Mathworks HSMC | Problem Set 0

“Think Deeply Of Simple Things”

Acknowledgment The problem sets for the summer are based on those designed by Arnold Ross over a 40
year period for use in his ongoing summer math program at the Ohio State University. We also borrow freely
from the problem sets designed by Glenn Stevens for use in the PROMYS program at Boston University, and
we have incorporated further suggestions by Daniel Shapiro. Warshauer, Shapiro, and Stevens attended the
Ross Program at Ohio State while in high school.

N UMERICAL P ROBLEMS
Learning mathematics, like learning other sciences, is based on experience. This summer we will explore
a mathematical system which we have all experienced, namely the system of integers. The integers are the
whole numbers
{... − 3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
We denote the set of integers by the symbol Z. So Z = { . . . -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}. As we all know, it is
possible to add and multiply in Z. It is also possible to divide evenly in Z, but this may introduce remainders.
For example, if we try to divide 1 by 2 in Z, then we seek an integer x ∈ Z such that 2x = 1. But there is no
such integer x. Early in school, most of us learn how to do long division with remainders. This is a simple
process known to mathematicians as the division algorithm. For example, if we divide 1068 by 7 then we get
a quotient 152 with remainder 4.
¢ 152
7 1068
700
368
350
18
14
4

This means that 1068 = 7 · 152 + 4. More generally, if m is a positive integer, then we can divide any integer a
by m to get a quotient q and a remainder r where r is one of the numbers {0, 1, 2, ..., m − 1}. We summarize
this by writing: a = m · q + r , where 0 ≤ r < m.

The division algorithm is a simple process. Nevertheless, as we shall see this summer, it has a large number
of unexpectedly deep consequences and can be generalized in far-reaching ways. One of the most basic
applications of the division algorithm is in our notation of integers. It is customary to use base 10 notation
to write the elements of Z. For example, 1068 is our notation for 1 · 103 + 0 · 102 + 6 · 101 + 8 · 100 . Note that the
digits allowed in base 10 are the numbers from 0 to 9, the "one-digit numbers".

We could equally well use the base 7 or some other base. For example, to write 1068 in base 7, we have to find
the a, b, c, d that satisfy: 1068 = a · 73 + b · 72 + c · 71 + d · 70 . Here a, b, c, d are "base 7 digits", that is, numbers
from 0 to 6. How can we find those digits?
Here is a technique. Divide 1068 by 7, then divide the quotient by 7, and that quotient by 7, etc. This is what
we get:

1068 = 7(152) + 4
152 = 7(21) + 5
21 = 7(3) + 0
3 = 7(0) + 3.

Substitution then shows that 1068 = 7 · 152 + 4 = 7(7 · 21 + 5) + 4 = 7(7(7 · 3 + 0) + 5) + 4

1. Let N = 32071 in base 10. Convert N to base 5, 9, and 16.

2. Perform the following operations in base 7, not changing to base 10 as an intermediate step:
a. add 61537 to 34557
b. subtract 23467 from 43547
c. multiply 61537 by 34557
d. divide 56027 by 437

E XPLORATION
To help us gain insight and perspective on Z we will also investigate a number of alternative systems of
arithmetic. Some fundamental examples of systems of arithmetic are given by the modular arithmetics.
Probably the easiest way to explain what we mean by a modular arithmetic is to first look at a basic
example.

Consider the set Z7 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. This is the set of possible remainders obtained if we divided any
integer by 7 using the division algorithm. The number 7 is called the modulus of our system and Z7
is called the system of least non-negative residues modulo 7. We are going to equip Z7 with two basic
operations, addition and multiplication. To describe these operations, it is convenient to arrange the
elements of Z7 in a circle as shown below:

6 1

5 2

4 3

Suppose that we want to add two elements of Z7 , say we want to add 5 to 6. Start at 6 on the circle and
count clockwise a total of 5 steps. That brings us to 4. So we say that 5 + 6 = 4 in Z7 .
 Here are some examples of addition in Z7 :
1+ 2 = 3; 6 + 6 = 5; 2 + 5 = 0; 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 4
Subtraction is similar. For example, to compute 2−6 start at 2 on the circle and count 6 units counterclockwise.
This brings us to 3, and we say 2 − 6 = 3 in mod 7. We could interpret this as saying that −4 = 3 in Z7 .
This does make sense because 3 + 4 = 0 in Z7 .

We multiply using the same idea. To multiply 6 by 2 just add 6 to itself twice: 6·2 = 6+6 = 5. To multiply
5 by 4, we add 5 to itself 4 times: 5 · 4 = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 6 in Z7 . Alternatively we could first multiply them
as integers to get 5 · 4 = 20, and then count 20 units clockwise from 0 to end up at 6, as before.
Here are a few more examples of multiplication in Z7 : 2 · 3 = 6; 3 · 4 = 5; 4 · 6 = 3; 2 · 3 · 4 · 5 = 1
Now that we understand addition and multiplication, let’s try to do more interesting calculations.

3. How many of the following can you find in Z7 ?

1 2 p p p p
25 ,
3
−5, , , 2, −3, −1, 6
2 5

To get you started on this problem, let’s take a look at the third example. What does 12 really mean? It is
"1 divided by 2", or equivalently; it is the solution to the equation 2x = 1. Can you find such an element
x in Z7 ? Is there more than one such element x? Note that Z7 only has seven elements. So if all else
fails, you can always just try out all seven possible values of x.

4. How many of the following can you find in Z11 ? In Z35 ? In Z9 ? What conjectures can you make?

1 3 p p p
4 − 9, 7 · 5, 34 , 53 , , , 3, −2, −6
5 8

5. Six points are arranged in space and each point is connected to every other point by a line segment.
Suppose each of those 15 line segments is colored either red or blue. Prove that no matter how that
coloring is done, the arrangement must contain either a red triangle or a blue triangle.

6. According to the terms of a partial amnesty, a jailer walked a total of n times along a row of n jail cells.
On the first pass he turned every lock, hence opening them all; on the second pass, he turned every
second lock starting with the second, hence relocking the even numbered cells; on the third pass, he
turned every third lock starting with the third; and so forth until on the last pass he turned only the last
lock. Then the prisoners were allowed access to the doors. Which prisoners were freed?