Introduction
Knowledge of formation pressures is vital to the safe planning of a well. Accurate values of
formation pressures are used to design safe mud weights to overcome fracturing the formation
and prevent well kicks. The process of designing and selection of casing weights/grades is
predominately dependent on the utilisation of accurate values of formation pressure.
Cementing design, kick control, selection of wellhead and Xmas trees and even the rig rating
are dependent on the formation pressures encountered in the well.
Definitions
All formations penetrated during the drilling of a well contain pressure which may vary in
magnitude depending on depth, location and proximity to other structures. In order to
understand the nature, extent and origin of formation pressures, it is necessary to define and
explain basic wellbore pressure concepts.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
Hydrostatic pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a column of fluid. The pressure is a
function of the average fluid density and the vertical height or depth of the fluid column.
Mathematically, hydrostatic pressure is expressed as:
HP = g x ρf x D
where:
HP = hydrostatic pressure
g = gravitational acceleration
ρf = average fluid density
D = true vertical depth or height of the column
In field operations, the fluid density is usually expressed in pounds per gallon (ppg), psi per
foot, pounds per cubic foot (ppf) or as specific gravity (SG).
In the Imperial system of units, when fluid density is expressed in ppg (pounds/gallon) and
depth in feet, the hydrostatic pressure is expressed in psi (lb/in2):
HP (psi) = 0.052 x ρf (ppg) x D (ft)
For the purposes of interpretation, all wellbore pressures, such as formation pressure, fracture
pressure, fluid density and overburden pressure, are measured in terms of hydrostatic pressure.
When planning or drilling a well it is often more convenient to refer to hydrostatic pressures in
terms of a pressure gradient. A pressure gradient is the rate of increase in pressure per unit
vertical depth i.e., psi per foot (psi/ft). It should be noted that fluid densities, measured in ppg
or SG, are also gradients.
Hydrostatic pressures can easily be converted to equivalent mud weights and pressure
gradients. Hydrostatic pressure gradient is given by:
HG = HP / D … (psi/ft)
It is usual to convert wellbore pressures to gradients relative to a fixed datum, such as seabed,
mean sea level or ground level. The resulting figure (pressure gradient) allows direct
comparison of pore pressures, fracture pressures, overburden pressures, mud weights and
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) on the same basis. In addition the use of pressure
gradients accentuates variations in pressure regimes in a given area when values are plotted or
tabulated.
When pressure gradients are used to express magnitudes of wellbore pressure, it is usual to
record these as Equivalent Mud Weight (EMW) in ppg.
Example 1.1: Hydrostatic Pressure
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure for the following wells:
a. mud weight = 9 ppg, hole depth = 10100 ft MD (measured depth), 9900 ft TVD (true vertical
depth)
b. mud gradient = 0.468 psi / ft, hole depth = 10100 ft MD (measured depth), 9900 ft TVD
(true vertical depth)
Solution
a. From Equation (1.2):
HP (psi) = 0.052 x ρf (ppg) x D (ft) = 0.052 x 9 x 9900 = 4632 psi
b. Hydrostatic pressure = fluid gradient (psi / ft) x depth (ft)..........psi
= 0.468 (psi /ft) x 9900(ft) = 4633 psi
OVERBURDEN PRESSURE
The overburden pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the total weight of overlying
formations above the point of interest. The total weight is the combined weight of both the
formation solids (rock matrix) and formation fluids in the pore space. The density of the
combined weight is referred to as the bulk density (ρb).
The overburden pressure can therefore be expressed as the hydrostatic pressure exerted by all
materials overlying the depth of interest:
σov = 0.052 x ρb x D
where
σov = overburden pressure (psi)
ρb = formation bulk density (ppg)
D = true vertical depth (ft)
And similarly as a gradient (EMW) in ppg:
σovg = overburden gradient, ppg
ρb = formation bulk density (gm/cc)
(the factor 0.433 converts bulk density from gm/cc to psi/ft)
In a given area, the overburden gradient is not constant with depth due to variations in
formation density. This results from variations in lithology and pore fluid densities. In addition
the degree of compaction and thus formation density, increases with depth due to increasing
overburden.
A useful equation for calculating the overburden gradient under field conditions of varying
lithological and pore fluid density is given by:
σovg= 0.433[(1 – φ)ρma + (φxρf)]
where
σovg= overburden gradient, psi/ft
φ= porosity expressed as a fraction
ρf= formation fluid density, gm/cc
ρma= matrix density, gm/cc
Note the densities in above Equation are expressed in gm /cc, instead of the usual units of ppg.
With the exception of the oil industry, all other industries use the Metric system of units where
density is usually expressed in gm/cc. The oil industry borrows many of its measurements from
other industries.
A list of typical matrix and fluid densities is included in Table below:
Substance Density (gm/cc)
Sandstone 2.65
Limestone 2.71
Dolomite 2.87
Anhydrite 2.98
Halite 2.03
Gypsum 2.35
Clay 2.7 - 2.8
Freshwater 1.0
Seawater 1.03 - 1.06
Oil 0.6 - 0.7
Gas 0.15
To convert densities from gm/cc to gradients in psi/ft simply use:
Gradient (psi/ft) = 0.433 x (gm /cc)
To convert from psi/ft to ppg, use:
Density (ppg) = gradient (psi/ft) / 0.052
Example 1.2: Overburden Gradient Calculations
Calculate the overburden gradient for the following:
Formation type: sandstone, density = 2.65 gm/cc
Formation water: 1.03 gm/cc
For porosities 5%, 20% and 35%.
Solution
For Sandstone
For = 5% σovg = 0.433 x [(1 – 0.05)x2.65 + (0.05 x 1.03)] = 1.11 psi/ft
For = 20% σovg =1.01 psi/ft
For = 35% σovg = 0.90 psi/ft
EFFECTS OF WATER DEPTH ON OVERBURDEN GRADIENT
In offshore operations, the depth of the sea (length of the water column) determines how much
the overburden gradient is reduced. The reduction in overburden gradient is due to water being
less dense than rock and for a given height; the hydrostatic head caused by water is less than
that caused by any rock. The resultant effect is that as the water depth increases, the numerical
value of the overburden gradient and in turn the fracture gradient reduce. Hence, offshore wells
will have lower overburden gradient near the surface due to the influence of seawater and air
gap and the uncompacted sediments. In onshore wells, the near surface overburden gradient is
influenced mainly by the uncompacted surface sediments.
Example 1.3: Overburden Gradient Calculations For Offshore Wells
Determine the overburden gradient at various depths for the following offshore well:
Water Depth= 500 ft
RKB/MSL= 65 ft
Specific gravity of sea water= 1.03 gm/cc
Rock density= 1.9 gm/cc from seabed to 1000ft, and 2.1gm/cc from 1000-3000 ft
Calculate the overburden gradient of the formations:
At seabed, 200 ft, 500 ft, 1000 ft and at 3000 ft below seabed.
Solution
Remember to convert densities from gm/cc to psi/ft using Equation (1.7).
a. At seabed
Water pressure = 0.433 (psi/ft) x 1.03 (gm/cc) x 500 (ft) = 223 psi
Overburden gradient (OBG) = water pressure / depth
= 223/ (500+65) = 0.395 psi/ft = 7.6 ppg
b. At 200 ft below seabed
Water pressure= 223 psi
Weight of formation= 0.433 x 1.9 x 200 ft = 164.54 psi
Overburden gradient (OBG) = total weight of sea water and rocks /total depth
= (223 + 164.5)/ (500+65+200)
= 0.507 psi/ft = 9.74 ppg
c. At 500 ft below seabed
Water pressure= 223 psi
Weight of formation= 0.433 x 1.9 x 500 ft = 411.4 psi
Overburden gradient (OBG) = total weight of sea water and rocks /total depth
= (223 + 411.4)/ (500+65+500)
= 0.605 psi/ft = 11.5 ppg
d. At 1000 ft below seabed
Water pressure = 223 psi
Weight of formation
= 0.433 x 1.9 x1000 ft = 822.7 psi
Overburden gradient (OBG) = total weight of sea water and rocks /total depth
= (223 + 822.7)/ (500+65+ 1000)
= 0.668 psi/ft = 12.9 ppg
e. At 3000 ft below seabed
Water pressure = 223 psi
Weight of formation (with density of 1.9 gm/cc)= 0.433 x 1.9 x1000 ft = 822.7 psi
Weight of formation (with density of 2.1 gm/cc)= 0.433 x 2.1 x2000 ft = 1818.6 psi
Overburden gradient (OBG) = total weight of sea water and rocks /total depth
= (223 + 822.7+1818.6)/ (500+65+ 3000
=0.8035 psi/ft = 15.5 ppg
MATRIX STRESS
Matrix stress is defined as the stress under which the rock material is confined in a particular
position in the earth’s crust. The matrix stress acts in all directions and is usually represented
as a triaxial stress, using the Greek symbol, pronounced Sigma.
The vertical component of the matrix stress is that portion which acts in the same plane as the
overburden load. The overburden load is supported at any depth by the vertical component of
the rock matrix stress (σmat) and the pore pressure. This relationship is expressed as:
σov = Pf +σmat
The above simple expression is used in many mathematical models to quantify the magnitudes
of pore pressure using data from various drilling or petrophysical sources.
Pore pressure
Pore pressure is defined as the pressure acting on the fluids in the pore spaces of the rock. This
is the scientific meaning of what is generally referred to as formation (pore) pressure.
Depending on the magnitude of pore pressure, it can be described as being either normal,
abnormal or subnormal. A definition of each follows.
NORMAL PORE PRESSURE
Normal pore pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of a column of formation fluid
extending from the surface to the subsurface formation being considered In other words, if the
formation was opened up and allowed to fill a column whose length is equal to the depth of the
formation then the pressure at the bottom of the column will be equal to the formation pressure
and the pressure at surface is equal to zero.
Normal pore pressure is not a constant. The magnitude of normal pore pressure varies with the
concentration of dissolved salts, type of fluid, gases present and temperature gradient. For
example, as the concentration of dissolved salts increases the magnitude of normal pore
pressure increases.
ABNORMAL PORE PRESSURE
Abnormal pore pressure is defined as any pore pressure that is greater than the hydrostatic
pressure of the formation water occupying the pore space. Abnormal pressure is sometimes
called overpressure or geopressure. Abnormal pressure can be thought of as being made up of
a normal hydrostatic component plus an extra amount of pressure. This excess pressure is the
reason why surface control equipment (e.g. BOPs) are required when drilling oil and gas wells.
Abnormal pore pressure can occur at any depth ranging from only a few hundred feet to depths
exceeding 25,000 ft. The cause of abnormal pore pressure is attributed to a combination of
various geological, geochemical, geothermal and mechanical changes. However for any
abnormal pressure to develop there has to be an interruption to or disturbance of the normal
compaction and de-watering process as will be outlined later in this chapter.
SUBNORMAL PORE PRESSURE
Subnormal pore pressure is defined as any formation pressure that is less than the
corresponding fluid hydrostatic pressure at a given depth. Subnormal pore pressures are
encountered less frequently than abnormal pore pressures and are often developed long after
the formation is deposited. Subnormal pressures may have natural causes related to the
stratigraphic, tectonic and geochemical history of an area, or may have been caused artificially
by the production of reservoir fluids. The Rough field in the Southern North Sea is an example
of a depleted reservoir with a subnormal pressure.
