COGNITIVE

1. Knowledge: Remembering or retrieving 1. Remembering: Recognizing or r

previously learned material. Examples of verbs ecalling knowledge from memory.
that relate to this function are: Remembering is when memory is
used to produce or retrieve
know define record definitions, facts, or lists, or to recite
identify recall name previously learned information.
relate memorize recognize
list repeat acquire
2. Comprehension: The ability to grasp or 2. Understanding: Constructing
construct meaning from material. Examples of meaning from different types of
verbs that relate to this function are: functions be they written or
graphic messages, or activities like
restate identify illustrate interpreting, exemplifying,
locate discuss interpret classifying, summarizing, inferring,
report describe draw comparing, or explaining.
recognize discuss represent
explain review differentiate
express infer conclude
3. Application: The ability to use learned 3. Applying: Carrying out or using
material, or to implement material in new and a procedure through executing, or
concrete situations. Examples of verbs that implementing. Applying relates to
relate to this function are: or refers to situations where
learned material is used through
apply organize practice products like models,
relate employ calculate presentations, interviews or
develop restructure show simulations.
translate interpret exhibit
use operate demonstrate dramatize
illustrate
4. Analysis: The ability to break down or 4. Analyzing: Breaking materials
distinguish the parts of material into its or concepts into parts,
components so that its organizational structure determining how the parts relate
may be better understood.Examples of verbs to one another or how they
that relate to this function are: interrelate, or how the parts relate
to an overall structure or purpose.
analyze differentiate experiment Mental actions included in this
compare contrast scrutinize function are differentiating,
probe investigate discover organizing, and attributing, as well
inquire detect inspect as being able to distinguish
examine survey dissect between the components or parts.
contrast classify discriminate When one is analyzing, he/she can
categorize deduce separate illustrate this mental function by
creating spreadsheets, surveys,
charts,
or diagrams, or graphic
 representations.
5. Synthesis: The ability to put parts together to 5. Evaluating: Making judgments
form a coherent or unique new whole. In the based on criteria and standards
revised version of Bloom’s synthesis through checking and critiquing.
becomes creating and becomes the last and Critiques, recommendations, and
most complex cognitive function. Examples of reports are some of the products
verbs that relate to the synthesis function are: that can be created to
demonstrate the processes of
compose plan propose evaluation. In the newer
produce invent develop taxonomy, evaluating comes
design formulate arrange before creating as it is often a
assemble collect construct necessary part of the precursory
create set up organize behavior before one creates
prepare generalize originate something.
predict document derive
modify combine write
tell relate propose
6. Evaluation: The ability to judge, check, and 6. Creating: Putting elements
even critique the value of material for a given together to form a coherent or
purpose. This function goes to #5 in the revised functional whole; reorganizing
version of Bloom’s. Examples of verbs that relate elements into a new pattern or
to evaluation are: structure through generating,
planning, or
judge argue validate producing. Creating requires users
assess decide consider to put parts together in a new
compare choose appraise way, or synthesize parts into
evaluate rate value something new and different thus
conclude select criticize creating a new form or
measure estimate infer product. This process is the most
deduce difficult mental function in the new
taxonomy.

The Affective or Feeling Domain:

Like cognitive objectives, affective objectives can also be divided into a hierarchy
(according to Krathwohl). This area is concerned with feelings or emotions. Again, the
taxonomy is arranged from simpler feelings to those that are more complex. This
domain was first described in 1964 and as noted before is attributed to David Krathwohl
as the primary author.
1. Receiving

This refers to the learner’s sensitivity to the existence of stimuli – awareness, willingness to
receive, or selected attention.

feel sense capture experience pursue attend perceive

2. Responding

This refers to the learners’ active attention to stimuli and his/her motivation to learn –
acquiescence, willing responses, or feelings of satisfaction.

conform allow cooperate contribute enjoy satisfy

3. Valuing

This refers to the learner’s beliefs and attitudes of worth – acceptance, preference, or
commitment. An acceptance, preference, or commitment to a value.

believe seek justify respect search persuade

4. Organization

This refers to the learner’s internalization of values and beliefs involving (1) the
conceptualization of values; and (2) the organization of a value system. As values or
beliefs become internalized, the leaner organizes them according to priority.

examine clarify systematize create integrate

5. Characterization – the Internalization of values

This refers to the learner’s highest of internalization and relates to behavior that reflects
(1) a generalized set of values; and (2) a characterization or a philosophy about life. At
this level the learner is capable of practicing and acting on their values or beliefs.

internalize review conclude resolve judge

PIAGET’S PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

Piaget (1896 - 1980)

 Swiss Psychologist, worked for

o several decades on understanding

o children’s cognitive development

 Most widely known theory of cognitive

o development.

 Was intrigued by kids’ thoughts & behavior, & worked to understand their
cognitive development

Piaget: Background

 Young Piaget was incredibly precocious

o Published first paper at 10

o Wrote on mollusks, based on these writings was asked to be curator of

mollusks at a museum in Geneva (he declined in order to finish secondary
school)

o Earned his doctorate in natural sciences at 21

o Began to study psychology, applying intelligence tests to school children

Constructivism

 Assumption that learning is an active process of construction rather than a

passive assimilation of information or rote memorization.

 Credited for founding constructivism

 Has had a large influence on American schools

  Best known for idea that individuals construct their understanding, that learning is
a constructive process

o Active learning as opposed to simply absorbing info from a teacher, book,

etc.

o The child is seen as a ‘little scientist’ constructing understandings of the

world largely alone

 believed all learning is constructed, whether it is something we are taught or

something we learn on our own.

 Whether or not we are taught in a “constructivist” manner, Piaget believed we

are constructing knowledge in all our learning.

Piaget & Learning

 Two main states – equilibrium & disequilibrium

 Believed that we are driven or motivated to learn when we are in disequilibrium

o We want to understand things

 Equilibration: assimilation & accommodation

o We adjust our ideas to make sense of reality

 Assimilation:

o process of matching external reality to an existing cognitive structure.

 Accommodation:

o When there’s an inconsistency between the learner’s cognitive structure &

the thing being learned the child will reorganize her thoughts

Constructivism, Learning, & Education

 Not interested in applying his theory to school-based education, he called this

“The American question”

 Constructivist educators create an environment which encourages children to

construct their own knowledge.

– But according to Piaget, we construct our learning regardless of how it is

presented.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

 • A child’s capacity to understand certain concepts is based on the child’s
developmental stage

Piaget’s Four Stages

• Believed that all children develop according to four stages based on how they
see the world.

– He thought the age may vary some, but that we all go through the stages
in the same order.

1. Sensori-motor (birth –2 years)

2. Preoperational (~2-7)

3. Concrete operational (~7-11)

4. Formal operations (~12-15)

Sensorimotor Stage

 Birth to about 2 years, rapid change is seen throughout

 The child will:

o Explore the world through senses & motor activity

o Early on, baby can’t tell difference between themselves & the
environment

o If they can’t see something then it doesn’t exist

o Begin to understand cause & effect

o Can later follow something with their eyes

Preoperational Stage

 About 2 to about 7

o Better speech communication

o Can imagine the future & reflect on the past

o Develop basic numerical abilities

o Still pretty egocentric, but learning to be able to delay gratification

o Can’t understand conservation of matter

o Has difficulty distinguishing fantasy from reality (ex: cartoon characters are
real people).

o Conservation of matter – understanding that something doesn’t change

even though it looks different, shape is not related to quantity
 Ex: Are ten coins set in a long line more than ten coins in a pile?

Ex: Is there less water if it is poured into a bigger container?

Concrete Operational Stage

 From about 7 to about 11

o Abstract reasoning ability & ability to generalize from the concrete

increases

o Understands conservation of matter

Formal Operations

 From about 12 to about 15

o Be able to think about hypothetical situations

o Form & test hypotheses

o Organize information

o Reason scientifically

Piaget’s Development

 Development happens from one stage to another through interaction with the
environment.

 Changes from stage to stage may occur abruptly and kids will differ in how long
they are in each stage.

 Cognitive development can only happen after genetically controlled biological

growth occurs.

 Development leads to learning

• Drive for development is internal

• The child can only learn certain things when she is at the right
developmental stage

• Environmental factors can influence but not direct development

• Development will happen naturally through regular interaction with social

environment

Piaget & Education

  Piaget did not think it was possible to hurry along or skip stages through
education

 Regardless, many American schools will try to teach to the stages in an attempt
to accelerate development

Problems with Piaget’s Theory

• Children often grasp ideas earlier than what Piaget found

• Cognitive development across domains is inconsistent (e.g. better at reading

than math)

• Studies have shown that development can to some degree be accelerated

KOHLBERG LEARNING THEORY

Level 1 – Pre – Conventional Morality

 At the pre - conventional level ( most nine – year and younger, some over nine),
we don’t have a personal code of morality
 Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the
consequences of the following or breaking their rules.
 Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical
consequences of actions.

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment orientation

 The child / individual is good in order to avoid being punished.

 If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.

Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange

 At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is
handed down by the authorities.
 Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

 At conventional morality (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize

the moral standards of valued adult rule models.
 Authority is internalized but not questioned and reasoning is based on the norms
of the group to which the person belongs.

Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships.

 The child / individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by

others
  Therefore, answer relate to the approval of others.

Stage 4: Maintaining the social order

 The child / individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgment
concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Level 3 – Post – conventional

 Individual judgment based on self-chosen principle and moral reasoning is

based on individual rights and justice.
 According to Kohlberg this level of moral is as far as most people get.
 Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or
6 (post conventional morality)
 That is to say most people take their moral views from those around them and
only a minority thinks through ethical principle of themselves.

Stage 5: Social contract and Individual rights

 The child / individual becomes aware that while rule/ law might exist for the
good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the
interest of particular individuals.
 The issues are not always clear cut.

Stage 6: Universal principle

 People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which
may or may not fit the law.
 The principles apply to everyone. Like for example, human rights, justice and
equality.
 The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means
going against the rest of the society in the process and having to pay the
consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment.
 Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.

Thorndike’s Laws ofLearning:

1) Law of Readiness:-

First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of
Action Tendency’, which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is
aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a
preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically
instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in order to learn typing prepares himself to
start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic & unprepared manner.

2) Law of Exercise:-
The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that drill or practice
helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning and according to Throndike’s S-
R Bond Theory, the connections are strengthened with trail or practice and the
connections are weakened when trial or practice is discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’,
therefore, is also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case connections
or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Many examples of this
case are found in case of human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting,
singing or memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise
and repetition of various movements and actions many times.

3) Law of Effect:-

The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial or steps leading to
satisfaction stamps in the bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation
and strengthening of the connection, whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead
to the weakening or stamping out of the connection. In fact, the ‘law of effect’ signifies
that if the response satisfy the subject, they are learnt and selected, while those which
are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator
must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the satisfaction
stronger will be the motive to learn. Thus, intensity is an important condition of ‘law of
effect’.

Besides these three basic laws, Throndike also refer to five subordinate laws which
further help to explain the learning process. These are-

4) Law of Multiple – Response-

According to it the organism varies or changes its response till an appropriate

behaviour is hit upon. Without varying the responses, the correspondence for the
solution might never be elicited. If the individual wants to solve a puzzle, he is to try in
different ways rather than mechanically persisting in the same way. Throndike’s cat in
the puzzle box moved about and tried many ways to come out till finally it hit the latch
with her paw which opened the door and it jumped out.

5) The Law of Set or Attitude-

Learning is guided by a total set or attitude of the organism, which determines not only
what the person will do but what will satisfy or annoy him. For instance, unless the
cricketer sets himself to make a century, he will not be able to score more runs. A
student, similarly, unless he sets to get first position and has the attitude of being at the
top, would while away the time and would not learn much. Hence, learning is affected
more in the individual if he is set to learn more or to excel.
6) Pre- potency of Elements:-

According to this law, the learner reacts selectively to the important or essential in the
situation and neglects the other features or elements which may be irrelevant or non-
essential. The ability to deal with the essential or the relevant part of the situation, makes
analytical and insightful learning possible. In this law of pre-potency of elements,
Thorndike is really anticipating insight in learning which was more emphasized by the
Gestaltions.

7) Law of Response by Analogy-

According to this law, the individual makes use of old experiences or acquisitions while
learning a new situation. There is a tendency to utilise common elements in the new
situation as existed in a similar past situation. The learning of driving a car, for instance, is
facilitated by the earlier acquired skill of driving a motor cycle or even riding a bicycle
because the perspective or maintaining a balance and controlling the handle helps in
stearing the car.

8) The Law of Associative Shifting-

According to this law we may get an response, of which a learner is capable,

associated with any other situation to which he is sensitive. Thorndike illustrated this by
the act of teaching a cat to stand up at a command. A fish was dangled before the
cat while he said ‘ stand up’. After a number trails by presenting the fish after uttering
the command ‘stand up’, he later ousted the fish and the over all command of ‘stand
up’ was found sufficient to evoke the response in the cat by standing up or her hind
legs.

In brief implications of the Theory are-

1) According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect towards its
difficult side. This approach will benefit the weaker and backward children.

2) A small child learns some skills through trial and error method only such as sitting,
standing, walking, running etc. In teaching also the child rectifies the writing after
commiting mistakes.

3) In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation. Thus, before starting
teaching in the classroom the students should be properly motivated.

4) Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and
error method. Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning
any concept.

5) Habits are formed as a result of repeitition. With the help of this theory the wrong
habits of the children can be modified and the good habits strengthened.
6) The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the child. Thus,
the theory lays emphasis on the use of reward and punishment in the class by the
teacher.

7) The theory may be found quite helpful in changing the behaviour of the deliquent
children. The teacher should cure such children making use of this theory.

8) With the help of this theory the teacher can control the negative emotions of the
children such as anger, jealousy etc.

9) The teacher can improve his teaching methods making use of this theory. He must
observe the effects of his teaching methods on the students and should not hesitate to
make necessary changes in them, if required.

10) The theory pays more emphasis on oral drill work. Thus, a teacher should conduct
oral drill of the taught contents. This help in strengthening the learning more

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

• Russian psychologist
• The West published in 1962
• theory of sociocultural development
• Culture requires skilled tool use (language, art, counting systems)

• The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): distance between a student’s

performance with help and performance independently.
• learning occurred in this zone