnosis of faults.
Elimination of
conceptual and
construction errors

c>1

Use of
structural
analysis

Collapse
factor
c<1

Re-estimation of
design loads

2nd stage re-design.

Choice of suitable type of
global structural
intervention.

Strengthening
and/or stiffening
of the structure

3.1. Accurate assessment of as built capacity

A prerequisite for any structural intervention is an accurate assessment; not
only of the damage levels but also of the original potential of the structure as
built. The design capacities are necessarily conservative and therefore as built
capacity should be estimated and used in the analysis stage of the repair
process.

3.2. Re-estimation of loading

The loads imposed during use are often unknown during the design stages and
allowance is made for finishes and live loads for different circumstances.
Improved knowledge of the exact level of loading, to which the structure is
subjected, can lead to a more precise determination of the forces applied to the
critical members.

3. DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING

Construction

3.3. Elimination of conceptual or construction errors

The first stage in restoring structural ability to resist expected forces is to
ensure that any conceptual and construction errors are rectified. This process
may involve correcting abrupt changes in stiffness, irregularities in plan
between stiffness and mass, as well as addressing poor detailing, use of
inferior materials etc. The elimination of such errors does not necessarily
precede any further interventions, but is assumed to take place so that a
preliminary analysis can identify the critical members and extent of structural
deficiency.

3.4. Prudent choice of structural intervention

Strength and deformation demands on members, identified by reliable
structural analysis, will determine the level of strengthening that is required by
the structure. Both strength and ductility enhancement might be necessary with
the addition of new members or the strengthening of existing ones.

3.5. Selective repair techniques

The design of repairs should take into account the findings made during
structural analysis. Improved strength would normally result in the
enhancement of stiffness of the same member, and hence, higher forces would
be attracted than for an assumed lower stiffness. Similarly, enhancement of
ductility in certain locations reduces the rotational stiffness and this may
influence the ductility demand in other locations.
Selective types of repair should aim to achieve only enhancement to the
desired degree without interfering with other properties, as is often the case in
non-selective schemes.

3.6. Strengthening of the structure

Strengthening of the structure is absolutely necessary, if the plastic potential, or
servicability limits of the structure, following the initial elimination of errors, is
exceeded. Several techniques are used in practice, such as infilling selected
bays with reinforced concrete panels or braces, increasing the size of critical
members either by extending or jacketing them, and adding new structural
elements.
In traditionally designed interventions, the overall deformations are controlled,
but a serious disadvantage of strengthening is the possibility of an increase in
the imposed forces. This is especially serious at the foundation level, where
extensive strengthening may be demanded. Additionally, structural
strengthening may result in undesirable interference with the architectural
appearance of the structure. High cost and interference with the functionality of

3. DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING

the structure can also discourage owners from authorising essential repairs
and opting for cheaper purely cosmetic measures.
As a result a comprehensive strengthening strategy should be adopted , its
design dependent on the desired outcome.

3.7. Engineering Assessment: Flow Chart of the Process

Demolition

Construction

Immediate
Engineering
Assessment

Is Structure
Safe?

No

No

Prevent
Access +
Temporarily
Support

Yes

Make Safer for

Engineering
Assessment

Yes

Full Structural
Engineering
Assessment

Minor
Damage

Structural
Damage

No

Heavy
Structural
Damage

Repair
Financially
Viable

Yes

Cosmetic
Repair
Detailed Structural/Seismic
Upgrading Specification of the
Project

Specialist
Construction
Tenders/Bids

Specialist Structural
Strengthening/Seismic
Upgrading Contract

Emergency
Holding
Repairs

4. STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING TECHNIQUES

4. STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING TECHNIQUES

4.1. Repair Techniques
Repair techniques can be undertaken to eliminate inherent errors or for the
reinstatement of certain elements. The objective is:

Construction

1) to restore the structure to its initial desired serviceability and/or

2) to protect the structure from further deterioration.
Repair techniques include:
4.1.1. Resin Injection
Resin injection is the most widely used repair method for sealing minor to
medium sized cracks in concrete structures. Flexural cracking is not usually
a structural problem, unless the element has been loaded beyond its
serviceability and has sustained damage. Sealing flexural cracks can restore
the flexural stiffness, but does not increase the flexural capacity beyond its
original limit. Hence, more often the sealing of excessive cracks is necessary
only appropriate to protect the reinforcement from the environment.
Sealing of shear cracks or cracks associated with bond splitting will again
only restore the structural stiffness, but will not address the fundamental
problems, which lead to their development in the first instance. Such
cracking should therefore be treated not only by this technique, but also by a
suitable strengthening technique.
4.1.2. Patch Repair
Patch repair can be used to repair localized areas of damaged or crushed
concrete due to accidental overloading. Properly executed repairs can
achieve a good bond between the old and new concrete or mortar without
the need for dowel connections. In general, the new material is expected to
have a higher strength than the original concrete.
4.1.3. Shotcrete / Gunite
This method is normally necessary where a large volume of concrete is to be
replaced and where the use of formwork is difficult (e.g. for a beam-column
connection). It can be used to replace or increase concrete cover to
reinforcement, or replace weak concrete in structural elements. It is also
often applied to masonry structures.
However, there can be several drawbacks, such as considerable waste in
material due to rebound and wire mesh being needed to avoid drying
shrinkage cracks of the high cement concrete mix. The equipment needed,
the expertise required and the need for an electricity source may also restrict
the use of a repair method.

4. STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING TECHNIQUES

4.2. Strengthening Techniques

Strengthening techniques should always be associated with an overall redesign strategy. The objective is to increase the load-carrying capacity or
stability of a structure in comparison to its previous condition.

Construction

The degree of strengthening to be achieved should be associated with a

desired safety level. In addition, it should be remembered that in many
instances strengthening may adversely affect the structural ductility. This can
lead to serious problems, especially in seismic regions where energy
dissipation is required.
Strengthening of structural members can involve simple use of stronger
materials to replace poor quality or defective materials, or may be more
elaborate involving the addition of load-bearing elements on the structure. As
with repairs, the problem of interaction between the old and new materials
and elements needs to be addressed.
Strengthening techniques include:
4.2.1. Strengthening of the Reinforcement
Inadequate or corroded reinforcement can be replaced by additional
reinforcement, by post-tensioning or by externally bonded structural plates.
The amount of strengthening to be achieved depends to a large extent on
the properties of the existing element. Under-reinforced elements can be
strengthened substantially, usually at the expense of ductility, whilst overreinforced elements cannot be significantly improved without the addition of
concrete overlays.
4.2.2. Reinforced Concrete Jacketing
This method requires the unloading of the element to be strengthened, and
the removal of the concrete cover. Sufficient new reinforcement can be
added in parallel to the existing by suitably designed lapped splices, welding
or coupling devices. Care should be taken when welding, since the high
temperatures induced may damage the concrete or any adhesives used.
The addition of new bars results in the jacketing of part or the entire
reinforced member. This method is very effective for enhancing the strength,
stiffness and ductility of a member and is recommended for severely
damaged concrete elements.
4.2.3. Externally Bonded Plates or Fabrics
Steel and Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) plates are bonded onto
concrete surfaces using epoxy resins. This technique is very effective in
reducing deflections and crack widths.
A limit to the performance enhancement that can be achieved by this
technique is the strength of the substrate surface, since peeling failures take
place within the concrete. Creep of the adhesive is also a concern and that is
why the adhesive layer should be kept to a minimum. The main advantage of

10

4. STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING TECHNIQUES

this technique is the achievement of minimum increase in the size of the

section after strengthening.
4.2.4. Prestressed Externally Bonded Plates

Construction

Prestressing of high strength materials is an effective way of utilizing them

structurally. Both bonded and unbonded steel or CFRP tendons can be
used. Strengthening by post-tensioning can be designed using conventional
post-tensioning design procedures. Care should be taken to limit anchorage
slip and to protect the tendons against fire and corrosion. Anchorages can
be placed at suitably designed ends, additional supports, existing
diaphragms or at new ground locations.
4.2.5. Steel Jacketing
This is a fast and effective technique based on fixing thin steel plates around
a structural element. Steel angles are placed at each of the corners of the
element and are clamped onto the concrete. The plates are then welded
onto these angles and a cast-in-situ concrete jacket or a gunite jacket is
added. Enhancement in strength, stiffness and the shear capacity can be
achieved by this technique.
4.2.6. Strengthening with Lateral External Tensioning (FRP Jackets)
This technique utilises high strength fibres (glass, carbon or aramid) in the
form of flexible fabrics, saturated with an epoxy resin, which allows them to
be wrapped around and bond to any element shape. This scheme is useful
in the repair and strengthening of elements in seismic regions. It is proven to
enhance ductility and increase shear strength of elements to the extent that
brittle shear failures are converted into ductile deformation modes.
Moreover, the increased stiffness provided is less than that of steel or
concrete jacketing.
The structural remediation techniques mentioned above, have various
effects on the structural ductility, stiffness and strength. The structural effect
for each intervention is given in the following table:
Structural Intervention

Ductility

Stiffness

Strength

Concrete Jacketing

Yes

Yes

Yes

Steel Jacketing

Yes

Yes

Yes

FRP Jacketing

Yes

Resin Injections

No

Yes

No

Plate Bonding

No

Yes

Yes

External Prestressing

No

Yes

Yes

Shotcrete

Yes

Yes

Yes

Table 2. Effect of structural interventions on the characteristics of the structure.

11

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

Construction

5.1. Conventional Strengthening Techniques

As already mentioned in 3.2.3, in situ strengthening of reinforced concrete
members (beams, slabs, columns etc.) using externally bonded steel plates
and epoxy resins is recognized to be an effective and convenient method of
improving performance under loads. The technique has been widely used for
both bridges and buildings and for concrete surfaces in tension and
compression.
However, strengthening
disadvantages:

through

this

technique

has

the

following

Difficulty in manipulating heavy steel plates at the construction site

Deterioration of the bond at the steel-concrete interface caused by
the corrosion of steel
Need for scaffolding and temporary support or loading
Proper formation of joints due to the limited delivery lengths of the
steel plates.

Another common conventional technique for the strengthening of RC

structures involves the construction of reinforced concrete (either cast in
place or shotcrete) jackets around existing elements. Jacketing is clearly
quite effective as far as strength, stiffness and ductility is concerned, but:

It is labour intensive
It often causes disruption of occupancy
In many cases it provides RC elements with undesirable weight and
increased stiffness [3].

5.2. Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites

The construction difficulties and corrosion problems mentioned above, have
led to the substitution of steel plates or other conventional techniques with
an alternative solution of Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites.
These, offer a proven solution since many types of such material have been
successfully used for many years in other industries (e.g. aircrafts) and more
recently in civil engineering construction.
FRPs consist of a large number of continuous, directionalised non-metallic
fibres (usually made of carbon, glass and aramid) with advanced
characteristics and bonded together with a resin matrix. The principal stress
bearing constituents are the fibres while the resin transfers stresses among
fibres and also protects them.

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

12

Construction

To facilitate their use in construction FRP materials are manufactured in

many forms (Fig.4.1) such as:
thin unidirectional prefabricated strips with thickness in the order of
1mm (Fig.4.1a)
flexible woven or non-woven fabrics made of fibres in one or two
directions (Fig.4.1b)

(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.1 Manufactured forms of FRP materials.

Depending on the type of fibre, composite materials are referred to as:

CFRP (carbon fibre based)

AFRP (aramid fibre based)
GFRP (glass fibre based)

In Fig. 4.2, the typical stress-strain diagrams for unidirectional composites

under short-term monotonic loading are compared with the corresponding
stress-strain diagram for steel.

Fig. 4.2 Uniaxial stress-strain diagrams for different unidirectional FRPs [2].

13

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

5.3. FRP Constituent Materials

In the following sections the three main constituents namely fibres,
adhesives and resin matrices of an FRP strengthening material system will
be outlined.

Construction

5.3.1. Fibres
The three main types of fibres that are used for strengthening of structures
are:
Carbon
Aramid
Glass
It should be recognized that the physical and mechanical properties can vary
significantly for a given type of fibre as well of course between the different
fibre types. In Table 4.1, the typical properties are provided for the three
forms of fibre.
Material

Elastic
Modulus
(GPa)

Tensile
Strength
(MPa)

Ultimate
Tensile Strain
(%)

Carbon

165-700

2100-4800

0.2-2.0

Aramid

70-130

3500-4100

2.5-5.0

Glass

70-90

1900-4800

3.0-5.5

Table 4.1 Typical properties of fibres

Generally, the raw material of carbon fibres is either pitch or PAN. Pitch fibres
are fabricated by using refined petroleum or coal pitch that is passed through
a thin nozzle and hardened by heating. Alternatively, PAN fibres are made of
Polyacrylonitrile that is carbonized through burning. Carbon fibres offer
general purpose, high strength and elasticity materials. They exhibit alkali,
oxide and UV resistance, high fatigue strength and low thermal expansion
coefficient.
The structure of aramid fibre is anisotropic and gives high strength and
medium modulus in the longitudinal direction. Aramid fibres respond
elastically in tension but they exhibit non-linear and ductile behaviour under
compression; they also exhibit improved toughness, damage tolerance and
fatigue characteristics.
Glass fibres for continuous fibre reinforcement are classified into three types:
E-glass fibres, S-glass and alkali resistant AR-glass fibres. E-glass fibres,
which contain high amounts of boric acid and aluminate, are
disadvantageous in having low alkali resistance. S-glass fibres are stronger
and stiffer than E-glass, but still not resistant to alkali. To prevent glass fibre
from being eroded by cement-alkali, a considerable amount of zircon is
added to produce alkali resistance AR glass fibres; such fibres have
mechanical properties similar to E-glass. One of the most important aspects
of glass fibres is their economy.

14

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

Construction

The resistance to corrosive factors for the above mentioned types of fibres
are given in Table 4.2.
Corrosive Factors

E-glass

Water Absorption
(%, 24 hrs)

0,05

Weak Oxides

LR

HR

HR

HR

Strong Oxides

NR

LR

LR

HR

Weak Alkalines

NR

HR

HR

HR

Strong Alkalines

NR

LR

LR

HR

Temperature

HR

HR

NR

HR

UV Radiation

HR

HR

NR

HR

NR=No Resistance

AR-glass

LR=Low Resistance

Aramid

Carbon

HR=High Resistance

Table 4.2 Resistance of FRPs to corrosive factors (Pantazopoulou, 1999)

5.3.2. Adhesive
The purpose of the adhesive is to provide a shear load path between the
concrete surface and the composite material, so that full composite action
may develop. The most common type of structural adhesives is epoxy based,
which is the result of mixing an epoxy resin (polymer) with a hardener.
Depending on the application demands, the adhesive may contain fillers,
softening agents, toughening additives and other constituents.
In the use of epoxy adhesives, three concepts should be taken into account;
the pot life, the open time and the glass transition temperature respectively
[1].
Pot life represents the time the applicator can work with the adhesive after
mixing the resin and the hardener before it starts to harden in the mixing
vessel or container.
Open time represents the time that the applicator has at his disposal after
the adhesive has been applied to the bond surfaces and before they are
joined together.
Glass transition temperature (Tg ), represents the temperature level above
which the epoxy adhesive changes from a hard, glass-like state to a relatively
rubbery condition. This will result in a reduced bond capacity.
5.3.3. Matrix
The matrix for a structural composite material can either be of thermoset or
of thermoplastic type, with the former being the most common. The function
of the matrix is:
to protect the fibres against abrasion or environmental corrosion
bind the fibres together

15

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

distribute the load

Construction

The matrix has a strong influence on several mechanical characteristics,

such as transverse modulus and strength, shear values and properties in
compression.
Epoxy, polyester and vinylester resins are the most common polymeric
matrix materials used with high performance reinforcing fibres. They are
thermosetting polymers with processibility and chemical resistance. Epoxies
have enhanced mechanical properties and outstanding durability whereas
polyesters and vinylesters are cheaper.

5.4. FRP Material Safety Factors

Values for the FRP material safety factor f are according to fib bulletin No.
14, and are given in Table 4.3.
FRP type

Application type A(1)

Application type B(2)

CFRP

1.20

1.35

AFRP

1.25

1.45

1.30

1.50

GFRP

Table 4.3 FRP material safety factors f.

Where:
(1) Application of prefab FRP systems (plates) is under normal quality
control conditions. Application of wet lay-up systems with all necessary
provisions taken to obtain a high degree of quality control on both the
application conditions and the application process.
(2) Application of fabric FRP systems is under normal quality control
conditions. Application of any system under difficult on-site working
conditions.

5.5. Mechanical properties of FRPs

Basic mechanical properties of FRP materials may be estimated if the
properties of the constituent materials (fibres and matrix) and their volume
fraction are known. This may be accomplished by applying the rule of
mixtures equation as follows:
Ef = Efib Vfib + Em Vm

(4.1)

ff ffib Vfib + fm Vm

(4.2)

where
Ef = Youngs modulus of FRP in fibre direction
Efib = Youngs modulus of fibres
Em = Youngs modulus of matrix

16

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

Vfib = Volume fraction of fibres

Vm = Volume fraction of matrix

(Note Vfib + Vm = 1)

ff = Tensile strength of FRP in fibre direction

ffib = Tensile strength of fibres
fm = Tensile strength of matrix

Construction

Prefabricated strips The material properties based on the total crosssectional area can be used in calculations.
In-situ impregnated fabrics the final FRP thickness and hence the fibre
volume fraction may vary due to uncertain resin impregnation. For this
reason a calculation based on the FRP properties for the total system (fibres
and matrix) and the actual thickness is not appropriate. Therefore, material
properties (Ef and ff) are governed by the fibre properties and the crosssectional area of the bare fibres. This is due to the fact that the stiffness and
strength of the fibres (Efib and ffib) is much greater that those of the matrix (Em
and fm).
It should be noted that since the FRP properties are based on the total
cross-sectional area (fibres and matrix), the stiffness and strength is less
than that of the bare fibres. It may be obvious that the strength and stiffness
of the total system is not affected, because this reduction is compensated by
an increase of the cross-sectional area compared to the cross-sectional area
of the fibres. Therefore, there is a strong relation between the fibre volume
fraction and the FRP properties to be used in the calculation.
This is shown in Table 4.4. For certain chosen properties of the fibres and
the matrix, the effect of the volume fraction of the fibres on the FRP
properties is obvious.
Chosen properties for constituent materials of FRP composite:
Efib = 220GPa, ffib = 4000MPa
Em = 3GPa,
ffib = 80MPa
Cross sectional area
*

FRP properties

Failure Load

Afib
(mm2)

Am
(mm2)

Af
(mm2)

Vfib
(%)

Ef
[eqs 4.1]
(GPa)

ff
[eqs 4.2]
(MPa)

Ultimate
Strain
(%)

KN

(%)

70

70

100

220.0

4000

1.818

280.0

100

70

30

100

70

154.9

2824

1.823

282.4

100.9

70
70
140
50
111.5
2040
1.830
285.6 102.0
Table 4.4 Example showing the effect of volume fraction of fibres on the FRP
properties(bulletin 14, fib).

For a constant amount of fibres (cross-sectional area = 70 mm2) the failure

load and strain at failure is minimally affected by an increase in the amount
of resin. However, the FRP-properties to be used in calculations based on
the total cross-sectional area are strongly influenced. Therefore for a

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

comparison of FRP materials it may not be sufficient only to compare values

for strength and/or stress-strain relations. It is also important to know the
composition of the FRP material to which the given property belongs.
Generally, for in-situ impregnated systems it is convenient to base
calculations on:

Construction

a) FRP system properties. This is possible only when the in-situ

impregnated system properties are based on testing.
b) The fibre properties and fibre cross sectional area. In this case the
second term of equations 4.1 and 4.2 may be ignored and Vfib=1. The
resulting property (e.g. elastic modulus, tensile strength) should be
multiplied by a reduction factor (r), to account for the efficiency of the
fibre-resin system and for the sheet or fabric configuration.

5.6. Comparison of FRP systems: Plates-Fabrics

A difficult task that an Engineer has to confront is the comparison of different
FRP systems. Suppose that an Engineer is considering two FRP systems for
strengthening a reinforced concrete member and has obtained mechanical
properties from the respective manufacturers.
System A: consists of a dry, carbon-fibre unidirectional fabric installed with
an epoxy resin using the wet lay-up technique (e.g. SikaWrap 103C with
SikaDur 300).
System B: consists of precured carbon-fibre epoxy laminates (e.g.
SikaCarboDur S1012) that are bonded to the concrete surface with an epoxy
resin (e.g. SikaDur 30).
System A: SikaWrap 103C

System B: Sika CarboDur S1012

Fibre Type: High strength carbon

Polymer resin: SikaDur 300

Fibre Type: High strength carbon

Polymer resin: SikaDur 30

Mechanical Properties (net fibre area)

Thickness tf = 0.34mm
Tensile Strength ff = 3300 N/mm2
Ultimate tensile strain fu = 1.5%
Elastic Modulus Ef = 231kN/mm2

Mechanical Properties
Thickness tf = 1.2mm
Tensile Strength ff = 2800 N/mm2
Ultimate tensile strain fu = 1.7%
Elastic Modulus Ef = 165kN/mm2

Material safety factor f,A = 1.35

Material safety factor f,B = 1.2

Table 4.5 Material properties of two systems.

After reviewing the material data sheets (Table 4.5), the Engineer compares
the stiffness and tensile strengths of the two systems. Because the data
sheet for the two systems are not at the same base (plates on measurement
of the hole plate-system, fabric only on theoretical fibre values), a
comparison of strength is not directly possible (tensile strength of fabric

17

18

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

system = approx. 50-80% of theoretical fibre value). The modulus can be

approximately compared as 1:1.
It has also to be taken into account, that the quality assurance on site (as for
fabric systems) is much lower than the quality control of prefabricated plates
in the factory.

Construction

Nonetheless, a comparison of the tensile strength and modulus of both

systems can be made, by adjusting them with the material safety factor
(suggested from fib bulletin No.14), knowing that the difference in tensile
strength is more than calculated. The calculations are shown below:

Procedure

Calculation

Step 1A Calculate the tensile strength

per unit width of system A
pfu = ffutf/f,A

pfu=(3300*0.34)/1.35=831kN/mm

Step 1B Calculate the tensile strength

per unit width of system B
pfu = ffutf/f,A

pfu=(2800*1.2)/1.2=2800kN/mm

Step 2A Calculate the tensile modulus

per unit width of system A
kf=Eftf/f,A
Step 2B Calculate the tensile modulus
per unit width of system B
kf=Eftf/f,B
Step 3 Compare the two systems
Compare the tensile strength

kf =(231x103x0.34)/1.35=58178N/mm

kf =(165x103x1.2)/1.2=165000N/mm

p fu ( systemB)
p fu ( systemA)

2800
3 .0
831

three plies of system A are required

for each ply of system B for an
equivalent tensile strength

k f ( systemB)
Compare the stiffness

k f ( systemA)

165000
= 2.8
58178

three plies of system A are required

for each ply of system B for an
equivalent stiffness

It can be seen from next section ( 5), the design procedures limit the strain
in the FRP material. Therefore, the full ultimate strength of the material is not
utilised and should not be the basis of comparison between two material
systems. When considering various FRP material systems for a particular
application, the FRP systems should be compared based on equivalent
stiffness only. In addition, each FRP system under consideration should
have the ability to develop the strain level associated with the effective strain
level required by the application without rupturing, fu>fe.

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

19

In many instances, it may be possible to vary the width of the FRP strip as
opposed to the number of plies (use larger widths for systems with lower
thickness and vice versa). In such instances, equivalent stiffness
calculations will not typically yield equivalent contributions to the strength of
a member. In general, thinner (lower n tf) and wider (higher wf) FRP
systems will provide a higher level of strength to a member due to
lower bond stresses. The exact equivalency, however, can only be found
by performing complete calculations (e.g. according to ACI Committee 440)
for each system.

Construction

5.7. Long term durability of FRPs

Correctly installed FRP systems appear to offer the same or improved whole
life cycle cost estimates compared to other strengthening systems. Durability
of both concrete and FRP is well documented, however the long-term
durability of such systems is raising some concerns.
An issue critical to the effectiveness of most FRP structural applications is the
FRP-substrate interface. Bond quality is influenced by many factors such as:

Existing substrate condition

Substrate preparation
FRP quality
Quality of FRP application
Resin durability

5.7.1. Fire protection

The weakening of the adhesion layer due to the development of high
temperatures is the main reason for the failure of externally bonded
reinforcement. Hence, fire protection is based on limiting the temperature
rise in the adhesive layer.
Sika CarboDur plates can be successfully protected against fire with fire
resistant boards. The System was tested in the EMPA fire chamber to an
ISO standard. There was virtually no smoke development throughout the
period of the test (EMPA Test Report No. 148795,1994).
5.7.2. UV Radiation
Polymeric materials undergo degradation when exposed to sunlight and
ultraviolet (UV-A and UV-B) radiation, which can cause dislocation of
chemical bonds. This results in a reduction of light transmissibility and colour
changes in the composite. Although one could associate this phenomenon
as an indication of strength reduction, in reality this is only a surface
condition that is not usually indicative of changes in structural integrity or
physical damage,
Colour changes and reduced light transmissibility in composites are primarily
dependant upon resin matrix and not on reinforcing fibres. As it can be seen
from table 4.2, however, only the aramid fibres are affected by UV radiation.

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

In general, mechanical properties of the composites are only marginally

influenced by UV exposure.
Protection against UV radiation is usually achieved by applying a light
coloured acrylic or polyurethane based paint. This should be applied while
the resin is still tacky to the touch. A cured resin surface should be ground
before the application of paint.

Construction

5.7.3. Fatigue
Carbon FRP exhibits superior fatigue performance to that of steel. The
dominant factor in the fatigue of FRP-strengthened beams is the fatigue of
existing steel reinforcement.
5.7.4. Creep
Carbon based FRPs do not creep whilst the creep of glass based FRP is
negligible. However the aramid based FRP creep cannot be neglected. As
AFRP creeps itself, long-term deformations increase considerably in the
case of AFRP-strengthened elements.
Another important issue to consider is the poor behavior of GFRP under
sustained loading. Glass fibres exhibit premature tensile rupture under
sustained stress (stress rupture). Hence, the tensile strength of GFRP drops
to very low values (as low as 20% of max) when the material is subject to
permanent tension.
Stress corrosion occurs when the atmosphere or ambient environment is of
a corrosive nature, but not sufficiently so that corrosion would occur without
the addition of stress. This phenomenon is time, stress level, environment,
matrix and fibre related.
Carbon fibre is relatively unaffected by stress corrosion at stress levels up to
80% of ultimate. Aramid and glass fibres are susceptible to stress corrosion.
5.7.5. Impact
Only aramid fibres exhibit a superior impact behavior. The material is used
for body armour vests due to their high toughness and high fracture energy.
Thus, aramid fibres can be used in cases when there is a need for protecting
or strengthening structures which are endangered by explosion like terrorism
attacks and require blast mitigation properties. Aramid fibers can also be
used in strengthening bridge piers against accidental loading introduced by
moving vehicles.
5.7.6. Temperature
Usually FRP strengthening is applied to fractured concrete sections. Thus,
the presence of voids in the FRP-concrete interface may not be unusual. In
cases of low temperatures and when there is an entrapment of water within
those voids, the expansion of water may cause delamination of the FRP at
FRP-concrete interface. Hence, the effect of freeze/thaw cycles on the
behaviour of strengthened structures must be considered.

20

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

Static and dynamic stress tests have been carried out on various RC beams
strengthened with Sika CarboDur Systems. The beams were subjected to
high relative humidity levels and extreme temperatures of 25oC to +40oC.
Ice was observed in the cracks during the freeze cycle. Despite this, the
subsequent stress tests showed no weakening of the strengthening system.

Construction

5.7.7. Moisture
One of the harshest environmental factors for all structural material is the
presence of moisture. Carbon and glass fibres are relatively inert to water,
while aramid fibres absorb up to 13% by weight of moisture. This has a
detrimental effect on tensile strength and can affect the resin-fibre interface.
Additionally , resin matrices will absorb water over a long period of time. The
adsorption of water will lead to the reduction of the glass transition
temperature and also to resin stiffening. Both of these effects are partially
reversible in epoxy resin when the water is removed by drying.
In FRP-concrete strengthening a major concern is the internal pore water
pressure. As the FRP system has a secondary effect of sealing the concrete,
this internal pressure will locally accumulate. To allow vapour transfer in FRP
strengthened members, sufficient zones with no externally bonded FRP may
be necessary.
5.7.8. Galvanic Corrosion
Special care has to be taken when carbon fibres are in contact with steel.
Carbon fibres act as a noble metal and can establish electrical cells if not
electrically insulated from metals. Hence, aluminium and steel will corrode
(potential galvanic corrosion) if placed in direct contact with carbon fibres. Eglass or aramid fibres may be applied first as an insulation layer.
5.7.9. Alkalinity/Acidity
As can be seen from Table 4.2, carbon fibres are resistant to both alkali and
acid environments while glass and in some instances aramid fibres have no
resistance.
A correctly applied resin matrix will isolate and protect the fibres and hence
will postpone deterioration.

5.8. Advantages and disadvantages of FRPs

In general, FRP materials when compared to steel, are characterised by:

Excellent corrosion resistance

Low weight (1/4 to 1/5 of steel)
Stiffness tailored to the design requirements
Satisfactory chemical resistance
Unlimited availability in geometry and dimensions
Large deformation capacity
Excellent fatigue strength and creep/relaxation performance

21

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE USE OF FRP MATERIALS

22

However, composites can suffer from certain disadvantages, such as:

Construction

Brittle behaviour, i.e. linear elasticity to failure without any significant

yielding (no yield plateau) or plastic deformation
High cost of raw materials (compared on strength basis they become
less unfavourable)
Incompatible thermal expansion coefficients with concrete
Exposure to high temperatures causes premature bond degradation

Therefore, FRP materials should not be thought as a complete replacement

of steel or other materials in structural intervention. Instead, the advantages
offered should be evaluated against potential drawbacks, and final decisions
regarding their use should be based on consideration of several factors,
including not only mechanical performance aspects, but also practicality and
long-term durability.

5.9. Possible applications of FRPs

FRP can be used in a number of external applications, including:

External Plate Bonding of CFRP plates is already in use on many

projects around the world. The lightweight nature of the plates and
their originally prepared surfaces, which are suitable for bonding with
epoxy resins, make them much easier to use than steel plates.
However, anchoring the plate at the ends remains a concern, but a
number of techniques are available.

Wrapping of CFRP, AFRP and GFRP fabrics around structural

elements. This technique aims to increase strength and ductility for
seismic purposes. However, since this technique works on the
principles of confinement, it can be used in cases, where
deterioration of the concrete is likely to lead to expansion.

External pretensioned FRP plates with end anchoring blocks.

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

23

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

The aim of this software is to assist the user in calculating the FRP
dimensions required to provide (a) flexural strengthening, (b) shear
strengthening and (c) confinement. These three topics are treated in the
next sections, which present the theoretical basis of the calculations.

Construction

The equations used in this program are given in the fib Bulletin No. 14, July
2001: "Design and use of Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement for RC
Structures" [1].

6.1. Theoretical Background

6.1.1. Flexural Strengthening
Reinforced concrete elements, such as beams, slabs and columns, may be
strengthened in flexure through the use of FRP composites epoxy-bonded to
their tension zones, with the direction of fibres parallel to that of high tensile
stresses (member axis). The calculations described below address both the
Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and the Serviceability Limit State (SLS).
Ultimate Limit State
The calculations are based on the assumption that one of the following two
failure modes govern the behaviour:
(a) following yielding of the internal tension steel reinforcement the concrete
crushes in the compression zone;
(b) following yielding of the internal tension steel reinforcement the FRP
reaches a limiting strain, f,lim, (this is a simplified way to treat debonding of
the FRP in areas where flexure dominates the response, e.g. mid-span of
simply supported beams).
The first step in the calculations is to find the initial strain, o, that develops in
the extreme fibre of the cross section, when the strengthening operation
takes place (Fig. 5.1). This strain is the result of a moment Mo (service
moment) acting at the critical cross section during strengthening (e.g. due to
the self-weight of the structure), and may be calculated based on equilibrium
of internal forces and moments. For the example of Fig. 5.1, the results are
given below.

24

Construction

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Fig. 5.1 Initial situation equivalent stress block approach: The moment
Mo acting during strengthening results in the development of an initial
strain o at the extreme tensile concrete fibre.

Internal force equilibrium (initial situation):

f ck b xo + As 2 f s 2 = As1 f s1

(5.1.1)

Moment equilibrium (initial situation):

M o = As 1 f s 1 ( h d1 k xo ) + As 2 f s 2 ( k xo d 2 )

(5.1.2)

where xo is the depth of neutral axis from the extreme compressive fibre and
fs1, fs2 are the stresses in the bottom and top steel reinforcement,
respectively.

f s1 = co

h d1 xo
E s f yk
xo

(5.1.3)

f s 2 = co

xo d 2
E s f yk
xo

(5.1.4)

In the above equations fck is the characteristic (cylinder) strength of concrete,

fyd is the yield stress of steel and , k are factors determining the location
and magnitude of the stress resultant in the concrete compression block.
These factors depend on the maximum compressive concrete strain, co.

25

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

1000

co if
1000 co 0.5
12

co 0.002

(5.1.5)

Construction

2
3000 co

if

8 1000 co
4(6 1000 co )

0.002 co 0.0035

if

co 0.002

k=

(5.1.6)

1000 co (3000 co 4 ) + 2
2000 co (3000 co 2 )

if

0.002 co 0.0035

From the numerical solution of equations (5.1.1) and (5.1.2) we calculate the
maximum compressive concrete strain, co, and the neutral axis depth xo.
Finally, the initial strain o is given as:

= co

h xo
xo

(5.1.7)

Once o is calculated, the analysis of the critical cross section for the ULS
(Ultimate Limit State) is performed on the basis of Fig. 5.2, which shows the
strain profile and internal forces at the Ultimate Limit State.

Fig. 5.2 Analysis of rectangular cross section (strain profile and internal forces)
for the ultimate limit state in bending.

26

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Internal force equilibrium:

0.85 f cd b x + As 2 f s d 2 = As 1 f yd + A f E f f

(5.1.8)

Resisting design moment:

M rd = As 1 f yd ( h d1 k x ) + As 2 f sd 2 ( k x d 2 ) + A f E f f ( h k x )

Construction

(5.1.9)
where Af, Ef and f is the cross section area, elastic modulus and strain of
FRP reinforcement, respectively. The FRP strain and the stress in the top
steel reinforcement are given in terms of the maximum compressive
concrete strain, c, and the neutral axis depth as follows:

x d2
E s f yd
x

(5.1.10)

hx
f ,lim
x

(5.1.11)

f sd 2 = c

f = c

Note that the factors and k in equations (5.1.8) and (5.1.9) are given as
before, by eqs. (5.1.5) and (5.1.6), with co replaced by c.
The solution of equations (5.1.8) and (5.1.9) is performed numerically
through iterations, yielding the required FRP cross section Af.

Serviceability Limit State

For the SLS (Serviceability Limit State), the analysis of the critical cross
section is performed, according to EC2, for the two possible load
combinations: Rare load, Quasi-permanent load.
For the case of Rare Load the calculations are performed as in the case of
the ULS, with the following modifications:
(a) 0.85fcd in eq. (5.1.8) and in Fig. 5.2 is replaced by fck;
(b) Mrd is replaced by the acting moment (under the rare load combination)
Mser,r;
(c) fyd (the tension steel stress) is replaced by fs1;
(d) the stress limitations are fs1 <= 0.8fyk (for steel) and c <= 0.6fck, where
the stress in the concrete is given by the following stress-strain relationship
of concrete (for c less than 0.002):

27

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Construction

c =

c 2

0.002
f ck
0.002

(5.1.12)

For the case of Quasi-permanent Load the calculations are performed as in

the case of the ULS, with the following modifications:
(a) 0.85fcd in eq. (5.1.8) and in Fig. 5.2 is replaced by fck;
(b) Mrd is replaced by the acting moment (under the quasi-permanent load
combination) Mser,q-p;
(c) fyd (the tension steel stress) is replaced by fs1;
(d) c in eqs. (5.1.5) (5.1.6) is replaced by c/(1+), where is the creep
coefficient;
(e) the stress limitations are fs1 <= 0.8fyk (for steel) and c <= 0.45fck, where
the stress in the concrete is given by equation (5.1.12), with c replaced by
c/(1+).
Bond check
For user-defined dimensions of the FRP cross section geometry (n strips of
width bf and thickness tf placed in m layers, n/m should be an integer if m >
1) the programme calculates the maximum force, Nbd,max, that can be carried
by the total number of strips, and the associated bond length, lbd,max, before
debonding of the external reinforcement initiates at the ends (anchorage
zone), see Fig. 5.3. These calculations are based on the following equations:

lbd ,max = 0.6

N bd , max =

E f (mt f )

n
0 .5 k b b f
m

f ctd

E f ( mt f ) f ctd

(5.1.13)

(5.1.14)

where:

bf

/(
/
)
b
n
m

k b = max1,1.06

b
f

1+ (
)

400

(5.1.15)

b = beam width [note that b/(n/m) equals the spacing of strips if the number
of layers >1]

28

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

fctd = design value of the tensile strength of the substrate in N/mm2, that is
the tensile strength of concrete near the surface

Construction

lbd,max is in mm, Nbd,max is in N, bf and tf are in mm, Ef is in N/mm2.

Fig. 5.3 Bending moment envelope line and definition of bond length
corresponding to section A.

At each cross section (for example A), equilibrium and strain compatibility
equations yield the tensile force Nfd,A carried by each strip. If this force does
not exceed Nbd,max, then the bond check is verified, that is failure of the
anchorage is not expected, provided that the appropriate bond length lbd will
be available. The bond length corresponding to Nfd,A is calculated as follows:

l bd , A

N fd , A
= l bd , max 1 1
N

bd , max

(5.1.16)

As mentioned above, Nfd,A is the tensile force carried by the FRP. This is
calculated by multiplying the cross sectional area Af by the product of elastic
modulus times strain, Eff, where f results through cross section equilibrium
and compatibility. The equations in this case are identical to those used in
the ULS, with the provision that the tensile steel reinforcement may not be
yielding. Hence the same formulas used for the ULS apply, with:
(a) Mrd replaced by the design value of the bending moment acting at section
A, Msd,A;
(b) fyd replaced by fsd1;
(c) o taken approximately equal to that corresponding to Mo, times the
reduction factor (Msd,A/Msd). This implies the assumption that the bending

29

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

moment during strengthening at cross section A, Mo,A , is equal to Mo (acting

at the critical section) reduced by the factor Msd,A/Msd (note that Msd is acting
at the critical section).

Construction

6.1.2. Shear Strengthening

Shear strengthening of RC members using FRP may be provided by
bonding the external reinforcement with the principal fibre direction as
parallel as practically possible to that of maximum principal tensile stresses,
so that the effectiveness of FRP is maximised. For the most common case of
structural members subjected to lateral loads, the maximum principal stress
trajectories in the shear-critical zones form an angle with the member axis
that may be approximately 45o. However, it is normally more practical to
attach the external FRP reinforcement with the principal fibre direction
perpendicular to the member axis (Fig. 5.4).

Fig. 5.4 Examples of shear strengthening with: (a) closed (properly anchored)
jackets; (b) discrete strips anchored in the compression zone; and (c) open
jackets.

Closed jackets (Fig. 5.4a) or properly anchored strips (Fig. 5.4b) are always
preferable to open jackets (Fig. 5.4c), as in the latter case the FRP can
debond prematurely and may therefore be of reduced effectiveness.
The external FRP reinforcement may be treated in analogy to the internal
steel (accepting that the FRP carries only normal stresses in the principal
FRP material direction), assuming that at the Utimate Limit State in shear
(concrete diagonal tension) the FRP develops an effective strain in the
principal material direction, f,e which is, in general, less than the tensile
failure strain, fu. The effective strain depends on the degree of FRP
debonding when the shear capacity of the RC is reached, that is on the type
of anchorage (properly anchored FRP, e.g. closed jackets, versus poorly
anchored FRP, i.e. open jackets). Hence, the shear capacity of a
strengthened element may be calculated as follows (e.g. in Eurocode 2
format):

VRd = min(Vcd + Vwd + V fd ,VRd 2 )

(5.1.17)

30

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

where Vfd, the contribution of FRP to the members shear capacity, is given
by the following expression.

Construction

V fd = 0.9 fd ,e E f f bd (1 + cot a )sin a

(5.1.18)

In the above equation Ef is the elastic modulus of FRP, b is the width of the
cross section, d is the static (or effective) depth, is the angle between the
principal FRP fibre orientation and the longitudinal axis of the member, fd,e is
the design value of the effective FRP strain and f is the FRP reinforcement
ratio, equal to (2tf/b)sin for continuously bonded FRP of thickness tf, or
(2tf/b)(bf/sf) for FRP reinforcement in the form of strips or sheets of width bf
(perpendicular to the fibre orientation) at a spacing sf (axis to axis of strips
along the member axis). Equation (5.1.18) may be calculated for the
thickness of FRP required to provide a shear resistance equal to Vfd.
The effective FRP may be estimated as follows:

Fully wrapped or properly anchored CFRP or GFRP:

fd ,e

fd ,e

(5.1.19a)

Fully wrapped or properly anchored AFRP:

fd ,e

0.3

f cm 2 / 3

k 0.17 fu

f f , f ,lim
= min

f,f
f ,1

0.47

f cm 2 / 3

k 0.048 fu

f f , f ,lim
= min

f ,f
f ,1

(5.1.19b)

Open FRP jackets (e.g. side or U-shaped sheets):

0.3
0.56
2/3

f cm 2 / 3

f
3 cm

k 0.17 fu
k 0.65 10
E
E

f f ,
f f , f ,lim
= min

f,f
f ,b
f ,1

(5.1.20)

31

Construction

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

In the above, fcm is the mean compressive strength of concrete in N/mm2, Ef

is measured in kN/mm2, k is a constant relating the characteristic to the
mean value of the effective FRP strain (default: k = 0.8) and f is the FRP
material safety factor. The f factor depends on the type of FRP material as
well as on the failure mode governing shear design. The first term in eqs.
(5.1.19a), (5.1.19b) and (5.1.20) corresponds to FRP fracture (when the
members shear capacity is reached), hence the use of f,f (= 1.20 for CFRP,
1.25 for AFRP, 1.30 for GFRP), the second term in eq. (5.1.19) corresponds
to FRP debonding, hence the use of f,b (= 1.30), and the last term is taken
(with f,l = 1.25) if it is desired to limit the FRP strain in order to maintain the
integrity of concrete and secure activation of the aggregate interlock
mechanism.
In cases where the cross section is circular (usually in columns) the
contribution of FRP (closed jacket) to shear capacity is regulated by the
tensile strength of the FRP jacket, but may be limited to a maximum value
corresponding to excessive expansion of the concrete due to aggregate
interlock at inclined cracks. By limiting the concrete expansion , that is the
radial strain to a maximum value, max, the FRP shear capacity calculated as:

max
1 D 2
V fd =
E
cot
f fu f 2 4

(5.1.21)

where D is the column diameter, f the volumetric ratio of FRP and is the
angle formed by the inclined cracks and the column axis. Experimental
evidence suggests that max is in the order of 0.006.

6.1.3. Confinement
The main objectives of confinement are:
(a) to enhance concrete strength and deformation permission,
(b) to provide lateral support to the longitudinal reinforcement
(c) to prevent the concrete cover from spalling.
In the case of circular columns, these goals can be achieved by applying
external FRP jackets, either continuously over the entire surface or
intermittently as strips. In the case of rectangular columns, the confinement
can be provided with rectangular-shaped reinforcement, with corners
rounded before application. Note that rectangular confining reinforcement is
less effective (but still possible) as the confinement action is mostly located
at the corners and a significant jacket thickness needs to be used between
corners to restrain lateral expansion and rebar buckling.
The stress-strain response of FRP-confined concrete is illustrated
schematically in Fig. 5.5. The graph displays a near bilinear response with a
sharp softening and a transition zone at a stress level that is close to the

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Construction

strength of unconfined concrete, fco. After this stress the tangent stiffness
changes a little, until the concrete reaches its ultimate strength fcc when the
jacket reaches tensile failure at a stress ff,e and a corresponding strain fu,e,
which is, in general, less than the uniaxial tensile strength fu.
This reduction is attributed to several factors, including: (a) the triaxial state
of stress in the FRP (due to axial loading and confining action, but also due
to bending, e.g. at corners of low radius); and (b) the quality of execution
(potential local ineffectiveness of some fibres due to misalignment, and
overstressing of others, damaged fibres at sharp corners or local protrusions
etc).

Fig. 5.5 Stress-strain curves for plain (unconfined) and FRP-confined concrete.

For rectangular cross sections with dimensions b and h (b>=h), Fig. 5.6, the
effect of FRP confinement may be calculated based on the following
expressions for the confined concrete strength fcc and the corresponding
strain cu:

Fig. 5.6

Rectangular cross section with radius R at corners.

f cc = Esec,u cu f co

(5.1.22)

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Ecc (Eco Esec,u )

Esec,u (Eco Ecc )

cu = co [1 + 5( 1 2 1)]

Ecc
Eco

(5.1.23)

where

Construction

E sec,u =

Ecc =

E co
1 + 2 fu , e

(5.1.24)

Eco 1

f co co

(5.1.25)

1 2 f co
co [1 + 5( 1 2 1)]

1 = 2.254 1 + 7.94

1,b
f co

(5.1.26)

1,b
f co

1.254

h 2

h
2 = 1 0.6 1.4 + 0.8 1,b
b
f co
b

1,b =

ke

2t f
h

k e f f ,e

2
2
(
b 2 R ) + (h 2 R )
= 1

3 Ag

(5.1.27)

(5.1.28)

(5.1.29)

(5.1.30)

(Confinement effectiveness coefficient)

Eco = initial elastic modulus of concrete, co = 0.002 (strain corresponding to
fco), Ag = gross sectional area of concrete = bh-(4-)R2.
Note that for circular cross sections of diametre D confined with strips of
width bf at a spacing sf, ke is given as follows:

(s f b f )
k e = 1

2D

(5.1.31)

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

6.2. Use of CarboDur FRP Analysis Software

Construction

6.2.1. General
The software package FRP-Analysis may be employed as a user friendly,
simple and reliable design tool for the selection of FRP dimensions to
provide flexural strengthening, shear strengthening or confinement of
reinforced concrete sections. Essentially, the software is divided into two
procedures. The first is related to definitions of input data, solution options
and print options, whereas the second involves presentation of results,
selection of appropriate number of FRP strips or layers and printing of
information. Between the two distinct procedures lies the numerical
solutions algorithm.

When the program starts, the user is asked to provide Data Input for one of
the following three cases: flexural strengthening (ULS and SLS), shear
strengthening or confinement. When all data is provided, the user may
either proceed to the Solution or initialise the input parameters through the
New Input option. During the data input process, the program checks the
validity of input parameters and provides warnings if incorrect actions are
taken. Through a series of Options the user may define print-related
information, or even change the default values for FRP material safety
factors. Finally, the commands Open and Save provide the opportunity to
the user to track the various strengthening projects, whose input data are
loaded and saved by demand.
By clicking Solution, the programs heart, the problem solving procedure
is activated. When the procedure is completed, results are provided in terms
of the FRP cross sectional area (in case of flexural strengthening) or total
FRP thickness (in case of shear strengthening or confinement) required for a
given problem. In the case of flexural strengthening, additional information is
provided regarding the degree of strengthening (moment capacity after
strengthening divided by that before strengthening), the strain profile (e.g.

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Construction

neutral axis depth, concrete, steel and FRP strains) during strengthening as
well as that after strengthening, the ductility, the failure mode, the acting
moment before strengthening (at the SLS) and the maximum achievable
acting moment (at the SLS). Finally, the user has the option to input
dimensions of actual FRP products (e.g. thickness and width of strips in the
case of flexural strengthening, thickness of each layer in the case of shear
strengthening or confinement) and the program responds with the calculation
of number of strips or layers and the corresponding capacity (flexural, shear
or confinement).

6.2.2. Flexural Strengthening

DATA INPUT
The user is required to provide input as described in the following:
Type of Cross Section
The option T-beam is selected for T-shaped cross sections or Rectangular
beam for rectangular sections. The last option also includes slab sections.
Cross Section Geometry
Width b: input the width in m.
Height h: input the height in m.
Effective width beff: input the effective width in m (only in the case of Tbeams).
Slab thickness hf: input the slab thickness in m (only in the case of Tbeams).
Concrete
The user has the option either to select the strength class of concrete (if
known) or to input the mean strength (fcm) in N/mm2. The assumed
relationship between the two is: fck = fcm 1.64 x 5. Moreover, the user has
the option to input the creep coefficient (estimated according to EC2
procedures), which is used in the Serviceability Limit State verification for
quasi-permanent loads. The default value of 2.5 is assumed here.

35

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Composite Materials
By clicking the button "Sika CarboDur Properties", characteristics of the
various CarboDur systems are provided for consultation.
Elastic modulus Ef: Input the elastic modulus of FRP in kN/mm2 (provided by
the material supplier).
Limiting strain f,lim: Input the limiting strain of the FRP (non-dimensional data
!). Beyond this value, the FRP may debond in the areas of high bending
moments (flexural cracks). Suggested (default) value = 0.008.
Steel Reinforcement
Elastic modulus Es: Input the elastic modulus of the longitudinal steel
reinforcement in kN/mm2. The default value is 200 kN/mm2.
Characteristic yield stress fyk: Input the characteristic yield stress of the
longitudinal steel reinforcement in N/mm2, e.g. 500 for steel S500.
Top As2: Input the total cross sectional area of the steel reinforcement in the
compression zone (if present) (in mm2).
At distance d2: Input the distance from the centroid of As2 to the extreme
compressive fibre of the cross section (in m).
Bottom s12: Input the total cross sectional area of the second layer (if
present) of steel reinforcement in the tension zone (in mm2).

36

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

At distance d12: Input the distance from the centroid of As12 to the extreme
tensile fibre of the cross section (in m).

Construction

Bottom s11: Input the total cross sectional area of the first layer of steel
reinforcement in the tension zone (in mm2).
At distance d11: Input the distance from the centroid of As11 to the extreme
tensile fibre of the cross section (in m).
Bending Moments
Bending moment during strengthening : Input the bending moment
applied to the cross section during strengthening (service moment), that is
the moment that develops (e.g. due to gravity loads) when the strengthening
process takes place (in kNm).
Required design moment after strengthening sd: Input the design value of
the resisting bending moment after strengthening, (in kNm) for the Ultimate
Limit State verification.
Acting moment - Rare load ser,r : Input the bending moment acting at the
critical cross section due to the rare load combination of the Serviceability
Limit State (in kNm).
Acting moment - Quasi-permanent load ser,q-p: Input the bending moment
acting at the critical cross section due to the quasi-permanent load
combination of the Serviceability Limit State (in kNm).
Commands
Solution: The program checks for input errors and provides the solution.
New Input: All input data values may be initialized through this command.
Help: Activates the help facility.
Options: Activates the options described in Section 5.2.5.
Save: Saves all the input data in a file.
Open: Accesses a data file, where input data may have been saved.
About: Activates the programs introductory window.
Exit: Exits the program.
Information Line
The following information is shown: Project
Time

Name

Company

Date

The first three items of information are provided by the user through
Options, General, whereas the latter two details, the date and time, are
automatically provided by the system.
***General Remarks***
For each value input provided by the user the program checks that this value
is reasonable (e.g. not too high, not too low) and provides a warning if this
is not the case. Warnings are also provided if the user inputs wrong
characters (e.g. a letter instead of a number) or if they forget to complete a
box. Additional checks are made by the program, the corresponding

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

warnings provided, if a combination of values does not make sense (e.g. the
effective width of a slab cannot be less than the beams width).
When Solution is selected, the program performs a number of checks.
Warning messages are provided when the required design moment after
strengthening is too high (so that the section cannot be strengthened, no
matter how much FRP is provided) or too low (that is less than the resisting
design moment before strengthening).

Construction

RESULTS
Upon completion of the solution process, the Results window provides the
following.

Ultimate Limit State

Resisting design moment before strengthening rd,o: This is the value of the
resisting design moment calculated without the use of FRP.
Required FRP cross-section for ULS Af: Total FRP cross sectional area to
be added to the tension face in order to verify the ULS.
Resisting design moment after strengthening rd: This is the value of the
resisting design moment corresponding to the above FRP cross section Af.
Note that this value might be slightly different from the one input by the user,
due to round-off measures.
Degree of strengthening rd/rd,: The ratio of the resisting design moment
after strengthening to that before strengthening.
Serviceability Limit State - Rare Load

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Moment capacity before strengthening Mser,r,o: This is the value of the

moment capacity calculated without the use of FRP. A warning will be
provided if the bending moment during strengthening Mo is higher than
Mser,r,o.
Required FRP cross-section for SLS Af: Total FRP cross sectional area to
be added to the tension face in order to verify the SLS for the Rare Load
combination.

Construction

Moment capacity Mser,r: Value of the moment capacity corresponding to the

above FRP cross section Af. Note that this value might be slightly different
from the one input by the user, due to round-off measures.
Steel stress fs11: Stress in the extreme tension steel reinforcement for the
SLS verification under the Rare Load combination.
Concrete stress c: Maximum stress in the concrete for the SLS verification
under the Rare Load combination.
Note that for the SLS verification under the Rare Load combination either the
steel or the concrete stress has reached its respective limiting value. For the
steel stress the limiting value is 0.8fyk and for the maximum concrete stress
the limiting value is 0.6fck. If Mser,r is lower than Mser,r,o, no FRP is needed for
the SLS verification under the Rare Load combination, and in this case none
of the above materials reaches its respective limiting value.
Serviceability Limit State - Quasi-permanent Load
Moment capacity before strengthening Mser,q-p,o: This is the value of the
moment capacity calculated without the use of FRP. A warning will be
provided if the bending moment during strengthening Mo is higher than
Mser,q-p,o.
Required FRP cross-section for SLS Af: Total FRP cross sectional area to be
added to the tension face in order to verify the SLS for the Quasi-permanent
Load combination.
Moment capacity Mser,q-p: Value of the moment capacity corresponding to the
above FRP cross section Af. Note that this value might be slightly different
from the one input by the user, due to round-off errors.
Steel stress fs11: Stress in the extreme tension steel reinforcement for the
SLS verification under the Quasi-permanent Load combination.
Concrete stress c: Maximum stress in the concrete for the SLS verification
under the Quasi-permanent Load combination.
Note that for the SLS verification under the Quasi-permanent Load
combination either the steel or the concrete stress has reached its respective
limiting value. For the steel stress the limiting value is 0.8fyk and for the
maximum concrete stress the limiting value is 0.45fck. If Mser,q-p is lower than
Mser,q-p,o, no FRP is needed for the SLS verification under the Quasi-

39

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

permanent Load combination, and in this case none of the above materials
reaches its respective limiting value.
Flexural Strengthening - Final

Construction

Design is controlled by: the Limit State controlling the design (corresponding
to the maximum of the three Af values, calculated for ULS, SLS - Rare Load,
SLS - Quasi-permanent Load) is provided here.
Final required FRP cross section Af: The maximum of the three Af values
(calculated for ULS, SLS - Rare Load, SLS - Quasi-permanent Load) is
provided here.
Commands
Cross section strain profile: Activates a window with the deformation
characteristics of the cross section, both graphically and with numbers.
Initial Situation During Strengthening (Mo)

Depth of neutral axis:

strengthening (due to Mo).

Top fibre strain: strain in the extreme concrete compressive fibre

during strengthening (due to Mo).

Top steel strain: strain in the top steel reinforcement during

strengthening (due to Mo).

Bottom steel strain: strain in the bottom steel reinforcement during

strengthening (due to Mo).

Bottom fibre strain: strain in the extreme concrete tensile fibre during
strengthening (due to Mo).

depth of neutral axis in m, during

Ultimate Limit State (Mrd)

Depth of neutral axis:

reached.

Top fibre strain: strain in the extreme concrete compressive fibre

when Mrd is reached. If this value equals 0.0035, compressive
crushing of the concrete occurs.

Top steel strain: strain in the top steel reinforcement when Mrd is
reached.

Bottom steel strain: strain in the bottom steel reinforcement when Mrd
is reached.

depth of neutral axis (in m) when Mrd is

40

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

FRP strain: strain in the FRP when Mrd is reached. If this value
equals the limiting strain f,lim (default = 0.008), debonding of the FRP
occurs.

Fail: The failure mode assosiated to ULS is reported.

Ductility (for ULS)

The ratio of neutral axis depth is calculated and compared with the
maximum value provided by EC2. A statement is provided related to the
ductility requirement.
Serviceability Limit State - Rare Load (Mser,r)

Depth of neutral axis: depth of neutral axis (in m) corresponding to

Mser,r.

Top fibre strain: strain in the extreme concrete compressive fibre

corresponding to Mser,r.

Top steel strain: strain in the top steel reinforcement corresponding

to Mser,r.

Bottom steel strain:

strain in the bottom steel reinforcement
corresponding to Mser,r.

Bottom fibre strain: strain in the extreme concrete tensile fibre

corresponding to Mser,r.

FRP strain: strain in the FRP corresponding to Mser,r.

Serviceability Limit State - Quasi-permanent Load (Mser,q-p)

41

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Depth of neutral axis: depth of neutral axis (in m) corresponding to

Mser,q-p.

Top fibre strain: strain in the extreme concrete compressive fibre

corresponding to Mser,q-p.

Top steel strain: strain in the top steel reinforcement corresponding to

Mser,q-p.

Bottom steel strain: strain in the bottom steel reinforcement

corresponding to Mser,q-p.

Bottom fibre strain: strain in the extreme concrete tensile fibre

corresponding to Mser,q-p.

FRP strain: strain in the FRP corresponding to Mser,q-p.

Input of FRP dimensions: Activates a window where the user may input the
dimensions (width and thickness, in mm) of FRP materials (values refer to a
single strip) to be used for the specific strengthening project. By clicking the
button Sika CarboDur Properties, characteristics of the various CarboDur
systems are provided for consultation. By clicking Calculation, the number of
strips required and the corresponding FRP area (final cross section) are
calculated. The user has the option to override the required number of strips,
by providing the applied number in the appropriate field.

Solve and return: The window Results is activated with updated

information, based on the new applied FRP cross section. Note that ALL
values are updated (e.g. even if the SLS controls, values corresponding to
the ULS are provided too, and vice versa). The FRP area is now called
applied.

42

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Return (without solution): The window Results, as it was before the input of
FRP dimensions, is activated again.

Construction

Bond Check: When the user has selected the FRP dimensions and the
number of strips (n), this button activates a window where the bond check is
performed.

Section's Properties

Substrate tensile strength fctm: Input the mean value of the concrete
tensile strength near the surface (in N/mm2). The default value is
calculated based on the characteristic value of the compressive
strength. However, more realistic values could be obtained through
pull-off testing.

Design moment at section A Msd,A: Input the bending moment acting

in cross section A (in kNm). The calculations will provide the required
bond length lbd corresponding to this particular cross section, that is,
how far from this section the FRP should extend, in addition to the
horizontal displacement of the bending moment, Diagram aL.

Steel Reinforcement at Section A

Elastic modulus Es: Input the elastic modulus (in kN/mm2) of the
longitudinal steel reinforcement crossing section A. The default value
is that provided for the critical cross section verifications.

43

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

44

Characteristic yield stress fyk: Input the characteristic yield stress (in
N/mm2) of the longitudinal steel reinforcement crossing section A.
The default value is that provided for the critical cross section
verifications.

Top As2: Input the total cross sectional area of the steel
reinforcement in the compression zone (if present) of section A (in
mm2). The default value is that provided for the critical cross section
verifications.

At distance d2: Input the distance from the centroid of As2 to the
extreme compressive fibre of the cross section A (in m). The default
value is that provided for the critical cross section verifications.

Bottom As12: Input the total cross sectional area of the second layer
(if present) of steel reinforcement in the tension zone of section A (in
mm2). The default value is that provided for the critical cross section
verifications.

At distance d12: Input the distance from the centroid of As12 to the
extreme tensile fibre of the cross section A (in m). The default value
is that provided for the critical cross section verifications.

Bottom As11: Input the total cross sectional area of the first layer of
steel reinforcement in the tension zone of section A (in mm2). The
default value is that provided for the critical cross section
verifications.

At distance d11: Input the distance from the centroid of As11 to the extreme
tensile fibre of the cross section A (in m). The default value is that
provided for the critical cross section verifications.

FRP Arrangement
Total number of n strips is placed in m layers: The number of strips n
has been calculated from the previous process. Given this number, the
user will decide upon the number of layers m. For instance, if a total of
two strips are needed, and they do not fit next to each other, they will be
placed one on the top of the other, so that m=2. The number of layers m
should be provided here as input by the user. Note that if m>1, the total
number of strips divided by the number of layers should be an integer, so
that the strips can be divided evenly. If this condition is not fulfilled, the
user is warned by a message, so that a new selection of FRP
dimensions should be made resulting in n/m=integer.
Calculation
By clicking Calculation, the program provides the total tensile force
carried by FRP in section A, Nfd,A, the corresponding value of the
maximum force, Nbd,max, so that debonding (anchorage failure) does not
occur, the bond length, lbd,max, corresponding to Nbd,max and, if the bond

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

check is OK, (Nfd,A<Nbd,max), the bond length required to transmit the force
Nfd,A. If the bond check is NOT OK, a number of suggestions are
provided: the user should increase the FRP cross-section (this solution is
not so likely to be successful), and/or use a mechanical anchorage at the
FRP ends.

Construction

Help: Activates the help facility.

Return: Activates the Data Input window, should modifications to the
input data be required.
Print: A printout of the results is obtained.
Exit: Exits the program.

6.2.3. Shear Strengthening

DATA INPUT
The user is required to provide input as described in the following.
Method of Anchorage
The option Closed jacket or Open jacket is selected, dependent upon the
type of strengthening system used. Shear strengthening of columns where
all four sides are accessible is typically of the closed-type. Moreover, shear
strengthening of T-beams with mechanical anchorage systems that ensure
optimal securing of the FRP in the compression zone, may be considered of
the closed-type too. This is the case, for instance, with the Sika CarboShear
elements, if sufficient anchorage length is available through the slab. For
these particular elements, if the anchorage length is less than 300 mm, it is
recommended to accept a solution calculated by linear interpolation between
Closed jacket and Open jacket, that is to run the program for both cases
and adopt the value by linear interpolation. Consult also the technical
datasheet and design recommendation of this product.
Cross Section Geometry
Width b: Input the width in m.
Static depth d: Input the static (or effective) depth, that is the distance from
the centroid of the tension steel reinforcement to the extreme compressive
fibre, in m.
Angle between fibres direction and member axis: Input the angle (degrees)
formed between the principal fibre direction in the FRP and the axis of the
RC member. In most cases this angle is 90 degrees.

45

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Concrete
The user has the option either to select the strength class of concrete (if
known) or to input the mean strength in N/mm2. The assumed relationship
between the two is: fck = fcm 1.64 x 5.
Composite Materials
By clicking the button "Sika CarboDur Properties", characteristics of the
various CarboDur systems are provided for consultation.
Elastic modulus Ef: Input the elastic modulus of FRP in kN/mm2 (provided
by the material supplier).
Ultimate tensile strain fu: Input the ultimate tensile strain (failure strain) of
the FRP (non-dimensional quantity). Typically this is provided by the material
supplier.
Limiting strain f,lim: Input the limiting strain of the FRP (non-dimensional
quantity). Exceeding this value would imply significant cracks and hence
reduced contribution from the concrete to the shear capacity as a result of
reduced aggregate interlock. Suggested (default) value = 0.006.
Type of fibres: Select the type of fibres for the FRP material. This is related
to material safety factors.

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Type of Application
The use of continuous jacket or discrete strips may be selected here. In the
latter case the width and spacing (axis to axis) of the strips should be
provided (in m). The spacing should be such that a potential shear crack
should cross at least one strip. As a general rule, a maximum spacing of 0.8
x d is adopted here.

Construction

Increase of Shear Capacity

Additional shear Vfd: Input the shear force (in kN) to be carried by the FRP.
Commands
Solution: The program checks for input errors and provides the solution.
New Input: All input data values may be assigned through this command.
Help: Activates the help facility.
Options: Activates the options described in Section 5.2.5.
Save: Saves all the input data in a file.
Open: Opens a data file, where input data may have been saved.
About: Activates the programmes introductory window.
Exit: Exits the programme.
Information Line
The following information is shown: Project Name
Company Date
Time
The first three items of data are provided by the user through Options,
General, whilst the latter two items, namely the date and time are
automatically provided by the system.
***General Remarks***
For each input value provided by the user the program checks if this value is
reasonable (e.g. not too high, not too low) and provides a warning if this is
not the case. Warnings are also provided if the user inputs wrong characters
(e.g. a letter instead of a number) or if they forget to complete a box.
Additional checks are made by the program, (with the corresponding
warnings provided), if a combination of values does not make sense, e.g. the
spacing of discrete strips cannot be less than their width.

RESULTS
Upon completion of the solution process, the Results window provides the
following.

47

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Construction

Required FRP thickness tf: The total thickness of the FRP jacket is provided.
Additional shear Vfd: This is the value of the force corresponding to the FRP
jacket of thickness tf. Note this value might differ from that input by the user,
due to round-off measures.
Commands
Input of FRP dimensions: Activates a window where the user may input the
thickness (in mm) of a single layer of the FRP material to be used for the
specific strengthening project. By clicking the button Sika CarboDur
Properties, properties of the various CarboDur systems are provided for
consultation. By clicking Calculation, the number of layers required is
determined. The user has the option to override the required number of
layers, by providing the applied number, in the appropriate field.

Solve and return: The window Results is activated with updated

information, based on the new FRP thickness. Note that the FRP thickness
is now called applied.
Return (without solution): The window Results, as it was before the input of
FRP dimensions, is activated again.
Help: Activates the help facility.
Return: Activates the Data Input window, should modifications to the input
data be required.
Print: A printout of the results is obtained.
Exit: Exits the program.

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

6.2.4. Confinement
DATA INPUT

Construction

The user needs to provide input as described in the following.

Type of Cross Section

The option Rectangular is selected for rectangular cross sections, whilst
Circular is selected for circular sections.
Cross Section Geometry
Width b: Input the width in m (for rectangular cross sections).
Height h: Input the height in m (for rectangular cross sections).
Radius at corner R: Input the radius at the corners of the cross section in m
(for rectangular cross sections).
Diametre D: Input the diametre in m (for circular cross sections).
Concrete
The user has the option either to select the strength class of concrete (if
known) or to input the mean strength in N/mm2. The assumed relationship
between the two is: fck = fcm 1.64 x 5.

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6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Composite Materials
By clicking the button "Sika CarboDur Properties", properties of the various
CarboDur systems are provided for consultation.
Elastic modulus Ef: Input the elastic modulus of FRP in kN/mm2 (provided by
the material supplier).

Construction

Ultimate tensile strain fu: Input the ultimate tensile strain (failure strain) of
the FRP (non-dimensional quantity!). Typically provided by the material
supplier.
Effective ultimate strain fu,e: Input a reduction factor (default = 0.9) which
multiplies the ultimate tensile strain of the FRP to give the effective ultimate
strain in the circumferential direction. This reduction is related to the
multiaxiality of stresses in the FRP and the quality of execution.
Type of Application
The use of continuous jacket or discrete strips may be selected here. In the
latter case the width and spacing (axis to axis!) of the strips should be
provided (in m). A warning is provided if the user specifies discrete strips as
a means of confining rectangular cross sections. The effectiveness of
confinement in this case is limited, and hence not recommended.
Requirements
The user has the option to select (a) increase of the concrete strength from
fco (= fcm) to fcc or (b) increase of the concrete ultimate strain to a value cu, or
both.
Mean strength after strengthening fcc: Input the strength of FRP-confined
concrete (target value after strengthening) in N/mm2.
Ultimate axial strain after strengthening cu: Input the ultimate axial strain of
FRP-confined concrete (target value after strengthening), expressed as a
dimensionless value.
Commands
Solution: The program checks for input errors and provides the solution.
New Input: All input data values may be assigned through this command.
Help: Activates the help facility.
Options: Activates the options described in Section 5.2.5.
Save: Saves all the input data in a file.
Open: Opens a data file, where input data may have been saved.
About: Activates the programs introductory window.
Exit: Exits the program.

Information Line
The following information is shown: Project
Time

Name

Company

Date

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Construction

The first three items of data are provided by the user through Options,
General whilst the two latter items , namely the date and time are
automatically provided by the system.
***General Remarks***
For each input value provided by the user the program checks if this value is
a reasonable one (e.g. not too high, not too low) and provides a warning if
this is not the case. Warnings are also provided if the user inputs wrong
characters (e.g. a letter instead of a number) or if he/she forgets to fill a box.
Additional checks are made by the program (and the corresponding
warnings are provided) if a combination of values does not make sense (e.g.
the radius at the corners of a rectangular section cannot be more than half of
the small side).
RESULTS
Upon completion of the solution process, the Results window provides the
following.

Required FRP thickness tf: The total thickness of the FRP jacket is provided.
Mean strength after strengthening fcc: This is the value of the strength of
FRP-confined concrete corresponding to the FRP jacket of thickness tf. Note
that this value might differ that one input by the user due to: (a) round-off
(only slight variations are expected in this case); (b) the option Ultimate
axial strain after strengthening has been selected as the FRP thickness is
controlled by this requirement (i.e. larger FRP thickness is required to satisfy
the strain requirement than the strength).
Ultimate axial strain after strengthening cu: This is the value of the ultimate
axial strain of FRP-confined concrete corresponding to the FRP jacket of
thickness tf. Note that this value might differ from that input by the user due
to: (a) round-off (only slight variations are expected in this case); (b) the
option Mean strength after strengthening has been selected as the FRP
thickness is controlled by this requirement (i.e. larger FRP thickness is
required to satisfy the strength requirement than the strain).

51

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

Commands
Input of FRP dimensions: Activates a window where the user may input the
thickness (in mm) of a single layer of the FRP material to be used for the
specific strengthening project. By clicking the button Sika CarboDur
Properties, properties of the various CarboDur systems are provided for
consultation. By clicking Calculation, the number of layers required is
calculated. The user has the option to override the required number of
layers, by providing the applied number in the appropriate field.

Construction

Solve and return: The window Results is activated with updated

information, based on the new FRP thickness. Note that the FRP thickness
is now called ''applied''.
Return (without solution): The window Results, as it was before the input
of FRP dimensions, is activated again.
Help: Activates the help facility.
Return: Activates the Data Input window, should modifications to the input
data need be required.
Print: A printout of the results is obtained.
Exit: Ends the program.
6.2.5. Options
General
Names for the user, the company and the project may be provided through
this option. A choice can be made as to whether these details should be
included in the printout or not.
Print/Flexure
Print Options includes the Print Setup (type of printer, properties, paper
etc.) and the Fonts (font, style, size), to be selected for the printout.
Flexural Strengthening: If the box Solution for desirable failure modes
only is ticked (strongly recommended), the program will provide a solution
(for the ULS) only if one of the two desirable failure modes (steel yielding +
concrete crushing, steel yielding + FRP at limiting strain) is activated. If this
is not possible, a warning will inform the user that the cross section is overreinforced. If the box Solution for desirable failure modes only is not ticked,
the program will provide a solution regardless of the failure mode (which
could be of the concrete crushing type, without yielding of the tension steel
reinforcement).

52

Construction

6. CARBODUR FRP ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

FRP Material Safety Factors

These factors are described in 5.1.2. The default values given here may be
modified by the user.

6.2.6. Printing
A printout of both the user's input and the calculation results can be obtained
through the window "Results". By using the window "Options" the user may
select print the print setup and fonts.
The printout contains the following information, independently of the
strengthening chosen (flexural, shear or confinement):
(a) user and project name, date & time (by demand);
(b) type of strengthening;
(c) type and geometry of cross section;
(d) material properties (concrete, steel and composite materials);
(e) type of application;
(f) strengthening requirements;
(g) required FRP dimensions (cross sectional area or thickness).
In cases of flexural strengthening, the moment capacity corresponding to
every limit state, as well as the stresses in the concrete and steel
(corresponding to SLS), and the governing failure mode is also printed.
Moreover, information on the "cross section strain profile" for every limit state
is given, if the user selects to see it at the solution stage. Finally, if the user
selects the option "Input of FRP dimensions", the applied FRP dimensions
as well as the number of strips or layers are printed. If the "Bond check" is
performed, the corresponding results are also printed.

53

7. CARBODUR FRP SOFTWARE EXAMPLES

7. CARBODUR FRP SOFTWARE EXAMPLES

7.1. Flexural Strengthening Example

Construction

Let us suppose a 5 metre simply supported RC beam of figure 6.1. The beam is
designed for a permanent action gd = 15 kN/m and a varible action qd = 30 kN/m.
The purpose of the strengthening is to increase the variable design action to 70
kN/m. (Concrete C20/25, Steel S500). Assume FRP plates 1.2mm thick and 80mm
width, with an Elastic modulus Ef = 165 Gpa ( Sika CarboDur S812).

Fig. 6.1 Dimensioned Cross section of a T-beam.

Solution
From Fig.6.1 we calculate: As= 940mm2, As = 400mm2, H = 500mm, d =
450mm, d2 = 40mm.
The bending moment during strengthening (Mo) is: Mo = wL2/8 = 15x52/8 =
46.9 kNm. Solving the equations 5.1.1, 5.1.2, 5.1.3 and 5.1.4 we calculate:
co = 0.00012 and xo = 76mm. Therefore, from equation 5.1.7 we calculate
= 0.00067.
The required design moment after strengthening (Rd) is: Rd 85x52/8 =
265 kNm. Initially, we assume that FRP will reach the limiting strain f,lim , i.e.
f = 0.008. Solving the equations 5.1.8, 5.1.9, 5.1.10 and 5.1.11 with
unknowns c, x and Af we determine that , c = 0.00150, x = 74mm and Af =
148,87mm2.
Hence, for this strengthening scheme we require a total width of FRP of
148,87/1.2 = 124,06 mm. We choose 2 plates of 80mm width each Af =
2x80x1.2 = 192 mm2 > 148,87 mm2.
Note: The initial assumption that the FRP reaches the limiting strain (before
the crushing of concrete) is not in contradiction with the results of the
analysis. Hence, it is not necessary to make the calculations for the failure
mechanism that is characterised by concrete crushing (c = 0.0035 and f <
0.008).

54

55

7. CARBODUR FRP SOFTWARE EXAMPLES

7.2. Shear Strengthening Example

Construction

Let us suppose a RC rectangular column 250x400 mm, shown in fig. 6.2, with
concrete strength 18MPa. The additional shear that the column will receive is
135 kN. Assume a CFRP fabric with elastic modulus Ef = 230 GPa, an
ultimate tensile strain fu = 0.017 and a thickness tf = 0.12 mm (SikaWrap
230C).

Fig. 6.2 Cross section of a rectangular column.

Solution
Let us assume 2 layers of the fabric: tf = 2x0.12 = 0.24 mm
f = 2x0.24/250 = 0.0019.
From equation 5.1.19a we calculate:

[0.8x0.17x0.017x(182/3 / 230x0.0019)0.3]/ 1.2 = 0.0053

(0.006/1.25) = 0.0048
Therefore fd,e = 0.0048.

Hence, equation 5.1.18 we have: Vfd = 174,43 kN > 135 kN.

7.3. Confinement Example

Let us assume a RC rectangular cross section 250x500 mm, shown in figure
6.3, with concrete strength fco = 20MPa and elastic modulus Eco = 27GPa.

Fig. 6.3 Cross section of a rectangular element.

56

7. CARBODUR FRP SOFTWARE EXAMPLES

Assume that for the confinement of the element we use two different material
fabrics a) Glass FRP with elastic modulus Efib=76 GPa, ffk =2300 MPa, fu =
0.028 and thickness tf = 0.17mm (SikaWrap 430G) and b) Carbon FRP with
elastic molulus Efib = 231GPa, ffk= 4100 MPa, fu = 0.017 and tf =0.12mm
(SikaWrap 230C). Also assume a tensile strength reduction of 5% in respect
to the characteristic tensile strength of fibres ffk.
Requirements: 1) to increase the mean strength fcc to 35MPa and 2) to
increase the ultimate axial strain (from 0.0035-0.004 of unconfined concrete)
to 0.025.

Construction

Solution
The design tensile strength is

f fd =

f fk fue

f fum

where the ratio

fue
fum

normally

equals 1, as the effective ultimate FRP strain fue expected in-situ will not
significantly differ from the mean strain fum obtained through uniaxial tensile
testing, and as small variations are accounted for in the FRP material safety
factor f.
Therefore for GFRP we have: ffd = 0.95x(2300/1.5)x1= 1457 MPa and,
For CFRP we have, respectively: ffd = 0.95x(4100/1.35)x1= 2885 MPa
Assuming that the radius at corner will be 2cm, the gross sectional area of
concrete Ag = 1246.5 and from equation 5.1.30 we establish a confinement
effectiveness coefficient = 0.32.
Substituting the above values in equations 5.1.22 to 5.1.29 we calculate:
fcc=35MPa
GFRP: Required FRP thickness tf = 0,75 5 layers of fabric.
CFRP: Required FRP thickness tf = 0,41 4 layers of fabric.
cu = 0.025
GFRP: Required FRP thickness tf = 0,08 1 layers of fabric.
CFRP: Required FRP thickness tf=0,18 2 layers of fabric.
Note: From the above results it is obvious that to increase strength the
CFRP fabrics require less layers than the GFRP options. Alternatively to
increase strain the GFRP fabrics need fewer layers than the CFRP.

57

8. CARBODUR FRP DETAILING RULES

8. CARBODUR FRP DETAILING RULES

8.1. Flexural Strengthening
Flexural strengthening is provided by:

Construction

Prefabricated CFRP plates,

or
Axially oriented flexible fabrics
These are bonded and cured in-situ on the tensile faces of the element (e.g.
in the bottom faces for simply supported beams, in top faces for beams over
internal supports).
In the anchorage zones no additional transverse reinforcement is required if
adequate anchorage is provided by bond stresses and debonding is resisted
by concrete tensile stresses.
8.1.1. Recommendations

Maximum spacing sf between parallel plates or fabrics = min(0.2, 5h,

0.4c) where = span length, h= total depth, c=length of cantilever.

Minimum distance to the edge of a beam = concrete cover to existing

reinforcement.

It is strongly recommended that lap joints of strips should be avoided;

actually they are not necessary since FRP can be delivered in the
required length. Joints are allowed only in cases of static loading and
they are provided in sections where the maximum tensile force in the
EBR does not exceed 60% of the tensile force at ultimate.

Crossing of strips is allowed, with simultaneous bonding in the

crossing area.

Peeling-off of FRP is avoided by minimising concrete unevenness.

The permissible unevenness of prefabricated plates and flexible
fabrics is given in Table 7.1.

FRP type

Permissible
unevenness on a 2.0
m base (mm)

Permissible
unevenness on a 0.3
m base (mm)

Prefabricated
Plates

10

Flexible Fabrics

Table 7.1 Allowable values of unevenness of the concrete surface.

8. CARBODUR FRP DETAILING RULES

58

Construction

8.1.2. Multiple Layers

For prefabricated plates, maximum recommended layers = 3.

For axially-oriented flexible fabrics, maximum recommended layers =

5.

For several layers of prestressed plates there is a reduction of

prestressing due to the successive release of prestressing forces.

8.1.3. Anchorage Zones

In cases of span strengthening of simply supported beams, the

distance between the face of the support and the end of the strip
should be less than 50mm.

In cases of strengthening over supports of continuous beams or

slabs, FRP should be anchored in the compression zone.

Longitudinal FRP can be anchored with the use of flexible fabrics or

prefabricated L-shaped plates (Fig.7.1). These anchors are used as
external stirrups and are not considered to be part of the shear
reinforcement but are responsible for preventing early peeling-off.

Fig. 7.1 Anchorage of longitudinal FRP with prefabricated carbon L-shaped plates.

8.2. Shear Strengthening

Shear strengthening is provided by:

or

Prefabricated CFRP L-shaped plates or,

Axial or biaxial oriented flexible fabrics

The key issue in this technique is the appropriate anchorage of either the
fabric or the plate. Proper anchorage means a fully wrapped or a system that
is properly anchored in the compression zone, as shown in Fig. 7.2.

8. CARBODUR FRP DETAILING RULES

Construction

Fig. 7.2 Anchorage in the compression zone.

8.2.1. Recommendations

Externally bonded shear reinforcement covers four sides (fully

wrapped) or three sides (U-shape wrap) (Fig. 7.3a, 7.3b) of the
element and in some cases only two sides (prefabricated plates).

(a)
(b)
Fig. 7.3 Shear strengthening on (a) four, and (b) three sides of the element
using FRP fabrics.

For improved performance and where practically possible, use the

whole height of the compression zone.

The use of plates at the sides of a beam is not recommended as

there is a lack of anchorage in both the compression and tension
zones.

In cases of insufficient anchorage in the compression zone, the

usable height (inner lever arm) has to be reduced, in order that the
member has a fictitious lower ultimate bending resistance (Fig. 7.4).

FRP effectiveness increases as the fibers direction becomes closer

to the perpendicular of the diagonal shear crack.

In cases where discrete strips of small width are used (Fig. 7.5), the
maximum spacing sf should be equal to 0.8 d.

59

8. CARBODUR FRP DETAILING RULES

60

Construction

Fig. 7.4 No anchorage: reduction of the useable height for bending resistance.

Fig. 7.5 Shear strengthening with discrete strips.

8.3. Confinement
Confinement is generally applied to members in compression and is provided
by circumferential-oriented flexible fabrics.
8.3.1. Recommendations

Sharp corners on rectangular columns should be rounded to

minimum radius of 10 mm in order to avoid stress concentrations in
the fabric.

Both horizontally and spirally running fibres can achieve effective

confinement.

The maximum number of superimposed layers = 20-25.

For rectangular members with a large aspect ratio (e.g. pier walls),
FRP jackets should be restrained through the use of dowels or bolts
in order to achieve effective confinement.

In cases of high magnitude eccentric compressive loads,

longitudinally directed fibres can be applied. Proper anchorage of
these fibres is recommended.

8. CARBODUR FRP DETAILING RULES

When strengthening columns, excessive flexural strength in the

plastic hinge region due to FRP confinement, may possibly result in
undesired moment and shear forces in footings and cap beams.
Therefore a gap of 30-50mm is left between the column and the
footing and/or cap beam face.

Construction

8.4. Moisture Issues

In general, when structures are located in an extremely humid environment
or in direct contact with water (e.g. part of quay-, bridge- or dam structures)
full wrapping of the structures elements should be avoided. Whereas, in a
dry environment of low humidity (e.g. indoor structures) the total surface of
the element can be wrapped. In any other circumstances, special
investigation is required.
As already mentioned on 4.7.7, in order to avoid entrapping moisture inside
concrete members the following recommendations should be adopted.

8.4.1. Recommendations

In cases of flexural strengthening a small gap should be left between

the plates or the fabrics.

In cases of shear strengthening a gap every 300mm should be left

exposed.

In cases where a gap is needed for avoiding excess flexural strength

in the plastic hinge regions, water should be prevented from seeping
in between the FRP and the concrete surface by sealing the gap with
a water barrier such as an epoxy resin compound.

61

62

9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

9.1. Sika Technologies in Action
In the following the, for each structural requirement a solution is
provided through the use of Sika products.

Construction

Structural Requirements

Sika System Solutions

Structural Bonding of
Cracked Reinforced
Concrete Members

SikaDur Epoxy
Injection
Systems

Replace Areas of
Mechanically Damaged
Concrete

Sikament and
Viscocrete
Admixtures

Sika Machine
Applied Repair
Mortars

Bonding Anchors and

additional Reinforcement
into Hardened Concrete

SikaDur Epoxy
Bonding
Systems

Confinement of
Structural Members to
increase Load Bearing
Capacity and Ductility

SikaWrap
Composite
Fabric Systems

Flexural Strengthening

Shear Strengthening

Sika CarboDur
Composite
Plates and
SikaWrap
Fabric Systems
Sika CarboShear
Stirrups and
SikaWrap
Composite Systems

63

9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

9.2. CarboDur FRP Systems

In 1994, Sika introduced FRP materials into the field of structural
strengthening. Three different systems exist in the product range:

The Sika CarboDur System

The SikaWrap System

The Sika CarboShear L System

An overview for all systems is given below.

Construction

9.2.1. Sika CarboDur System

The Sika CarboDur System consists of factory pultruded carbon plates, which
are bonded to substrates on site with SikaDur 30 structural epoxy adhesive.
CarboDur plates are produced in a number of different widths and thickness
(Table. 8.1) and in four different Elastic Moduli, S (XS), M, H and UH
respectively (Fig 8.1 and 8.2).
Cross Sectional
Area (mm2)

Sika CarboDur

Width (mm)

XS514

50

1.4

70

XS1014

100

1.4

140

XS1214

120

1.4

168

XS1514

150

1.4

210

S512

50

1.2

60

S612

60

1.2

72

S812

80

1.2

96

S1012

100

1.2

120

S1212

120

1.2

144

S1512

150

1.2

180

S614

60

1.4

84

S914

90

1.4

126

S1014

100

1.4

140

S1214

120

1.4

168

M514

50

1.4

70

M614

60

1.4

84

M914

90

1.4

126

M1014

100

1.4

140

M1214

120

1.4

168

H514

50

1.4

70

UH514

50

1.4

70

Thickness(mm)

Table 8.1 Types of Sika CarboDur Plates

64

9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

Sika CarboDur Plate

Type XS

Type S

Type M

Type H

Type UH

165

165

210

300

400

Tensile
Strength
(N/mm2)

>2200

>2800

>2800

>1300

>1800

Strain at
failure (%)

>1.35

>1.7

>1.35

>0.45

>0.45

Construction

E-modulus
(kN/mm2)

Fig 8.1 Mechanical properties of Sika CarboDur Plates

Fig 8.2 Stress-Strain diagram of Sika CarboDur Plates S,M and H

One of the advantages of Sika CarboDur plates is that they can be

prestressed before bonding. This reduces the risk of plates peeling off due to
concrete shear failure in the tension zone, thus increasing the structural
safety. The prestressing force in the plate relieves the strain from internal
steel reinforcement and reduces deflection and crack widths.

9.2.2. SikaWrap System

The SikaWrap system consists of flexible fabrics which are laminated and
bonded to substrates on site using SikaDur structural epoxy resins.
SikaWrap systems can be applied by two different processes according to the
client requirements and site conditions. These are known as the wet and
dry process respectively:

9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

65

In the wet process the SikaWrap fabric is impregnated with SikaDur300 epoxy resin manually or in a saturator machine (Fig. 8.3) and then
is applied wet to the sealed substrate.

Construction

In the dry process the dry SikaWrap fabric is applied directly into the
SikaDur-330 resin which has been applied uniformly onto the concrete
surface.
Either the Sika wet or dry process can achieve equal performance on site.
SikaWrap fabrics are produced with carbon and glass fibres in one or two
directions. The SikaWrap fabric range is shown in Table 8.2

Fig 8.3 Saturator Machine for the SikaWrap Wet process.

66

9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

Areal
Weight
(g/m2)

Tensile EModulus
(kN/mm2)

Tensile
Strength
(N/mm2)

Strain at
break of
fibres
(%)

Nominal
Thickness
(mm)

Process

100G

935

76

2300

2.8

0.36

Wet

107G

955

76

2300

2.8

0.35

Wet

430G

445

76

2300

2.8

0.17

Dry

300A

300

100

2880

2.8

0.21

Dry/Wet

450A

450

100

2880

2.8

0.31

Wet

103C

610

230

3900

1.5

0.34

Wet

160C
0/90

160

230

3800

1.5

0.045

Dry

200C

200

230

3900

1.5

0.11

Dry

Hex230C

220

231

4100

1.7

0.12

Dry

300C

300

230

3900

1.5

0.17

Dry/Wet

201C

200

230

4900

2.1

0.11

Dry

231C

230

230

4900

2.1

0.13

Dry

301C

300

230

4900

2.1

0.17

Dry/Wet

200C NW

200

230

3900

1.5

0.11

Wet

300C NW

300

230

3900

1.5

0.17

Wet

300C
HiMod
NW

300

640

2600

0.4

0.14

Wet

400C
HiMod
NW

400

640

2600

0.4

0.19

Wet

SikaWrap
Fabrics

Construction

Glass Fabrics

Aramid Fabrics

Carbon Fabrics

Table 8.2 Range of SikaWrap Fabrics

9.2.3. Sikadur Adhesives and Impregnating Resins

SikaDur-30
The SikaDur 30 is a high modulus, high strength structural epoxy paste
adhesive used for external bonding of steel and CarboDur plates.
The main features of SikaDur 30:

Application temperature range +10+35oC

No primer is required , acts as primer and adhesive

9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

67

Resistant to low concentrations of acids and alcalis as well as oil

SikaDur 330
The SikaDur 330 is a proven mid-viscosity impregnation resin for the dry
application method. It is not suitable for tightly woven (e.g. 103C, 107G) and
non-woven (e.g. 300C HiMod NW) fabrics.

Construction

The main features of SikaDur 330:

Application temperature range +10 to 35oC

No primer is required , acts as primer and impregnating resin
Resistant to low concentrations of acids and alcalis as well as oil
Tacky surface after curing: coating or application of further layers has
to be done carefully according to the procedures provided in product
data sheets.

SikaDur 300
The SikaDur 300 is a low viscosity impregnating epoxy resin, designed
especially for use with the saturator and the wet application method. For this
reason, the pot life is in the range of 3 to 5 hours, depending on temperature.
SikaDur 300 can be used in general for every SikaWrap fabric, but is
recommended for the saturation of tightly woven and non-woven fabrics.
The main features of SikaDur 300:

Extreme pot life and slow curing

Application temperature range +15 to +40oC.
Resistance to low concentrations of acids and alkalis as well as oil.

9.3. CarboDur Complementary Systems

9.3.1. CarboShear L System
Sika CarboShear L-shaped plates (Fig. 8.4) are manufactured for use as
externally applied shear reinforcement and therefore to complement the
prefabricated CarboDur plates.

68

9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

Fig 8.4 CFRP L-Shaped Plates CarboShear L.

Construction

The L-shaped plates afford the benefits of all CFRP products and use
SikaDur 30 epoxy adhesive for bonding. They are manufactured in three
different types as it is shown in Table 8.3.
Type

Leg Length (mm)

Width (mm)

Thickness (mm)

4/20/50

200 resp. 500

40

1.4

4/30/70

300 resp. 700

40

1.4

4/50/100

500 resp. 1000

40

1.4

Elastic Modulus
2

120 kN/mm

Tensile Strength
126 kN/40mm

Table 8.3 Types and Mechanical Properties of CarboShear L

9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

69

9.3.2. CarboHeater

Construction

Sika has developed a CarboHeater System (Fig. 8.5) which reduces the
curing time of adhesives. This system takes advantage of the electrical
conductivity of carbon fibres. It uses special equipment to pass an electric
current through CFRP plates during the strengthening process. The control
unit allows the desired curing temperature to be maintained within a narrow
range.

Fig 8.5 Fast Curing using Sika Heating Device.

The main advantages of controlled curing are:

Increased glass transition temperature of adhesives

Fast curing of adhesives at low temperatures

Application even under dynamic loads

From an experimental program in EMPA test laboratories it was identified that

the full curing of SikaDur 30 at 70oC is achieved in 3 hours.

70

9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

8.3.3 Prestressed FRP

Construction

Post-strengthening in tension of reinforced concrete structures using

externally bonded CFRP plates is state of the art technology . For the ultimate
load capacity the useful plate strain in the optimal scenario, under approval
max L = 8. This strain is only the 50% of the guaranteed elasticity of the
CFRP plate used. The limitation on useful tendon strain mainly results from
the limited load capacity of the bond and the limited tensile strength of the
concrete layers near the surface.
If the high load capacity and elasticity of the tendon were to be used
economically, i.e. above the 8 range, the additional strain would have to be
put into it before actual application on the structure. The tendon has therefore
to be prestressed.
The prestressed CFRP plate combines the advantages of the bonded CFRP
plate strengthening with those of conventional prestressing. The tensioned
CFRP plate superimposes compressive stress in the tensile zone of the
cross-section, thus reducing tensile stress in steel reinforcement under
service load and consequently reducing crack width and deflection (Fig. 8.6).
For calculation of the load-bearing capacity, the tensile force in the tensioned
CFRP plate is added to the tensile strength of the steel.

Fig 8.6 Principle of Prestressing.

Sika has developed two prestressed systems in collaboration with the

consulting engineers Leonhardt, Andr & Partners and StressHead AG.
These are the Sika Leoba Carbodur (SLC I and II) and Sika-StressHead,
respectively (Fig. 8.6). Properties of both systems are shown in Table 8.4.
System

Sika LC II

Sika StressHead

Sika CarboDur plate

V914

V624
2

144 mm2

Cross-section

126 mm

Tensioning force

200 kN

220 kN

Pretensioning strain

9.0

9.5

Tensioning anchor

Leoba LC II

StressHead 220

Table 8.4 Properties of Sika Prestressed Systems.

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9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

Construction

(a)

(b)

Fig 8.7 Sika Prestressed Systems; (a) Sika Leoba CarboDur II and (b) SikaStressHead.

The advantages of prestressed Sika CarboDur CFRP plates compared to

prestressing steel are:

Easy prestressing of existing structures

Low weight for easy handling

Low loss of prestress due to higher initial tensile strain

Compact because of thin sections

Comparable stress level for CFRP plates and prestressing steel

No stress corrosion cracking risk

Corrosion resistant tendons

Bonded or non-bonded to structures

Moreover, the advantages compared to CFRP plates applied without

pretensioning are:

Optimal use of the high tensile strengths of the Sika CarboDur plates

30% to 50% less plates required

Optimal cost/performance ratio for strengthening of concrete

structures

Increased serviceability: reduction of crack width, tensile steel strain

and corrosion

Construction

9. SIKA SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGIES

Strengthening effect can also be appropriate for dead and

permanent load

Reduction of tensile strain of existing reinforcement

Possibility of structural strengthening despite low substrate

temperatures and high humidity and without special measures being
required.

Plate thickness up to 2.4 mm

Short end-anchors for the plates.

72

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73

10. CARBODUR FRP CASE STUDIES

10.1. EURIPOS BRIDGE, CHALKIDA

Construction

During January 1998, the movable historic bridge of Chalkida was repaired.
Flexural cracks had appeared at both ends of the bridge deck. The repair
technique applied included sealing of cracks with SikaDur 52 epoxy resin
injection method and followed by bonding of Sika CarboDur S1012 plates
perpendicular to the direction of cracks to avoid excessive cracking of
concrete (Fig.9.1).

Fig. 9.1 Down side of Euripos Bridge Deck.

10.2. KATERINI BRIDGE, NATIONAL ROAD KATERINI-THESSALONIKI

In May 2000, a bridge on the national Katerini-Thessaloniki road was
strengthened against increased traffic loads. For this work, the CarboDur
S1212 was chosen. CarboDur plates were bonded onto bridge beams as is
shown in Fig. 9.2. Application of CarboDur was enhanced with the use of
CarboHeater.

Fig. 9.2 Katerini Bridge and Strengthened Deck.

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74

10.3. SPORTS INSTALLATION, ATHENS

Construction

A Sports Stadium in the center of Athens was strengthened in September

2000 (Fig 9.3). More specifically, each tier span was strengthened against
flexure and the ends against shear (Fig.9.4). For the flexural and shear
strengthening Sika CarboDur S1012 and SikaWrap Hex-230C were used. For
the concrete repair, Sika MonoTop mortars were used.

Fig. 9.3 Sport Stadium during Strengthening.

Fig. 9.4 Shear and Flexural Strengthening of Stadium Tiers.

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75

10.4. HOTEL BUILDING, CRETE

Construction

Due to a change of use in a Hotel, in January 1999, beams had to be

decreased by their static depth 20 to 25 cm (initial static depth ~ 100 cm).
The beams were strengthened with Sika CarboDur S1012 against flexure
and with SikaWrap Hex-230C against shear (Fig. 9.5).

Fig. 9.5 Shear and Flexural Strengthening of a beam.

10.5. TRADITIONAL HOUSE, ATHENS

In May 2001, a wooden roof to a traditional house has been strengthened
using Sika CarboDur plates S1012 for flexure, as is shown in Fig. 9.6.

Fig. 9.6 Flexural Strengthening of a Wooden Roof.

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76

10.6. TOBACCO FACTORY, KILKIS

Construction

In May 2002, the upgrade of flexural loading capacity of a slab was carried
out in a tobacco factory. For the flexural strengthening, the Sika CarboDur
S512 plates were used (Fig. 9.7).

Fig. 9.7 Flexural Strengthening of a Slab.

10.7. GALIKOS RIVER BRIDGE, KILKIS

In May 2002, the bridge deck slab of Galikos River bridge required reinforcing
to alleviate sagging due to low design. The strengthening of the upper side
(tensile zone) of the bridge deck slab was performed with Sika CarboDur
S1012 (Fig. 9.8).

Fig. 9.8 Strengthening of Bridge Deck Slab over the Bridge Columns.

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77

10.8. MASONRY HOUSE, THESSALONIKI

Construction

In September 2002, the shear load capacity of a masonry building was

upgraded. Cracks in masonry were filled with Sika injections and then
substrates were leveled with Sika MonoTop mortars. The strengthening
involved Sika CarboDur S812 plates (Fig. 9.9).

Fig. 9.9 Shear Load Capacity Upgrade of a Masonry Building.

10.9. COMMERCIAL COMPLEX, ATHENS

In June 2002and due to a change of use , general rehabilitation of a multistorey block of shops and offices was undertaken. Works included flexural
strengthening of slabs and beams with Sika CarboDur S1012, S812 and
S512 and shear strengthening of beams with SikaWrap-300C HiMod NW
(Fig. 9.10).

Fig. 9.10 Flexural and Shear Strengthening of Beams and Slabs.

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78

10.10. RETIREMENT HOME, IOANNINA

Construction

During January 2003, the refurbishment of a retirement home took place in

Ioannina. Repair of concrete surfaces was achieved using Sika MonoTop
mortars and the confinement of columns and joints with SikaWrap Hex-230C
(Fig.9.11).

Fig. 9.11 SikaWrap Hex-230C Confinement of Columns and Joints.

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79