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CONFESSION PAGE
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
“We recognize this work is the result of our own except for quotation and a summary of
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Name : Che Nurul Azieana Binti Che Yang
Date : 16th April 2010.
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Name : Nor Atirah binti Mohd Rapingi
Date : 16th April 2010.
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Name : Madhihah binti Nordin
Date : 16th April 2010.
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
NAME : CHE NURUL AZIEANA BT CHE YANG
[Link] : 901227-01-5580
DATE OF BIRTH : 27TH DECEMBER 1990
PLACE OF BIRTH : KLUANG, JOHOR
ADDRESS : NO 146, JLN SRI WANGI, TMN SULIANA, SIKAMAT 70400
SEREMBAN, NEGERI SEMBILAN.
GROUP : 2PPISMP (MATH 1)
[Link] : 013-6962093
HOBBY : LISTENING TO MUSIC
AMBITION : LECTURER
EDUCATION : [Link] PAROI JAYA,
[Link]’ [Link] REDZA,
[Link] AMPANGAN
JOHOR MATRICULATION COLLEGE
FATHER’S NAME : CHE YANG BIN [Link]
OCCUPATION : RETIRED SOLDIER
MOTHER’S NAME : NORMALA BT ZAINOL ABIDIN
OCCUPATION : HOUSEWIFE
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NAME : NOR ATIRAH BINTI MOHD RAPINGI
[Link] : 910526-02-5644
DATE OF BIRTH : 26TH MAY 1991
PLACE OF BIRTH : LANGKAWI, KEDAH
ADDRESS : PS 41, KAMPUNG PADANG KANDANG, MKM PADANG MATSIRAT,
07100, LANGKAWI, KEDAH
GROUP : 2PPISMP (MATH 1)
[Link] : 013-2036494
HOBBY : ARCHERY
AMBITION : LECTURER
EDUCATION : [Link] TERIANG
[Link]. AGAMA PERSEKUTUAN KAJANG
KUALA NERANG MARA MATRICULATION COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY MALAYA
FATHER’S NAME : MOHD RAPINGI BIN YUSOF
OCCUPATION : TEACHER
MOTHER’S NAME : HAPISHAH BINTI YOM
OCCUPATION : HOUSEWIFE
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
NAME : MADHIHAH BINTI NORDIN
[Link] : 910901- 14-6368
DATE OF BIRTH : 01st SEPTEMBER 1991
PLACE OF BIRTH : KLUANG, JOHOR
ADDRESS : G-06-01, QUARTERS PERKHIDMATAN AWAM, NO 1, JALAN
DUTAMAS 3, 50480,KUALA LUMPUR.
GROUP : 2 PPISMP (MATH 1)
[Link] : 017-6316562
HOBBY : LISTENING TO MUSIC
AMBITION : LECTURER
EDUCATION : SEK REN CONVENT SENTUL 2
SEK MEN CONVENT
SEK MEN SAINS SERI PUTERI
FATHER’S NAME : NORDIN BIN YUSOF
OCCUPATION : PUBLIC ADMINISTRATOR
MOTHER’S NAME : NOOR AZIZAH BINTI AHMAD
OCCUPATION : CUSTOMER SERVICE
OFFICER IMR
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
CONTENT
BIL CONTENT PAGES
1 CONFESSION PAGE
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
2 QUESTION
3 PROFILE
4 CONTENT
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
6 INTRODUCTION
7 ANALYSIS
8 CONCLUSION
9 COLLABORATION FORM
10 APPENDICES
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
First of all, we would like to thank God that after all the hardship that we need to face
up; we manage to complete the assignment in the time given by the topic of matrices.
We are really appreciated those who lend their hand, give fantastic idea and share
their fabulous opinion especially Madam Norehan, our Mathematics’ lecturer that always
guide us in order to complete this assignment. She always makes sure all of us are
understand what the task craved.
Besides that, we also would like to thank our precious parents and families that
always are with us in hardship or happy time and always support and give advice to ensure
all of us are not give up although there are many obstacles.
Credits also for our beloved friends that let us share the information and help each
other to make sure all of us made assignment that follow the instructions. Not forgotten
each our group members that always give full commitment and cooperation.
So, we are really appreciating all the effort those who help us whether their name was
mentioned or not.
Thank you.
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
INTRODUCTION
Statistics is the science of making effective use of numerical data relating to groups
of individuals or experiments. It deals with all aspects of this, including not only the
collection, analysis and interpretation of such data, but also the planning of the collection of
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
data, in terms of the design of surveys and experiments. There is also a discipline called
‘mathematical statistics’, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject .
Statistics arose, no later than the 18th century, from the need of states to collect data
on their people and economies, in order to administer them. Its meaning broadened in the
early 19th century to include the collection and analysis of data in general. Today statistics
is widely employed in government, business, and the natural and social sciences. Because
of its origins in government and its data-centric world view, statistics is considered to be not
a subfield of mathematics but rather a distinct field that uses mathematics; some class it as
a sister formal science. Its mathematical foundations were laid in the 17th and 18th
centuries with the development of probability theory. The method of least squares was
invented around the turn of the 19th century by several authors. Since then new techniques
of probability and statistics have been in continual development. Modern computers have
expedited large-scale statistical computation, and have also made possible new methods
that would be impractical to perform manually.
The term statistics is ultimately derived from the New Latin
statisticum collegium ("council of state") and the Italian word
statista ("statesman" or "politician"). The German Statistik, first
introduced by Gottfried Achenwall (1749), originally designated
the analysis of data about the state, signifying the "science of
state" (then called political arithmetic in English). It acquired the
meaning of the collection and classification of data generally in
the early 19th century. It was introduced into English by Sir John
[Link], the original principal purpose of Statistik was data to be
used by governmental and (often centralized) administrative bodies. The collection of data
about states and localities continues, largely through national and international statistical
services. In particular, censuses provide regular information about the population.
The mathematical methods of statistics emerged from probability theory, which can
be dated to the correspondence of Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal (1654). Christiaan
Huygens (1657) gave the earliest known scientific treatment of the subject. Jakob
Bernoulli's Ars Conjectandi (posthumous, 1713) and Abraham de Moivre's The Doctrine of
Chances (1718) treated the subject as a branch of mathematics. In the modern era, the
work of Kolmogorov has been instrumental in formulating the fundamental
Christiaanmodel of
Huygens
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
Probability Theory, which is used throughout statistics. The theory of errors may be traced
back to Roger Cotes' Opera Miscellanea (posthumous, 1722), but a memoir prepared by
Thomas Simpson in 1755 (printed 1756) first applied the theory to the discussion of errors
of observation. The reprint (1757) of this memoir lays down the axioms that positive and
negative errors are equally probable, and that there are certain assignable limits within
which all errors may be supposed to fall; continuous errors are discussed and a probability
curve is given.
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1774) made the first attempt to deduce a rule for the
combination of observations from the principles of the
theory of probabilities. He represented the law of probability
of errors by a curve. He deduced a formula for the mean of
three observations. He also gave (1781) a formula for the
law of facility of error (a term due to Joseph Louis
Lagrange, 1774), but one which led to unmanageable
equations. Daniel Bernoulli (1778) introduced the principle
of the maximum product of the probabilities of a system of
concurrent errors. The method of least squares, which was
Pierre-Simon Laplace used to minimize errors in data measurement, was
published independently by Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805),
Robert Adrain (1808), and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1809).
Gauss had used the method in his famous 1801 prediction of the location of the dwarf
planet Ceres. Further proofs were given by Laplace (1810, 1812), Gauss (1823), Ivory
(1825, 1826), Hagen (1837), Bessel (1838), Donkin (1844, 1856), Herschel (1850), Crofton
(1870), and Thiele (1880, 1889).Other contributors were Ellis (1844), De Morgan (1864),
Glaisher (1872), and Giovanni Schiaparelli (1875). Peters's (1856) formula for r, the
"probable error" of a single observation was widely used and inspired early robust statistics
(resistant to outliers).
In the nineteenth century authors on statistical theory included
Laplace, S. Lacroix (1816), Littrow (1833), Dedekind (1860), Helmert
(1872), Laurant (1873), Liagre, Didion, De Morgan, Boole, Edgeworth,
and K. [Link] Quetelet (1796-1874), another important
founder of statistics, introduced the notion of the "average man"
(l'homme moyen) as a means of understanding complex social
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
phenomena such as crime rates, marriage rates, or suicide [Link] S. Peirce (1839--
1914) formulated frequenters theories of estimation and hypothesis-testing in (1877--1878)
and (1883), in which he introduced "confidence". Peirce also introduced blinded, controlled
randomized experiments with a repeated measures design. Peirce invented an optimal
design for experiments on gravity.
Charles S. Peirce
The word statistics can either be singular or plural. In its singular form, a statistic is a
quantity (such as a mean) calculated from a set of data, whereas statistics is the
mathematical science discussed in this article. Statistics always related to the graph. For
example, bar graph, histogram, pie chart, frequency polygon and histogram.
In statistics, a histogram is a graphical display of tabular frequencies, shown as
adjacent rectangles. Each rectangle is erected over an interval, with an area equal to the
frequency of the interval. The height of a rectangle is also equal to the frequency density of
the interval, i.e. the frequency divided by the width of the interval. The total area of the
histogram is equal to the number of data. A histogram may also be based on the relative
frequencies instead. It then shows what proportion of cases fall into each of several
categories (a form of data binning), and the total area then equals 1. The categories are
usually specified as consecutive, non-overlapping intervals of some variable. The
categories (intervals) must be adjacent, and often are chosen to be of the same size, [1] but
not necessarily so.
Histograms are used to plot density of data, and often for density estimation:
estimating the probability density function of the underlying variable. The total area of a
histogram used for probability density is always normalized to 1. If the lengths of the
intervals on the x-axis are all 1, then a histogram is identical to a relative frequency plot.
An alternative to the histogram is kernel density estimation, which uses a kernel to smooth
samples. This will construct a smooth probability density function, which will in general more
accurately reflect the underlying variable. The histogram is one of the seven basic tools of
quality control.
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
DIAGRAM 1.0 : EXAMPLE OF HISTOGRAM
A bar chart or bar graph is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths proportional
to the values that they represent. The bars can also be plotted horizontally.
Bar charts are used for plotting discrete (or 'discontinuous') data i.e. data which has
discrete values and is not continuous. Some examples of discontinuous data include 'shoe
size' or 'eye colour', for which you would use a bar chart. In contrast, some examples of
continuous data would be 'height' or 'weight'. A bar chart is very useful if you are trying to
record certain information whether it is continuous or not continuous data.
A pie chart (or a circle graph) is circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating
DIAGRAM 1.1 : EXAMPLE OF BAR CHART
proportion. In a pie chart, the arc length of each sector (and consequently its central angle
and area), is proportional to the quantity it represents. Together, the sectors create a full
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
disk. It is named for its resemblance to a pie which has been sliced. The earliest known pie
chart is generally credited to William Playfair's Statistical Breviary of 1801.
The pie chart is perhaps the most ubiquitous statistical chart in the business world
and the mass media. It can also help people do work. However, it has been criticized, and
some recommend avoiding it, pointing out in particular that it is difficult to compare different
sections of a given pie chart, or to compare data across different pie charts. Pie charts can
be an effective way of displaying information in some cases, in particular if the intent is to
compare the size of a slice with the whole pie, rather than comparing the slices among
them. Pie charts work particularly well when the slices represent 25 to 50% of the data, but
in general, other plots such as the bar chart or the dot plot, or non-graphical methods such
as tables, may be more adapted for representing certain information.
DIAGRAM 1.2 : EXAMPLE OF PIE CHART
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
A frequency polygon shows approximately the smooth curve that would describe a
frequency distribution if the class intervals were made as small as possible and the
numbers of observations were very large. The very common bell curve used to represent a
normal distribution is an idealized, smoothed frequency polygon.
One way to form a frequency polygon is to connect the midpoints at the top of the
bars of a histogram with line segments (or a smooth curve). Of course the midpoints
themselves could easily be plotted without the histogram and be joined by line segments.
Sometimes it is beneficial to show the histogram and frequency polygon together.
Unlike histograms, frequency polygons can be superimposed so as to compare
several frequency distributions.
DIAGRAM 1.4 : EXAMPLE OF FREQUENCY POLYGON
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
CONCLUSION
Statistics is the science of making effective use of numerical data relating to groups
of individuals or experiments. It deals with all aspects of this, including not only the
BASIC MATHEMATICS [S T A T I S T I C S]
collection, analysis and interpretation of such data, but also the planning of the collection of
data, in terms of the design of surveys and experiments. In this assignment, the data
collection is about the siblings among 40 students out of whole students of one of the
college.
From this data collected, there is represented using bar graph, histogram,
frequency polygon and pie chart. The data was represented using these graphs to make it
easier to read by the statistician. Statistician will get many data when the data is
representing using visual representative. One of them is mode. Mode is the higher number
of the data. When the data is representing using bar graph or histogram, it is very clear and
easier to know the mode. Just take the higher one. Other than that, visual representative
also can help statistician easy to find mean and median.
In the other hand, by using data representative we can get a lot of information from
the data. We will get the highest, the higher, the lower and the lowest number of the data
that we are collect. From the graph also we will get doubled or triple data rather than just
using tabled representation or raw data. The information we are collected from the visual
representative are stayed at the page in front in analysis.
Last but not least, we want to highlight that visual representative is very important in
statistics. This is because a list of raw data may be difficult to interpret; psychologists prefer
to represent their data in an organized way. Two of the most common ways are frequency
distributions and graphs. There are many types of visual representative of data in statistics
such as histogram, bar chart, pie chart, line graph, frequency polygon and others. So,
choose what is suitable for your data and make it easier.
