Table 28.

7 Lapworth yield-storage relationships becomes sensitive to the dry weather flow (DWF) as in the first
two examples above and special droughts may 'wreck' the
Storage (cm) calculations. The percentage of runoff taken for the yield and
storage depends on the physical conditions of each site and on
Average runoff from the daily requirements of each town.
gathering ground
(cm) 72.5 25 37.5 50 62.5 75 Example of use of Lapworth Chart and Table 28.7.
Assume a gathering ground of 1000 ha with an average annual
25 12.5 18.8 22.5 25.0 - - rainfall of 175 cm. Assume average annual evaporation is 50 cm
50 26.3 35.0 40.5 45.0 50.0 - so that average annual runoff= 175 - 50= 125 cm.
75 37.5 49.3 56.3 61.3 66.3 70.0 From Table 28.7 for average annual runoff of 125cm, con-
100 46.3 61.3 71.3 77.5 82.5 87.5 sider storage of 25, 50 and 75 cm and tabulate as below.
125 52.5 72.5 84.8 92.5 100.0 105.5
150 57.5 80.8 96.8 108.3 117.5 125.0
175 62.5 88.0 107.3 120.5 132.5 142.5 Storage related to 125 cm 25 50 75
200 67.5 95.5 115.0 132.5 145.0 157.5 Corresponding yield (cm) 72.5 92.5 105.5
From conversion
Conversions: Storage: 1 cm of water on 1 ha= 1000001 Storage (1 per h) 2.5 x 106 5 x 106 7.5 x 106
Runoff: 1 cm per annum on 1 ha = 274 I/day
Therefore Ml/1000 ha 2000 5000 7500
Yield (Ml/day) 20.0 25.3 28.9

The following notes may be useful in making a preliminary

assessment. 26.8.4 Catchwaters
(1) The average annual rainfall. The records of the Meteoro- In order to augment the yield of a reservoir, catchwaters are
logical Office should be referred to for any area in Britain. often resorted to so that additional water is led into a reservoir
Gathering grounds in the South and Midlands, 750 to from another gathering ground. As it is not economical to
1000mm, Wales, Lake District to Scotland 1000 to design catchwaters to take maximum floods, only up to 90% of
1500mm per annum. In other parts of the world best use the water available is taken. The proportion taken is regarded as
must be made of often sparse data. the 'efficiency' of the catchwater and can be assessed by drawing
(2) The evaporation or loss of the rainfall. Penman22 has com- up a flow frequency curve25 relating to the stream at the intake
piled a map of Britain showing the average annual losses, point if such records are available. A catchwater may be a
and similar maps can be compiled by application of the tunnel or, more often, an open channel graded to suit the
formula using local factors in other parts of the world. contour of the land. This is the cheapest form of structure and,
(3) The average annual runoff is the difference between rainfall provided that the length is not too great, it is cheaper than a
and evaporation on the gathering ground. pipe.
(4) For the yield-storage relation, reference for a first approxi- The design of an open channel can be based on the Chezy
mation should be made either to the Lapworth chart,24 from formula.
which Table 28.7 below gives extracts of the yield-storage
relation for various runoffs. (The rainfall less evaporation is
also known as the available yield.) 28.9 Formation of reservoirs
The determination of the size of a reservoir required to balance Reservoirs may be formed with earthen (or rockfill) dams,
50% or less of the available yield is difficult as the problem concrete dams (gravity, arch, multiple arch, cupola, buttress,

Table 28.8 Dam categories and design flood factors

Category Result of Initial reservoir Flood inflow Wind speed Minimum wave
failure condition (general standard) surcharge (m)

A Lives in a Spilling PMF 1 in 10 yr 0.6

community Max. h
endangered
B Extensive Just full 0.5 PMF or 1 in 10 yr 0.6
damage, or 1/10 000 yr Max. h
lives not
endangered
in a
community
C Negligible risk Just full 0.3 PMF Av. annual 0.4
to life.
Some damage
D No loss of life Spilling 0.2 PMF or 150-yr Av. annual 0.3
likely. flood Max. h
Limited
damage
reinforced, and prestressed), by raising existing lakes or by effect of flood routing through the reservoir, the capacity of the
enclosing with artificial embankments, generally filled by pump- spilling, available freeboard and the risk involved in the event of
ing. In addition to the dam forming the reservoir, certain overtopping.
ancillary works such as drawoff tower, overflow and diversion To obtain an approximate estimate of PMF for preliminary
works are normally required. assessment of dam safety, typical curves have been prepared
based on an undulating impermeable catchment. For other
types of terrain add 15% for mountainous areas, 5% for hilly
28.9.1 Valve towers areas, deduct 5% for flatter areas and adjust total area for
A water supply reservoir usually has a valve tower to contain permeable zones. The reservoir soil master deficit (RSMD) is an
pairs of valves at different levels, to draw off the water as it rises index defined as the 1-day rainfall of 5-yr return period less
and falls and to ensure the water at that level is consistent with effective mean soil master deficit; typical values given in the
good quality. Recording instruments are often situated within Flood studies report for Britain are 25 to 35 in the Midlands and
the valve tower: (1) to record the level of the water below top Southeast, up to 70 in the Lake District, up to 90 in the Scottish
water level; (2) to record the level of the water when the Highlands. Similar figures can be computed from first principles
reservoir is overflowing; (3) to record the quantity of water for other parts of the world. Some typical figures are shown in
taken to supply; (4) to record the quantity of water discharged Table 28.9 for general reference.
for compensation. A rain gauge is usually placed in the vicinity
of the dam.
28.9.3 Overflow weirs
28.9.2 Floods in reservoir practice The function of the overflow is to carry the design peak flood
safely over the dam. Overflow weirs may be formed along the
Earlier assessments of the size of floods were made based on crest of the dam, or as side weirs on one or both sides of the
valuable data recorded in the Institution of Civil Engineers valley upstream of the dam, or as a series of siphons over the
(ICE) interim reports of 1933 and 1960, supplemented by local crest of the dam. Whatever form is adopted to fit in with the
data when available and by the subjective judgement of exper- design of the dam, the weir should be capable of passing the
ienced engineers. However, since 1975 these methods have been design flood without overtopping of the main structure, though
superseded by the Flood studies report1* produced by the Insti- some limited overtopping can be accepted for lower categories
tute of Hydrology with the ICE and the Meteorological Office. of dam in the case of concrete dams or those with protected crest
This introduced the concepts of probable maximum precipi- and downstream slope, often used in flood detention situations.
tation (PMP) and probable maximum flood (PMF). Probable
maximum precipitation is defined as the theoretical greatest
depth of precipitation (i.e. rain, sleet, snow or hail) for a given 28.9.4 Drawoff and diversion culverts
duration meteorologically possible for a given basin at a par- Tunnels or culverts preferably constructed around the ends of
ticular period. The flood hydrograph resulting from PMP is the dam in solid strata are used for diverting streams during the
called the PMF and is assessed from local topographic and land construction of reservoirs, and their dimensions during con-
use parameters. Detailed maps have been prepared for the struction depend upon the best approximation of the magnitude
report and these are continuously updated for Britain, and of the flood. In the case of bell-mouth overflows the tunnel is
similar work is in hand for other parts of the world. required to carry water which flows over the bellmouth perma-
As the likelihood of a PMF occurring may be only once in nently.
50000 years, it would only be utilized in design if a failure Frequently the same tunnel is used to carry water drawn off
arising from it would endanger lives in a community. For lesser from the reservoir to supply or for regulation.
consequences proportions of PMF are recommended in the ICE
guide to Floods and reservoir safety21 and these are summarized
in Table 28.8 combined with associated design factors. 28.9.5 Earthen embankments and earth dams
In Britain and Hong Kong, the decision on the category of
dam and design flood is made by an engineer appointed under [Link] General
the Reservoirs (Safety Provisions) Act, 1930, or the Reservoirs
Act 1975 when implemented in full, taking into account the The adoption of an earthen embankment for an impounding

Table 28.9 Approximate probable maximum flood assessment

Catchment area RSMD PM F peak flow Catchment area RSMD PMF peak flow
(km2) (mm) (cumecs/km2) (km2) (mm) (cumecs/km2)

1 25 9.2 10 25 5.7
1 40 14.5 10 50 11.5
1 70 26.0 10 75 17.7
5 25 6.5 10 100 23.6
5 50 13.5 50 25 4.1
5 75 20.5 50 50 8.4
5 100 27.5 50 75 12.9
50 100 17.2
 reservoir is largely a matter of choice, depending on the geologi- It should be noted that the formula does not include a number
cal factors governing the site. If clay predominates at the site of of common items in comparative studies such as contingencies,
the dam, an earthen embankment in all probability will be engineering design and supervision, land, diversion of utilities,
adopted, whereas in rocky country a masonry or concrete dam site clearance, access roads and bridges, excavation of unsuit-
would be more suitable. This generalization is not rigid, for on able material, grouting or construction camp accommodation.
the granite of Cornwall in the same valley there is a concrete The first three of these items generally amount to approximately
dam upstream with an earthen embankment downstream. The 25% of the formula cost, but the remainder needs to be priced
earthen embankment usually depends upon a puddled or rolled separately as they are particular to a site.
clay core for watertightness, both in the trench below ground
and in the body of the embankment above ground, although a
concrete-filled cut-off trench was frequently used before grout- [Link] Freeboard
ing techniques were available. It is now generally ruled out on For earthen dams and embankments it is important that the
account of cost and permeable strata are sealed by grouting with 'freeboard', the distance between top-water level and crest,
cement or chemical mixtures from ground level or occasionally should be adequate; it depends on the 'fetch' (the maximum
from a gallery or crest level after completion of construction. distance the water is impounded at right angles to the dam), the
Both upstream and downstream, earthen embankments density of trees and vegetation, the elevation of the site, intensity
depend for stability on adequate drainage by rubble and and direction of wind and, of course, a correct assessment of the
'selected' material (known as 'filters', specially graded to certain floods.27
rules) which is placed against the core or laid in layers in the
ordinary filling. Broken rock, or material containing a large
percentage of broken rock, permits steeper slopes to be adopted; [Link] Design of earth dams
thus for the upstream slope 1 (vertical) in 3 or 4 (horizontal) Some of the basic factors considered in design are:31
might suffice, and for that downstream 1 in 2 or 3; whereas, for
the ordinary clayey materials so common in this country, 1 in 5 (1) To ascertain by site investigation and laboratory testing of
or 6 or more upstream, and 1 in 3 to 5 downstream are common. the materials, available for constructing the dam, preferably
The guiding principle in such embankments is adequate drain- those nearest to the site for economy.
age, as well as the application of the principles of soil mecha- (2) To ascertain the conditions and properties of the strata
nics28 such as tests for shear strength and other properties of under the embankment to resist sliding or slipping.
clays, and deduced slip planes and stability diagrams.29 Bearing (3) To analyse the factor of safety over slipping for the particu-
pressures of the subsoil below the embankment must be known lar dam section by choosing a slip plane or circle through
if the weight of the embankment will be sustained without the probable weakest line of failure in and under the dam.
subsidence. This can now be done by one of several computer programs.

Common slopes of embankments vary between 1:1 and 1:6.

[Link] Cost of earth dams
It is useful to estimate the approximate cost of a dam when
[Link] Slurry trench
carrying out a comparative study of different sites and Mitchell30
has suggested a formula, subsequently modified by Whincap as Certain Bentonite clays or slurries have been used for sinking
follows: dam trenches in soft strata without timbering. The clays have
the effect of remaining liquid when the trench is being dug but
Cost ( sterling) = form a gel or colloid (slightly heavier than water) when not
3.6aLH2 + Q.6bLH2 + [Link] + 66 000//+ 202 000 disturbed which has the effect of keeping the walls of the trench
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) from falling in. Recently, Bentonite cement mixtures have been
used to effect a permanent cutoff seal in porous strata below
where L is the crest length, H is the mean height from ground to embankments as at Bewl Bridge,32 in Kent.
crest (i.e. area of cross-section of valley divided by length of
crest of chard across the valley), D is the mean depth of cutoff
trench (all in metres). [Link] Pore pressure under earth dams
Where embankments are constructed of, or rest on, cohesive
The numbers in brackets below the items in the formula define materials containing water within the pores, a pore pressure is
the different sections as follows: set up within the material when loaded either during construc-
tion or on the subsequent filling of the reservoir. The increase in
(1) Cost of forming the embankment, where a is mean rate per pore pressure leads to a reduction in the shear strength of the
cubic metre. material and a corresponding reduction in the factor of safety
(2) Represents the extra cost of rolled clay core where b is the which can lead to failure of the embankment by slipping. To
rate per cubic metre. (Typical examples indicate that b varies obviate this effect, sloping layers or 'blankets' of drainage
from zero to one-third of a.) material are included in the embankments to enable the pore
(3) Cost of a concrete-filled cutoff trench 2 m wide, c is the rate pressure to be dissipated before it reaches a dangerous level.
per cubic metre; not often required. If rolled clay cutoff A similar effect can be observed by infiltration of ground-
used, included in (2). water and if this is anticipated then relief wells or vertical sand
(4) Cost of stream diversion, overflow and valve shaft. drains should be incorporated under the embankment.
(5) Miscellaneous items such as pipework and valves, access to Pore pressure can be measured by installing piezometers,
valve shaft, reinforcement and steelwork, recording instru- which are ceramic pots sealed in the strata and connected to a
ments. gauge by fine tubes.

Items (4) and (5) are based on typical 1985 values, and appropri-
[Link] Deformation of earth dams
ate 1985 values for factors a, b and c would be 16.50, zero to
5.50 and 124 respectively. Under this term are included the causes of the shapeless early
nineteenth-century embankments often seen before the Safety Curved-on-plan gravity dams are sometimes substituted for
Provisions Act, 1930. straight dams for aesthetic reasons, but the gravity section of the
These include: (1) subsidence of the crest - some have sunk dam cannot be reduced.41
nearly below the overflow top water level; (2) irregular shape of
the embankment due to local slips; and (3) irregular toe lines [Link] Cost of concrete gravity dams31
due to slides. For comparative studies the cost can be illustrated by the
Although sagging of the crest can be remedied by levelling following formula originally devised by Mitchell.
and adding additional material, and irregular shapes and toes
can be regraded and re-aligned, little or nothing is known of Cost =
what is going on in the strata inside a dam and, since it is (0.375xL/f2 + 0.675xL W2 + 0.7SyLD 1 + [Link])2 + 152 000
dangerous to take such measures without analysing the original
cause of the deformation, instruments have been developed to (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
indicate both horizontal and vertical movements.
where H is the mean height from broad foundation to crest in
Horizontal movements can now be measured by vibrations in
metres, i.e. area of cross-section of valley divided by length of
an electrically stimulated wire (embedded between two concrete crest or chord across valley, L is the length of crest, in metres, W
blocks) whose tension varies with the horizontal stress. For the width of dam at crest in metres, Z)1 the mean depth of broad
vertical movements, the relative displacement can be ascertained foundation below ground level in metres and D2 the mean depth
by lowering an induction coil down through a tube connecting of cutoff trench below broad foundation in metres.
two plates, or by various types of instruments using the U-tube
principle. A fuller exposition on instrumentation in earth dams Item (1) Cost of concrete in dam where x is rate per cubic metre
is given by Rofe and Tye.33 For schemes including recent earthen (82.50 at 1985 prices).
embankments, see also works by Hallas and Titford,34 Picken,35 Item (2) Cost of crest road or footpath.
Walters and Walton,36 Kennard and Kennard,37 Kennard and Item (3) Cost of excavating broad foundation where y is rate
Crann.38 per cubic metre (8 at 1985 prices).
Item (4) Cost of concrete-filled cutoff trench 2 m wide where z is
[Link] Compaction of earth and rockfill dams rate per cubic metre (99 at 1985 prices).
In earth dams it is important to have the impervious clay core Item (5) Ancillary works such as pipework and valves, rein-
well compacted either by heavy rollers or light vibrating rollers forcement and steelwork and recording instruments
operating on layers of 250 to 500 m. The 'voids' percentage for water level, overflow and discharge below dam.
should be kept below 5%. The compaction of the rest of the 'fill'
need not be to such a high specification. In a case such as Note: Like the corresponding formula for earth dams, this
Scammonden Dam (height about 8Om) an earth and rockfill formula is intended for comparing a number of sites when
dam near Huddersfield, a special investigation had to be made making a preliminary survey of alternative sources, and does
to ensure minimum settlement because a six-lane motorway not include the other factors described in that context.
goes over the crest.40
For this particular site (consisting of alternating grits, sand-
stones and shales of the Millstone Grit formation) extensive [Link] Buttress and multiple-arch dams
large-scale experiments revealed that the best compaction The buttresses of a buttress dam form part of two adjacent
depended upon: (1) how the rock was quarried; (2) how the halves of two arches (thick) which act as cantilevers and hence if
material was deposited on the embankment; and (3) the best the bearing pressure of one buttress differs relatively from the
type of compacting machines. other, movement may occur at the centre of the arch, where an
expansion joint is (or should be) inserted. The internal but-
tresses of the multiple-arch dam are merely blocks of concrete
28.9.6 Concrete dams acting as abutments for supporting the two halves of two rigid
The adoption of concrete for constructing a dam depends on the (thin) arches. Hence, the foundations for the buttresses of the
topography and geology of the site. The trench, as in the case of multiple-arch dam must have equal bearing capacity to avoid
an earthen embankment, may be filled either with puddled clay fracture of the true thin arches; whereas in those for the buttress
or concrete, depending on the hardness or softness of the strata dam, some inequality is taken care of by the expansion joint
penetrated and the cost of filling it either with clay or concrete. between the two cantilever arms of the buttresses.
Below the trench there may be a necessity for extensive grouting,
to reduce leakage under the dam. The surface for the broad Thin-arch dam. The true thin-arch concrete dam is suitable for
foundation for the superstructure must also be prepared. These the valley which has a good foundation and where the width at
foundation works may cost as much as the superstructure seen the level of the dam crest is not more than 3 times the proposed
above ground. maximum height of the dam.
For a straight gravity concrete dam 30m high, the broad The volume of concrete in an arch dam is about half that in a
foundation would be about 18m wide, and if rock or other comparable gravity dam.
stable formation is not found reasonably near (say 7 m below) Preliminary calculations are directed to finding the thickness /
the surface, considerable expense in foundation work may also in metres of the dam at any depth in terms of the water pressure
be entailed. For a buttress or multiple-arch darn, it would be P (i.e. on a metre strip of dam), and the radius R of the upstream
less, but the strata sustaining the buttresses would have to be face in metres and the compressive strength S. If the abutment
stronger. Most dam failures may be attributed to faulty founda- pressure is greater than the compressive strength of the strata on
tions. which the abutment rests, the concrete should be increased in
Above ground, the gravity dam is so-called because any width.
section can stand by itself because of its weight. Concrete is
generally vibrated, in dam construction particularly, to elimi- Thick-arch dam. The thick-arch dam lies between the thick-
nate air pockets, prevent leakage and increase speed of setting. nesses of the gravity and arch dams. It has been adopted in
Shuttering must be especially well constructed to withstand valleys with chord:height ratios up to 5 or 6. The theory of
vibration during construction. design involves doubtful assumptions, but nevertheless tests on
models seem to confirm that these assumptions are reasonable. values are the same or whether they change over the years. The
The saving in concrete and cost for all arch dams is well relative movement of the strata with the dam can also be found.
worthwhile but the supporting foundation strata must be above
suspicion. Some notable failures have been attributed to inade-
quate treatment of the foundations. 28.9.7 Examples of raised lakes
There are two or three instances of the utilization of natural
Cupola, dome, or double curvature arch dam. This type of dam lakes (other than Thirlmere and Haweswater which have been
is generally suitable for valleys with a chord:height ratio of developed by high dams), the chief of which is Loch Katrine, for
under 3. It is economical in concrete and its strength, for this Glasgow, where the natural surface of the lake has been raised
thickness, is like an eggshell. Calculations are complex but 4.5 m to draw off 1 m below the original natural lake level, the
models for testing to destruction are used with success. Founda- total supply available being about 320 million I/day. Similarly,
tions must be above reproach. the Crummock Lake for Workington has been raised 600 mm;
the drawoff pipe is 2.4 m below this level. This is estimated to
give a gross supply of 59 million I/day. The utilization of existing
[Link] Prestressed concrete dam lakes raises special methods of tunnelling to draw water from
Prestressed concrete dams have been developed and adopted in lower existing levels as well as raising the level of water and at
recent years for economy of concrete where good foundations the same time coping with storm water.
are available. The thin concrete structure is anchored by steel
cables embedded vertically in the concrete of the structure and
with grout inserted in boreholes in hard strata below. 28.9.8 Pumped storage reservoirs
Existing dams have been raised successfully and for this The largest examples of these reservoirs, constructed in Britain
purpose the use of prestressed steel enables the existing structure on clay and with clay cores and supported by any suitable
to be little interfered with beyond drilling vertical boreholes for material nearest the site, are those of the London metropolitan
the prestressed cables to be inserted.42 area. These reservoirs are of the order of 20 m in height and
store water pumped from the Thames during periods of high
flow.
[Link] Special problems concerning concrete dams32

Floods over dams. The precise estimate of floods is not so

important as those for earth dams but nevertheless overtopping 28.10 Desalination43
the crest should not be permitted not only because of the extra
weight of water pressure on the dam but particularly the risk of Desalination should be regarded as a method of treatment to
scouring the strata under the toe, unless these factors are taken remove impurities, particularly salts, from a saline water.
into account in the design of the dam. It is true that an overflow It has come into use at an increasing rate during the last 30 yr;
of 100 m over the Vaiont dam caused no damage to the dam but and in certain circumstances can compete with orthodox sources
the abutments were against hard dolomite limestone. which depend on conventional treatment of water from bore-
holes, impounding reservoirs and river waters. However, gener-
Rock testing by seismic methods. The velocity of sound ally the cost of desalination is at least double the cost of fresh
through rock may give a valuable indication of its state below water sources, and frequently a factor of 10 greater. The
the surface, i.e. whether it is faulted, dry, wet, disturbed, open or variation in cost arises from:
revealing unsuspected faults or whether the density of concrete
foundations is sufficient and the efficiency of grout curtains and (1) The degree of salinity to be treated, e.g. sea water (chlorides
contact grouting particularly for concrete dams which are on 35 000 mg/1), brackish water (5000 down to 500 mg/1, which
rock. is tasteless to most palates).
(2) The location and availability and cost of power, heat,
Pore pressure and uplift. Pore pressure is dangerous under a transport.
concrete dam as the pressure is upward and 'lightens' the dam (3) The selection of plant, i.e. (a) multi-stage flash (MSF) and
tending to turn it over and make it slide. other variations of this distillation plant; (b) electrodialysis
In some cases pore pressure leads to leakage at the toe of the and the somewhat similar reverse osmosis plant; and (c)
dam. In other cases it appears after a few years possibly from several other types used on ships and in factories and other
some kind of clogging and the pressure has to be reduced either special purposes.
by grouting or alternatively by drilling drains under the dam
which, although it increases the leakage, reduces dangerous
uplift. 28.10.1 Multi-stage flash distillation (MSF) (vacuum
separation)
Deformation of dam and strata. Strain gauges embedded in the If sea water is evaporated, steam is condensed as pure water
dam give a measure of any untoward trouble going on in a solid leaving solid salt behind, as in the Dead Sea region. In the
concrete dam. They consist of electrically stimulated vibrating mechanical MSF process the sea water is pumped through a
wires in which any change in vibration speed indicates change of pipe (sufficiently long to ensure that sand is not drawn in during
stress in the dam, indicating degree of movement. rough weather), heated, and passed into a tank under partial or
Other indicators of deformation are surface effects due to reduced vacuum. As water boils at a lower temperature than
weather and temperature for which thermometers are inserted in normal when at a lower pressure (as on a mountain), fresh water
the dam. Although movement of a dam can be ascertained by 'flashes off' as steam which is cooled by incoming pipes con-
elaborate surveying equipment, pendulums and inverted pendu- veying the sea water and condenses to fresh water. This process
lums inserted in boreholes inside the dam measure deformation is repeated in several stages to increase the efficiency. Many
more exactly. problems arise, apart from the multiplicity of pipes, particularly
Pendulums for high dams are used especially for showing the the elimination of alkaline and calcium sulphate scale which can
movement when the reservoir is filled and empty and if these be controlled by the addition of polysulphide, acid, and lime to
increase the pH from 5 to 7. If temperatures could be used above high cost of trunk main laying has led to a reappraisal and has
12O0C the cost could be reduced. indicated that in many cases a greater reliable yield can be
established by using a reservoir for regulation of the river flow
28.10.2 Electrodialysis (membrane-electrode and abstracting direct from the river in its lower reaches, e.g.
Clywedog.46 Similarly, lowland pumped storage reservoirs (e.g.
separation) Grafham Water, Draycote and Empingham) are filled from
If brackish water is pumped through a tank between two low-quality river waters.
membranes on each side of which is a positive electrode and a Therefore, increasing use is made of lowland waters taken
negative electrode, the electropositive sodium will go through from the lower reaches of comparatively slow-moving and
one membrane to the negative electrode and the electronegative turbid rivers. They present far greater problems from the point
chlorine will go through the other membrane to the positive of view of organic and industrial pollution and the treatment
electrode. The water between the membranes, thus denuded of aspect becomes far more complex.
sodium chloride and other salts, is fresh. The method is only Increasing sophistication in the equipment available for auto-
economic for water containing up to about 10 000 mg/1, and for matic control is leading to consideration of continuous monitor-
reductions down to 500 mg/1, a cost of 20 to 5Op per 10001 is ing of raw-water qualities for automatic control of the treatment
incurred (1983). process, and this now becomes established practice.
Operational plants with outputs of up to 22 million I/day have Underground supplies from aquifers such as Limestone,
been installed in the Middle East, and the method is now well Chalk, Sandstone and Greensand are normally biologically
established. pure, but are often very hard and can contain objectionable
levels of iron, manganese, sulphates and chlorides, as well as
excess carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. In some circum-
28.10.3 Reverse osmosis (membrane pressure stances, river gravel can also be used as an underground source,
separation) although this is not necessarily of the same degree of organic or
'Osmosis' may be envisaged as a natural flow of fresh water into biological purity. Although there are large quantities of water in
sea water when in contact with each other; whereas 'reverse old mine workings, it tends to be very high in dissolved solids,
osmosis' acts when pressure is applied to the brine which, when particularly sulphates and chlorides. Boreholes near the coast
pushed through a special membrane such as cellulose acetate, can also suffer from an infiltration of salinity with resultant
causes the fresh water to flow out of the brine for separate use. brackish water.
Several plants are now in operation and act in the same range
as electrodialysis plant. The main disadvantages are the high 28.11.1 Water characteristics
operating pressure and the fine limits involved in production of
the membrane, but most of these problems have been overcome. The main characteristics of a raw water which affect treatment
A further disadvantage is the need for prefiltration and treat- processes are summarized in Table 28.10 follows:
ment to remove excess solids and biological impurities before
the influent can be accepted through the membranes without
early clogging. Table 28.10 Chemical characteristics of raw water
Group Main constituents affecting treatment
28.10.4 Freezing
Two freezing processes are being evaluated - vacuum and Gases Oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
secondary refrigerant - but neither are yet proven in a full-scale sulphide, ammonia
operation. Suspended solids Clays, minerals, siliceous matter,
vegetable debris
Organic matter Organic acids, humus, peat, algae, faecal
matter
28.11 Treatment of water for potable Dissolved solids (a) Hardness salts:
supply4445 Permanent - calcium and magnesium
sulphates, nitrates and chlorides
The type of treatment required varies considerably according to Temporary - calcium and magnesium
the source of supply of the raw water, whether it be a surface bicarbonates
water or from underground sources. (b) Nonhardness salts:
Surface waters may be divided into upland and lowland sodium sulphates, chlorides, nitrates
sources. Except in the case of very small supplies, upland waters or bicarbonates
are usually impounded in the catchment area and are good-
quality waters, low in dissolved solids and with little organic A range of possible treatments for different characteristics of
contamination from the biological point of view, although they the raw water is summarized in Table 28.11.
are frequently high in organic colour due to deposits of peat and The processes given in Table 28.11 are associated with the
can also contain, particularly in the Pennine area, iron, manga- appropriate sedimentation and filtration plant and techniques.
nese, and aluminium in solution. The full range of treatment for a poor-quality lowland river
Although impounded water is generally of good quality it can water may include storage, algal control, aeration, pH control,
be subject to disturbance due to stratification, thermal turnover coagulation, precipitation softening, flocculation, sedimen-
if the water is deep, or by surface winds and flash runoff if the tation, filtration, chlorination, dechlorination, pH adjustment,
water is shallow. In these circumstances there is a marked and and taste control.
often very sudden deterioration in the quality of the water and, The range of chemicals commonly used in treatment pro-
although this may be for only a short duration, it must be given cesses is summarized in Table 28.12.
full consideration when a treatment plant is being considered. The basic principles adopted in each stage of these treatment
The increasing demands being made on upland sources, the processes are briefly described in the following, with typical
difficulty of finding suitable reservoir sites and the extremely examples.
Table 28.11 Range of treatments for different characteristics Table 28.12 Chemicals commonly used in water treatment
Characteristics Possible treatment Substance Formula Purpose
Gases Aeration Activated carbon C Taste and odour
Dissolved impurities Precipitation - (oxidation) control
Suspended matter Coagulation, settlement Aluminium sulphate
Colloidal matter Coagulation (alum) Al2(SOJ3 Coagulant
Colour Coagulation, activated carbon, ozone, Ammonia NH3 With chlorine for
chlorine sterilization
Odour Aeration, activated carbon Ammonium sulphate (NHJ2SO4 A source of ammonia
Taste Activated carbon, chlorine, chlorine for chloramine
dioxide, ozone Calcium carbonate
Acidity /free carbon Aeration, control by alkali (chalk) CaCO3 A source of bicarbonate
dioxide alkalinity
Hardness Lime and/or soda precipitation, or Calcium hydroxide
ion exchange methods (slaked lime) Ca(OH)2 Softening and pH
Iron and manganese Aeration, precipitation and filtration control
with iron-removal media Calcium hypochlorite
Other metals Coagulation and precipitation (bleach powder) Ca(OCl)Cl Disinfection
Salinity (brackish) Distillation, demineralization, reverse Calcium oxide (quick
osmosis, freezing or burnt lime) CaO Softening and pH
Oil Flotation, coagulation control
Algae Straining, copper sulphate, chlorine, Chlorine Cl2 Disinfection
cuprichloramine Chlorine dioxide ClO2 Disinfection, taste and
Biological impurities Storage, chlorine, chloramine, ozone, odour removal
ultraviolet light Copper sulphate
Industrial pollution Combination of above as required (bluestone) CuS044H20 Algal control
Ferrous sulphate
(copperas) FeSO4TH2O Coagulant
Ferric chloride FeCl3 Coagulant
28.11.2 Storage
Ozone O3 Disinfection, taste,
For a scheme using direct river abstraction a raw-water storage odour and colour
of 7 days is recommended to allow for settlement of heavy silt removal
load to even out any rapid changes in water quality and to allow Potassium
for rejection of water containing accidental and heavy pollution permanganate KMnO4 Removal of iron,
(in, for example, Oxford47 and Nottingham48). manganese, algal
control
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4 Coagulant
28.11.3 Algae Sodium carbonate
The growth of severe blooms of algae which would interfere (soda ash) Na2CO3 Removal of permanent
with the treatment process can be inhibited by the use of an hardness and pH
algicide (e.g. copper sulphate) and the exclusion of direct control
sunlight. Sodium chloride
(common salt) NaCl Regeneration of zeolites
28.11.4 Aeration Sodium hypochlorite
(Chloros or
The level of dissolved gases can be reduced substantially by an Voxsan) NaOCl Disinfection
aeration system which in the order of ascending efficiency takes Sulphur dioxide SO2 Dechlorination
the form of cascades, sprays, and induced draft towers. If the
water is particularly 'flat' in appearance the level of oxygen can
be increased and the appearance of the water enhanced by
similar means (in, for example, Ardleigh49 and Oxford). 28.11.6 pH control
For efficient coagulation the pH value is critical and as the pH
of the water with the added coagulant is unlikely to be at the
28.11.5 Coagulation required level it is necessary to correct this by the addition of
Any raw water containing colour or finely divided suspended acid or alkali, preferably under automatic control. Variation of
solids needs the addition of a coagulant to neutralize the pH from the level necessary for optimum coagulation can
electrical charges causing dispersion and induce the impurities produce light fluffy and fragile floes and high residual dissolved
to coalesce and flocculate. This process is often assisted by slow- coagulant (as, for example, in Bradford and Londonderry50).
speed agitation to increase the collision between the particles.
Normally, the reagents are delivered by road vehicle and taken
into bulk storage at the treatment works. The method of adding 28.11.7 Precipitation
the coagulant most usually adopted is the use of positive In any treatment process whch includes coagulation and sedi-
displacement ram-type metering pumps which can be controlled mentation it is possible to precipitate the hardness salts by the
easily to vary the dose according to the treatment flow and, if addition of lime and/or soda and the precipitated salts are
required, to the water quality (as, for example, in Colchester and effectively removed in the general system and can in some
Swansea). circumstances increase the efficiency of the treatment although
inevitably producing an increase in the volume of sludge to be relative to the hydraulic gradient can determine which method is
discharged from the works (in, for example, northeast Lincoln- preferable. Where large flows are being considered the gravity-
shire51 and Sheffield52). type filter does not have the same restriction on the size of
individual units and it is unusual to follow sedimentation,
requiring open-topped type tankwork, by pressure filters (as, for
28.11.8 Mixing example, in the Lune Valley, West Glamorgan53).
As the volume of reagent is small compared with the volume of Filtration technique is currently going through a period of
water being treated it is critical to ensure that the chemical is change with advocates for downward, upward and sideways
fully dispersed into the body of the water and also that the flow, for deep beds and shallow beds, for single media, multi-
reagents are added in the correct sequence according to the media, and multi-layer media.
chemical requirements. Reagents can be diluted to ease the All these variations have some application, however limited,
mixing problem, this is really two-stage mixing, and are then and provide filtration in the depth of the bed rather than on the
added in an area of turbulence induced either hydraulically or surface, with a greatly increased efficiency. Although there is
mechanically: hydraulically in the nappe of a weir or the very little, if any, long-term operating experience on some of the
standing wave of a Venturi flume or mechanically by high-speed designs, the use of a two-layer downflow filter with a top
mixing and sometimes by a pumped recirculating system (as, for stratum of graded anthracite resting on a shallower layer of
example, in Bristol53). conventional sand is a system that has been in use for a number
of years in the UK and in gaining support as it has been proved
that filter ratings can be increased and the length of filter runs
28.11.9 Flocculation
extended.
After the reagents have been added and fully mixed it is normal
to induce flocculation by passing the water through an area of
slow agitation which, again, can be induced either hydraulically 28.11.12 Backwashing
or mechanically (as, for example, in north Derbyshire). Air for expanding and scouring the filter bed is normally
provided by electrically driven blowers delivering large volumes
28.11.10 Sedimentation of air at relatively low pressure direct to the induction system
which is usually the underdrain system used for collecting the
In its simplest form, sedimentation is the use of tanks giving a filtrate. Wash water is most often provided by direct pumping to
retention time that is long enough for the floe particles to settle the same common induction system (as, for example, in Wake-
and compact into sludge on the bottom of the tank, from which field54).
point the solids are discharged for disposal and the settled water
is decanted to the following filters. However carefully such tanks
are designed, the physical retention seldom exceeds 40% of the 28.11.13 Chlorination
nominal retention and this has led to the development of the After the water has been clarified satisfactorily it is still neces-
upflow type of treatment unit. After a flocculation zone the sary, if it is to become potable, for it to be fully disinfected, and
water is induced to flow vertically upwards through an area of chlorine is the most usual reagent for this duty. It is normally
suspended sludge where the floe particles have a large area of delivered as a liquid under pressure in either cylinders or drums,
contact which greatly assists in the formation of denser agglo- depending on the quantity required, and in some of the largest
merates. Such tanks are designed so that the sludge can be installations it is being delivered by bulk tanker and transferred
withdrawn at the rate at which it is forming and provide a stable into storage vessels at the treatment plant.
process that can be controlled over a varying range of duties. As it is considered prudent to carry a chlorine residual into
Construction can be in either steel or concrete, with the units the reticulation system as a measure of safety this has to be
either square or circular in plan, and as the capacities of controlled at a level low enough to be unobjectionable to the
treatment works increase it is generally more economical to consumer. Current practice is often to dose above the chlorine
consider a smaller number of circular-type tanks (as, for ex- demand of the water and to control the residual passing into
ample, in Bradford in the Derwent Valley). supply by adding sulphur dioxide to neutralize any excess.
Sulphur dioxide is handled as a liquid under pressure in exactly
28.11.11 Filtration the same way as chlorine and the dosing is normally under
automatic control to ensure that the final chlorine residual is
After coagulation and sedimentation, the water still retains a maintained at the correct level (as, for example, in West Surrey).
quantity of suspended matter which is removed by filtration. It
should be noted that the filtration process associated with the
treatments being described is that known as 'rapid' as distinct 28.11.14 pH adjustment
from slow-sand filtration which is a biological process comple- Depending on the treatment adopted, the final water is unlikely
tely in itself. to be at the pH required for distribution purposes and will need
The settled water passes through a layer of comparatively fine correction by the addition of acid or alkali. At the same time it is
and specially graded sand supported on underbeds of graded important to correct any undue corrosive tendencies which may
pebbles with a piped header and lateral under-drain system, or be inherent in the treated water (see, for example, descriptions
supported on a flat floor with a system of closely spaced nozzles. of works at Bedford55 and in north Devon56).
In either design the clean water is collected from the base of the
filter and as the resistance to flow increases, in proportion to the
quantity of intercepted matter building up, the filter bed is 28.11.15 Taste control
cleaned, first by expanding the compacted bed, usually by the Taste which is objectionable as far as the consumer is concerned
application of an air scour, which effectively loosens the inter- can be present in the raw water or can develop during the
cepted impurities which are then flushed out to waste by a treatment process and activated carbon is often used to absorb
reverse flow of water. the elements that are responsible. It can be added as a powder
The filter bed can be contained equally well in a steel pressure before the sedimentation process and removed with the sludge,
vessel or an open-topped gravity tank and the siting of the plant directly as a powder or granule on to the filter beds and removed
with the washwater, or as a granular filter medium in a separate 18 Walters, R. C. S. (1929) 'Hydro-geology of Chalk.' J. Instn. W.
filtration stage added to the end of the clarification treatment. In Engrg, 34, 79.
the first two applications the carbon is not recovered but if it is 19 Walters, R. C. S. (1936) 'Oolites.' /. Instn. W. Engrg, 41, 134.
20 Ineson, J. (1970) 'Development of groundwater resources in
used as an additional filtration unit it can either be regenerated
England and Wales.' J. Instn. W. Engrg, 24, 155.
on site or returned to the manufacturer for this purpose (as, for 21 Rofe, B. H., Durrant, P. S. and Egerton, R. H. L. (1977) 'Some
example, in east Surrey57 and Oxford47). aspects of the use and management of groundwater resources.' J.
Instn. W. Engrs and Scientists, 31.
22 Penman, H. L. (1954) Evaporation over the British Isles. Institution
28.11.16 Waste products of Water Engineering, London.
Whatever the process used for clarification, or precipitation 23 Armstrong, R. B. and Clarke, K. F. (1972) 'Water resource
softening, the impurities removed are concentrated in the form planning in SE England.' J. Instn W. Engrg, 26, 11.
24 Lapworth, C. F. (1949) 'Reservoir storage and yield.' /. Instn W.
of a sludge which under the best operating conditions is unlikely
Engrg, 3, 269.
to be less than 95% water. In this form it can be fed to a filter 25 Mansell-Moulin, M. (1966) Flow frequency curves for design of
press, or possibly a centrifuge for a softening sludge, to produce catchwaters. Institution of Water Engineering, London.
a dry solid suitable for mechanical handling and disposal. The 26 National Environmental Research Council (1975) Flood studies
filtrate, or centrate, has to be disposed of as a liquor. report.
In a few cases, attention is being given to the possibility of 27 Institution of Civil Engineers (1978) Floods and reservoir
treating the sludge with acid to recover the coagulant but this safety - an engineering guide. Thomas Telford, London.
process is not yet proven as commercially viable (as, for 28 Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R. B. (1967) Soil mechanics in engineering
practice. New York.
example, in the Fylde, mid Northamptonshire).
29 Bishop, W. A. (1955) The use of the slipcircle in stability analysis
Sludge disposal in waterworks is not such a problem as of slopes.' Geotechnique, 5, 7.
sewage sludge. Local conditions can normally cope with the 30 Mitchell, P. B. (1951) 'Reservoir site investigation and economics.'
smaller quantities of waterworks sludge by distributing it on J. Instn W. Engrg, 5, 445.
land, quarries, pits, river or sea which may be, and generally are, 31 Walters, R. C. S. (1973) Dam geology. (Appendices by J. L. Knill).
available. Butterworths, London.
Transport of sludge should be in closed containers in hilly 32 Kennard, M. F. and Eden, W. H. (1978) Bewl Bridge Reservoir:
districts, otherwise there is loss of sludge from well-filled open- design and construction. Thomas Telford, London.
33 Rofe, B. H. and Tye, P. F. (1971) 'Application of instrumentation
top vehicles!
to earth dams.' J. Instn W. Engrg, 25, 157.
34 Hallas, P. S. and Titford, A. R. (1971) 'Design and construction
of Bough Beech Reservoir.' J. Instn W. Engrg, 25, 293.
35 Picken, J. A. (1957) The Chew Stoke Reservoir scheme.' J. Instn
W. Engrg, 11, 33.
References 36 Walters, R. C. S. and Walton, R. J. C. (1957) 'Water supply for
the Yeovil District (Sutton Bingham Scheme).' Proc. Instn Civ.
1 Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists (1979) The structure Engrs, 8, 71.
and management of the British water industry.' Water practice 37 Kennard, J. and Kennard, M. F. (1962) 'Selset Reservoir.' Proc.
manuals, Book 1, p. 19. Instn Civ. Engrs, 21, 277.
2 Phillips, J. H. (1983) 'Water usage and the quantification of 38 Kennard, M. F. (1963) 'Balderhead Reservoir.' Civ. Engng. &
unaccounted water in a universally metered supply area.' J. Instn Publ. Wks Rev., 58, 633.
W. Engrg, 37, 4. 39 Crann, H. H. (1968) 'Design and construction of Llyn Celyn.' /.
3 Sharp, R. G. (1967) 'Estimation of future demand on water Instn W. Engrg, 22, 13.
resources in Britain.' /. Instn W. Engrg 21, 232. 40 Williams, H. and Stothard, J. N. (1967) 'Rock excavation and
4 Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1967) Watercress specification trials for the Lancashire-Yorkshire
growing. Ministry of Agriculture Bulletin No. 136. HMSO. motorway - Yorkshire (West Riding) section.' Proc. Instn Civ.
5 Klein, R. L. (1959) The use of asbestos-cement pressure pipes in Engrs, 37, 607 and Discussion, 38, 135.
water supply practice.' W. & W. Engrg, 63, 356. 41 Farrar, R. E. S. (1972) 'Meldon Reservoir.' Civ. Engng & Publ.
6 National Water Council (1980) Leakage control policy and Wks Rev., 67, 895.
practice. NWC. 42 Water and Water Engineering (1961) The heightening of Argal
7 Hydraulics Research Station, Hydraulic Design Charts Nos 1, 2 Dam for the Falmouth Corporation Water Undertaking.' W. &
and 4. W. Engrg, 65, 537.
8 Hayton, J. G. (1964) The use of polythene sleeving as a form of 43 Silver, R. S. (1967) Desalination. HMSO, London.
protection to spun iron water mains against external corrosion.' J. 44 Skeat, W. O. (ed.) (1969) Manual of British water engineering
Instn W. Engrg, 18, 465. practice, 4th edn, vol. 3, Institution of Water Engineers.
9 Young, O. C. and Smith, J. H. (1970) Simplified tables of external 45 Holden, W. S. (ed.) (1970) Water treatment and examination.
loads on buried pipelines. Building Research Establishment, Churchill.
Garston. 46 Fordham, A. E., Cochrane, N. J., Kretschmer, J. M. and Baxter,
10 Hydraulics Research Station (1983) Charts for the design channels R. S. (1970) The Clywedog Reservoir project.' /. Instn W. Engrg,
and pipes. HRS. 24, 17.
11 Lea, F. C. (1938) Hydraulics. Edward Arnold. 47 Cartwright, F. (1964) 'Design of Farmoor Treatment Works,
12 Lapworth. C. F. (1944) Surge control in pipelines. /. Instn W. Oxford Corporation Water Department.' /. Instn W. Engrg, 18,
Engrg, 49, 29. 381.
13 Lupton, H. R. (1953) 'Graphical analysis of pressure surge in 48 Adams, R. W., Robinson, R. D. and Kennett, C. A. (1973) The
pumping systems.' /. Instn W. Engrg, 7, 87. River Derwent Scheme of the Nottingham Corporation.' J. Instn
14 Thorley, A. R. D. and Enever, K. J. (1979) Control and W. Engrg, 27, 15.
suppression of pressure surges in pipes and tunnels. Construction 49 Water and Water Engineering (1972) The Ardleigh Reservoir
Industry Research and Information Association Report No. 84, Scheme in North-East Essex.' W. & W. Engrg, 76, 3.
CIRIA, London. 50 Wilcock, E. J. and Sard, B. A. (1964) 'Design and operation of
15 Crump, E. S. (1952) 'A new method of gauging flow.' Proc. Instn. the Carmoney Water Treatment Works: Faughan River
Civ. Engrs, 1, 749. scheme - Londonderry RDC.' J. Instn. W. Engrg, 18, 477.
16 Water Resources Board (1970) Crump weir design. WRB 51 Ashe, R. V. (1966) The Great Eau scheme: North-east
Technical Note No. 8, Lincolnshire Water Board.' /. Instn. W. Engrg, 20, 435.
17 British Geological Survey (n.d.) Geological survey maps and 52 Earnshaw, F. (1962) 'Design of the Yorkshire Derwent
memoirs. British Geological Survey, London. head works.' J. Instn. W. Engrg, 16, 139.
53 Water and Water Engineering (1955) 'The Usk Reservoir Scheme Bibliography
of the Swansea Corporation.' W. & W. Engrg, 59, 377.
54 Collins, P. G. M. and Gibb, O. (1964) 'Design and construction of General Water Supply
the Fixby Treatment Works of the Wakefield and District Water The journals of the Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists
Board.' J. Instn. W. Engrg, 18, 491. (IWES).
55 Water and Water Engineering (1959) 'New water treatment works The Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE).
of the Borough of Bedford Water Undertaking.' W. & W. Engrg, Institution of Water Engineering (1969) Manual of British water
63,61. engineering practice. IWE, London.
56 Water and Water Engineering (1972) The Meldon Reservoir Twort, A. C., Hoather, R. C. and Law, F. M. (1974) Water supply.
scheme of the North Devon Water Board.' W. & W. Engrg, 76, Arnold, London.
353. Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists (1983) Water practice
57 Shinner, J. S. and Davison, A. S. (1971) The development of manual, Book 3: 'Water supply and sanitation in developing countries.'
Bough Beech as a source of supply (The East Surrey Water IWES, London.
Company).' /. Instn. W. Engrg, 25, 243.