Introduction to Turbomachines

CHAPTER1: INTRODUCTION TO TURBOMACHINES

1.1 Introduction:
The turbomachine is used in several applications, the primary ones being electrical power
generation, aircraft propulsion and vehicular propulsion for civilian and military use. The units used in
power generation are steam, gas and hydraulic turbines, ranging in capacity from a few kilowatts to
several hundred and even thousands of megawatts, depending on the application. Here, the
turbomachines drives the alternator at the appropriate speed to produce power of the right frequency.
In aircraft and heavy vehicular propulsion for military use, the primary driving element has been the
gas turbine.
1.2 Turbomachines and its Principal Components:
Question No 1.1: Define a turbomachine. With a neat sketch explain the parts of a turbomachine.
(VTU, Jan-07, Dec-12, Jan-14, Jul-15)
Answer: A turbomachine is a device in which energy transfer takes place between a flowing fluid and
a rotating element due to the dynamic action, and results in the change of pressure and momentum of
the fluid.

Fig. 1.1 Principal components of turbomachine

The following are the principal components of turbomachine: (i) Rotor, (ii) Stator and (iii)
Shaft.
Rotor is a rotating element carrying the rotor blades or vanes. Rotor is also known by the
names runner, impellers etc. depending upon the particular machine. Here energy transfer occurs
between the flowing fluid and the rotating element due to the momentum exchange between the two.
Stator is a stationary element carrying the guide vanes or stator blades. Stator blades are also
known by guide blades or nozzle depending upon the particular machine. These blades usually control
the direction of fluid flow during the energy conversion process.

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Introduction to Turbomachines

Shaft is transmitting power into or out of the machine depending upon the particular machine.
For power generating machines, it may call as output shaft and for power absorbing machines; it may
called as input shaft.
1.3 Classification of Turbomachines:
Question No 1.2: Explain how turbomachines are classified.Give at least one example of each. (VTU,
Feb-06, Jul-13, Jun/Jul 14)
Answer: Turbomachines are broadly classified into power generating, power absorbing and power
transmitting turbomachines.
In power-generating turbomachines, fluid energy (decrease in enthalpy) is converted into
mechanical energy which is obtained at the shaft output, whereas in power-absorbing turbomachines,
mechanical energy which is supplied at the shaft input is converted to fluid energy (increase in
enthalpy). The power-transmitting turbomachines are simply transmitting power from input shaft to an
output shaft. That means, these devices act merely as an energy transmitter to change the speed and
torque on the driven member as compared with the driver.
Again power-generating and power-absorbing turbomachines are classified by the direction of
the fluid flow as: (i) axial flow, (ii) radial flow and (iii) mixed flow. In the axial flow and radial flow
turbomachines, the major flow directions are approximately axial and radial respectively, while in the
mixed flow machine, the flow enters axially and leaves radially or vice versa. A radial flow machine
may also be classified into radial inward flow (centripetal) or radial outward flow (centrifugal) types
depending on whether the flow is directed towards or away from the shaft axis.
Question No 1.3: Explain with examples the power generating, power absorbing and power
transmitting turbomachines. (VTU, Aug-02, Jul-13, Jul-14)
Answer: Power generating turbomachine is one which converts fluid energy in the form of kinetic
energy or pressure energy into mechanical energy in terms of rotating shaft. Turbines are the best
example for this type.
Power absorbing turbomachine is one which converts mechanical energy into fluid energy.
Compressors, fans, pumps and blowers are the best example for this type.
Power transmitting is one which is used to transmit power from driving shaft to driven shaft
with the help of fluid. There is no mechanical connection between the two shafts. The best examples
for this type are hydraulic coupling and hydraulic torque converter.

Question No 1.4: What is an axial flow turbomachine? How is it different from a radial flow
turbomachine? Give one example each.
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Answer: In axial flow turbomachine, the major flow direction is approximately axial, example:
Kaplan turbine. Whereas in radial flow turbomachine, the major flow direction is radial, example:
Francis turbine.
1.4 Positive-Displacement Devices and Turbomachines:
Question No 1.5: Compare the turbomachines with positive displacement machines. (VTU, Feb-02,
Feb-03, Feb-04, Jun-12, Dec-12, Jul-13, Jan-16, Jul-16, Jan-17, Jul-17)
Answer:The differences between positive-displacement machines and turbomachines are given by
comparing their modes of action, operation, energy transfer, mechanical features etc. in the following
table.
Modes Positive-displacement Machine Turbomachine
(a) It creates thermodynamic and (a) It creates thermodynamic and dynamic
mechanical action between a nearly static interaction between a flowing fluid and
fluid and a relatively slowly moving rotating element.

Action surface.
(b) It involves a change in volume or a (b) It involves change in pressure and
displacement of fluid. momentum of the fluid.
(c) There is a positive confinement of the (c) There is no positive confinement of the
fluid in the system. fluid at any point in the system.
(a) It involves a reciprocating motion of (a) It involves a purely rotary motion of
the mechanical element and unsteady mechanical element and steady flow of the
flow of the fluid. But some rotary fluid. It may also involve unsteady flow for
positive displacement machines are also short periods of time, especially while
built. Examples: Gear pump, vane pump starting, stopping or during changes of
Operation
load.
(b) Entrapped fluid state is different from (b) The fluid state will be the same as that
the surroundings when the machine is of the surroundings when the machine is
stopped, if heat transfer and leakages are stopped.
avoided.
(a) Because of the reciprocating masses, (a) Rotating masses can be completely
vibrations are more. Hence low speeds balanced and vibrations eliminated. Hence
Mechanica are adopted. high speeds can be adopted.
(b) Heavy foundations are required. (b) Light foundations sufficient.
l Features
(c) Mechanical design is complex (c) Design is simple.
because of valves.
(d) Weight per unit output is more. (d) Weight per unit output is less.
Efficiency (a) High efficiency because of static (a) Efficiency is low because of dynamic
of energy transfer. energy transfer.
(b) The efficiencies of the compression (b) The efficiency of the compression
conversion
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Introduction to Turbomachines

and expansion processes are almost the process is low.

process same.
(a) Much below that of a turbomachine (a) It is almost 100%.
Volumetric because of valves.
efficiency (b) Low fluid handling capacity per unit (b) High fluid handling capacity per unit
weight of machine. weight of machine.
(a) Causes cavitation in pumps and

Fluid turbines. Therefore leads to erosion of

phase blades.
No such serious problems are (b) Surging or pulsation leads to unstable
change
encountered. flow. And also causes vibrations and may
and
destroy the machine.
surging (c) These factors deteriorate the
performance of the machine.

Question No 1.6: Are vane compressors and gear pumps turbomachines? Why?(VTU, Dec-10)
Answer: No, vane compressors and gear pumps are positive displacement machines and work by
moving a fluid trapped in a specified volume (i.e., fluid confinement is positive).
1.5 First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics Applied to Turbomachines:
Question No 1.7: Explain the applications of first and second laws of thermodynamics to
turbomachines.(VTU, Jul/Aug-02) Or,
Starting from the first law, derive an expression for the work output of a turbomachine in terms of
properties at inlet and outlet. Or,
Deducing an expression, explain the significance of first and second law of thermodynamics
applied to a turbomachine. (VTU, Dec-12, Dec 14/Jan 15)
Answer: Consider single inlet and single output steady state turbomachine, across the sections of
which the velocities, pressures, temperatures and other relevant properties are uniform.
Application of first law of thermodynamics: The steady flow equation of the first law of
thermodynamics in the unit mass basis is:
V 21 V 22
q+h1+ + g z 1=w+h2 + + g z 2 (1.1)
2 2
Here, q and w are heat transfer and work transfer per unit mass flow across the boundary of the control
volume respectively.
V2
Since, the stagnation enthalpy: ho =h+ + gz .
2
Then, equation (1.1) becomes: q−w=h o2 −ho 1=∆ ho (1.2)

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Generally, all turbomachines are well-insulated devices, therefore q=0. Then equation (1.2) can be
written as: ∆ h o=−w (1.3)
The equation (1.3) represents that, the energy transfer as work is numerically equal to the change in
stagnation enthalpy of the fluid between the inlet and outlet of the turbomachine.
In a power-generating turbomachine, w is positive as defined so that Δh o is negative, i.e., the
stagnation enthalpy at the exit of the machine is less than that at the inlet. The machine produces out
work at the shaft. In a power-absorbing turbomachine, w is negative as defined so that Δh o is positive.
The stagnation enthalpy at the outlet will be greater than that at the inlet and work is done on the
flowing fluid due to the rotation of the shaft.
Application of second law of thermodynamics: The second law equation of states, applied to
stagnation properties is:
T o dso =dho −v o dp o (1.4)
But equation (1.3) in differential form is, dh=−dw .
Then equation (1.4) can be written as:
−dw=v o dpo +T o ds o (1.5)
In a power-generating machine, dpo is negative since the flowing fluid undergoes a pressure
drop when mechanical energy output is obtained. However, the Clausius inequality for a turbomachine
is given that T o dso ≥ 0 . The sign of equality applies only to a reversible process which has a work
output dw rev =v o dpo . In a real machine (irreversible machine), T o dso >0 , which has a work output
dw irr =v o dpo −T o dso . So that dw rev −dw irr =T o dso and represents the decrease in work output due
to the irreversibilities in the machine. Therefore the reversible power-generating machine exhibits the
highest mechanical output of all the machines undergoing a given stagnation pressure change. A
similar argument may be used to prove that the reversible power-absorbing machine needs the
minimum work input of all the machines for a given stagnation pressure rise (i.e.,
dw irr −dwrev =T o dso ).

1.6 Efficiency of Turbomachines:

Question No 1.8: Define: (i) adiabatic efficiency and (ii) mechanical efficiency for power
generating and power absorbing turbomachines. (VTU, Dec-12)
Answer:The performance of a real machine is always inferior to that of a frictionless and loss-free
ideal machine. A measure of its performance is the efficiency, defined differently for power-generating
and power-absorbing machines.
For power-generating machine, the efficiency is defined as:

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Actual Shaft Work Output wsft

η pg= =
IdealWorkOutput wi
Hydrodynamic Energy Available
Actual Shaft Work Output w
¿ , η pg= the Fluid ¿= sft
¿ wi
For power-absorbing machine, the efficiency is defined as:
IdealWorkInput w
η pa = = i
Actual Shaft Work Input wsft
Hydrodynamic Ene rgy Supplied
¿ w
¿ , η pa=¿ the Fluid = i
Actual Shaft Work Input w sft
Generally, losses occur in turbomachines are due to: (a) mechanical losses like bearing friction,
windage, etc., (b) fluid-rotor losses like unsteady flow, friction between the blade and the fluid,
leakage across blades etc. If the mechanical and fluid-rotor losses are separated, the efficiencies may
be rewritten in the following forms:
For power-generating turbomachine,
Hydrodynamic Energy Available
Mechanical Energy Supplied by the Rotor Actual Shaft Work Output
η pg = the Fluid ¿ ×
¿ Mechanical Energy Supplied by the Rotor
Or, η pg =ηa × ηm
For power-absorbing turbomachines,
Hydrodynamic Energy Supplied
Mechanical Energy Supplied
Mechanical Energy Supplied
¿
η pa =¿ the Fluid ¿ the Rotor ¿ × ¿the Rotor ¿
Actual Shaft Work Input
Or, η pg=ηa × ηm
where ηa and ηm are adiabatic and mechanical efficiencies respectively.
For power-generating turbomachine, adiabatic or isentropic or hydraulic efficiency may be written as,
Hydrodynamic Energy Available
Mechanical Energy Supplied by the Rotor w
ηa = the Fluid ¿= r
¿ wi
For power-absorbing turbomachine, adiabatic or isentropic or hydraulic efficiency may be written as,
Hydrodynamic Energy Supplied
Mechanical Energy Supplied
wi
ηa =¿ the Fluid ¿¿ the Rotor ¿=
wr
Note: (i) Hydrodynamic energy is defined as the energy possessed by the fluid in motion.
(ii) Windage loss is caused by fluid friction as the turbine wheel and blades rotate through the surrounding fluid.
(iii) Leakage loss is caused by the fluid when it passes over the blades tip without doing any useful work.
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Introduction to Turbomachines

1.7 Dimensional Analysis:

The dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique deals with the dimensions of the
quantities involved in the process. Basically, dimensional analysis is a method for reducing the number
and complexity of experimental variable that affect a given physical phenomenon, by using a sort of
compacting technique.
The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are:
1. To generate non-dimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments and in the
reporting of experimental results.
2. To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from model
performance.
3. To predict the relationship between the parameters.
1.7.1 Fundamental Quantities:Mass (M), length (L), time (T) and temperature (ɵ) are called
fundamental quantities since there is no direct relation between these quantities. There are seven basic
quantities in physics namely, mass, length, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity and
amount of a substance.
1.7.2 Secondary Quantities or Derived Quantities: The quantities derived from fundamental
quantitie are called derived quantities or secondary quantities. Examples: area, volume, velocity, force,
acceleration, etc.
1.7.3 Dimensional Homogeneity: An equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if the
fundamental dimensions have identical powers of M, L, T on both sides.
For example: Q= AV
In dimensional form:
L3 L L3
=L2 × =
T T T
1.8 Buckingham’s π-Theorem:
The Buckingham’s π-theorem states that “if there are ‘n’ variables in a dimensionally
homogeneous equation and if these variables contain ‘m’ fundamental dimensions such as M, L, T then
they may be grouped into (n-m), non-dimensional independent π-terms”.
Let a variable X1 depends upon independent variables X2, X3,.....Xn. The functional equation
may be written as:
X 1=f ( X 2 , X 3 , … … X n ) (1.6)
The above equation can also be written as:
f (X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , … … X n )=C (1.7)
Where, C is constant and f is some function.

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In the above equation (1.7), there are ‘n’ variables. If these variables contain ‘m’ fundamental
dimensions, then according to Buckingham’s π-theorem,
f 1 ( π 1 , π 2 , π 3 , … … π n−m )=C (1.8)
1.9 Procedure for Applying Buckingham’s π-Theorem:
1) With a given data, write the functional relationship.
2) Write the equation in its general form.
3) Choose repeating variables and write separate expressions for each π-term, every π-term must
contain the repeating variables and one of the remaining variables.In selecting the repeating
variable the following points must be considered:
(a) Never pick the dependent variable.
(b) The chosen repeating variables must not by themselves be able to form a dimensionless group.

Vt
Example: V, L and t are not considered as a repeating variable, because will be a non-
L
dimensional.
(c) The chosen repeating variables must represent all the primary dimensions in the problem.
(d) Never pick the variables that are already dimensionless. These are π’s already, all by
themselves.
(e) Never pick two variables with the same dimensions or with dimensions that differ by only an
exponent. That is one variable contains geometric property, second variable contains flow property
and third containing fluid property.
(f) Pick simple variables over complex variables whenever possible.
(g) Pick popular parameters since they may appear in each of the π’s.
4) The repeating variables are written in exponential form.
5) With the help of dimensional homogeneity, find the values of exponents by obtaining simultaneous
equations.
6) Now, substitute the values of these exponents in the π terms.
7) Write the functional relation in the required form.
1.8.1 Geometric Variables: The variables with geometric property in turbomachines are length,
diameter, thickness, height etc.
1.8.2 Kinematic Variables: The variables with flow property in turbomachines are velocity, speed,
volume flow rate, acceleration, angular velocity etc.
1.8.3 Dynamic Variables: The variables with fluid property in turbomachines are mass flow rate, gas
density, dynamic viscosity, bulk modulus, pressure difference, force, power, elasticity, surface tension,
specific weight, stress, resistance etc.

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Introduction to Turbomachines

Note: (1) For power generating turbomachines, the performance of a machine is referred to the power
developed (P), workdone (W), pressure ratio (P1/P2) or efficiency (η) which depend on independent
variables.
(2) For power absorbing turbomachines, the performance is referred to the discharge (Q), enthalpy rise
(Δh), pressure ratio (P2/P1) or efficiency (η) which depend on independent variables.
Question No 1.9: Performance of a turbomachine depends on the variables discharge (Q), speed
(N), rotar diameter (D), energy per unit mass flow (gH), power (P), density of fluid (ρ), dynamic
viscosity of fluid (μ). Using the dimensional analysis obtain the π-terms. (VTU, Jul/Aug-02)
Answer: General relationship is:
f (Q , N , D , gH , P , ρ , μ)=constant
Dimensions: Q=L3 T −1 , N =T −1 , D=L , gH =L2 T −2 , P=M L2 T −3 , ρ=M L−3 , μ=M L−1 T −1
Number of variables, n=7
Number of fundamental variables, m=3
Number of π-terms required, (n-m) =4
Repeating variables are: D,N,ρ
π1-term: π 1=Da N b ρ c Q
b c
In dimensional form: M 0 L0 T 0=La ( T −1 ) ( M L−3 ) L3 T −1
Equating the powers of M L T on both sides:
For M, 0=c
For L, 0=a−3 c+3 ⟹ a=−3
For T, 0=−b−1 ⟹ b=−1
Then, π 1=D−3 N −1 ρ0 Q
Q
π 1= 3
ND
π2-term: π 2=Da N b ρc gH
0 0 0 a −1 b −3 c 2 −2
In dimensional form: M L T =L ( T ) ( M L ) L T
Equating the powers of M L T on both sides:
For M, 0=c
For L, 0=a−3 c+2 ⟹ a=−2
For T, 0=−b−2 ⟹ b=−2
Then, π 1=D−2 N −2 ρ0 gH
gH
π 2=
N 2 D2
π3-term: π 3=Da N b ρc P
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b c
In dimensional form: M 0 L0 T 0=La ( T −1 ) ( M L−3 ) ML2 T −3
Equating the powers of M L T on both sides:
For M, 0=c+ 1⟹ c=−1
For L, 0=a−3 c+2 ⟹ a=−5
For T, 0=−b−3 ⟹ b=−3
Then, π 3=D−5 N −3 ρ−1 P
P
π 3=
ρ N 3 D5
π3-term: π 4=D a N b ρc μ
0 0 0 a −1 b −3 c −1 −1
In dimensional form: M L T =L ( T ) ( M L ) M L T
Equating the powers of M L T on both sides:
For M, 0=c+ 1⟹ c=−1
For L, 0=a−3 c−1⟹ a=−2
For T, 0=−b−1 ⟹ b=−1
Then, π 4=D −2 N−1 ρ−1 μ
μ
π 4= 2
ρ ND

Question No 1.10: Give the significance of the dimensionless terms (i) Flow coefficient (ii) Head
coefficient (iii) Power coefficient with respect to turbomachines.(VTU, Jan-07)Or,
Explain capacity coefficient, head coefficient and power coefficient referring to a turbomachines.
(VTU, Feb-02, Feb-03, Feb-04, Jan-16, Jul-17)
Answer:The various π-terms have the very significant role in a turbomachine as explained below.
Q
(i) Flow Coefficient: It is also called as capacity coefficient or specific capacity. The term is
N D3
the capacity coefficient, which signifies the volume flow rate of fluid through a turbomachine of unit
diameter of runner operating at unit speed. The specific capacity is constant for dynamically similar
conditions. Hence for a fan or pump of certain diameter running at various speeds, the discharge is
proportional to the speed. This is the First fan law.
Speed ratio: The specific capacity is related to another quantity called speed ratio and is obtained as

Q D2 V V V 1 π D2 V
follows: ∝ ∝ ∝ = (Because Q= AV = ∝ D 2 V ∧also U ∝ ND )
N D3 N D3 ND U φ 4
U
Where φ= is called the speed ratio, which is defined as the ratio of tangential velocity of
V
runner to the theoretical jet velocity of fluid. For the given machine, the speed ratio is fixed.
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gH
(ii) Head Coefficient:The term is called the head coefficient or specific head. It is a measure
N 2 D2
of the ratio of the fluid potential energy (column height H) and the fluid kinetic energy while moving

gH gH
at therotational speed of the wheel U. The term can be interpreted by noting that: 2 2
∝ 2
N D U
The head coefficient is constant for dynamically similar machines. For a machine of specified
diameter, the head varies directly as the square of the tangential speed of wheel. This is the Second fan
law.
P
(iii) Power Coefficient:The term is called the power coefficient or specific power. It
ρ N 3 D5
represents the relation between the power, fluid density, speed and wheel diameter. For a given
machine, the power is directly proportional to the cube of the tangential speed of wheel. This is the
Third fan law.
Question No 1.11: Discuss the effect of Reynolds number on turbomachine.(VTU, Jun/Jul-08)
Answer: The Reynolds number defined as the ratio of the inertial force to the viscous force. It is an
important parameter, which represents the nature of flow. If the Reynolds number is greater than 4000,
the flow is termed as turbulent, in which the inertia effect is more than the viscous effects. And, if
Reynolds number is less than 2000, then flow is laminar in which viscous effects are more than the
inertia effect.
The values of Reynolds number in turbines are much higher than the critical values. Most of
the turbines use relatively low viscosity fluids like air, water and light oil. Therefore, the Reynolds
number has very little effect on the power output of the machine. But, Reynolds number is an
important parameter for small pumps, compressors, fans and blowers. Their performance improves
with an increase in Reynolds number.
ρVD
The Reynolds number for the pipe flow is expressed as Re =
μ
1.10 Specific Speed:
The specific speed is the dimensionless term and is the parameter of greatest importance in
incompressible flow machines. The specific speed is only the parameter that doesn’t contain the linear
dimension of the runner. Hence, while operating under the same conditions of flow and head, all
geometrically similar machines have the same specific speed, irrespective of their sizes.
The specific speed can be expressed in terms of discharge (Q) for power absorbing machine or
the power (P) for power generating machine.
Specific poweris referred as the ratio of Power in or out of turbomachine to its weight/Unit Mass/ Unit
Volume.
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1.10.1 Specific Speed of a Pump:

Question No 1.12: Define specific speed of a pump. Derive an expression for specific speed of a
pump from fundamentals. (VTU, Aug-05, Jun-12, Jan 15, Jul-15)
Answer:Specific speed can be defined as “a speed of geometrically similar machines discharging one
cubic meter per second of water under head of one meter”.
gH
Head coefficient is given by
N 2 D2
2 2
N D ∝ gH
( gH )1 /2
or D∝ (1.9)
N
Q
Flow coefficient is given by
N D3
3
or Q∝ N D
( gH )3 /2
From equation (1.9) Q∝
N2
( gH )3/ 2
or Q=C (1.10)
N2
Where C is proportionality constant, from the definition of specific speed of pump:
3
If Q=1 m /s ,∧H=1 m, then N =N s
N 2s
Then equation (1.10) can be written as, C= 3 / 2
g
(1.11)
1/ 2
NQ
Substitute equation (1.11) in equation (1.10), then N s = 3/4 (1.12)
H
The equation (1.12) gives the specific speed of a pump.
1.10.2 Specific Speed of a Turbine:
Question No 1.13: Define specific speed of a turbine. Obtain an expression for the same in terms of
shaft power, speed and head.(VTU, Jul-08, Jul-13, Dec 14/ Jan 1, Jan-175)
Answer: Specific speed of a turbine is defined as “a speed of a geometrically similar machine which
produces one kilowatt power under a head of one meter”.
P
Power coefficient is given by
ρ N 3 D5
(1.13)
( gH )1 /2 ρ ( gH )5 /2
From equation (1.9) D∝ , then equation (1.13) can be written as, P∝
N N2

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ρ ( gH )5/ 2
or P=C
N2
(1.14)
Where C is proportionality constant, from the definition of specific speed of turbine:
If P=1 kW ∧H=1 m ,then N =N s

N 2s
Then, equation (1.14) becomes C= (1.15)
ρ g5 /2
N P1/ 2
Substitute equation (1.15) in equation (1.14), then Ns=
H 5/ 4
(1.16)
The equation (1.16) gives the specific speed of a turbine.

1.10.3 Significance of Specific Speed:

Question No 1.14: Briefly explain the significance of specific speed related to turbomachines.
(VTU, Jul-06, Jan-14)
Answer:In incompressible flow pumps, it possible to guess the approximate rotor shape from the
specific speed. Small specific speed impellers have narrow and small openings whereas large specific
speed impellers have wide openings and are expected to have large flow rates. Thus, a centrifugal
pump has a nearly pure radial outward flow has the small inlet area. The flow rate is small because of
the small inlet area but the head against which it works is high. So for the centrifugal pumps specific
speed is small. Thus, to accommodate the large flow a relatively large impeller is needed for
centrifugal pumps ( H ∝ D 2 ). A volute or mixed-flow pump has a bigger opening because of its
mixed-flow characteristic though the head developed is not as large as that of the centrifugal pump. Its
specific speed is higher than that of the centrifugal pump. At the extreme end is the axial-flow pump,
which has a relatively large flow area and therefore a considerable volume flow rate. The head it
develops is therefore small compared with that of radial-flow pumps. Its specific speed is very large.

Fig. 1.2 Impeller shape variation with specific speed in pumps.

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Fig. 1.3Efficiencyvariation with specific speed in turbines.

Similarly, the specific speed determines the approximate shapes of the rotors as well. Consider
for example the Pelton wheel which is a low specific speed, high head turbine. The volumetric flow
rate is small since the turbine utilizes one or more nozzles from which the fluid emerges as jets. The
Francis turbine covers a wide range of specific speeds and is suitable for intermediate heads. The
Kaplan turbine operates at low heads and need large fluid flow rates to produce reasonable amounts of
power. Their specific speeds are therefore high. Generally, specific speed is used as a guide to select a
type of turbine under given condition of head and flow (i.e. site conditions). Therefore, such a thumb
rule gives rise to a maximum efficiency. Thus, when specific speed is very high, Kaplan turbine is best
selection to give rise to very high efficiency. When specific speed is very low, higher efficiencies are
possible only if Pelton wheel is selected.
1.10.4 Range of Specific Speed of Various Turbomachines:
Specific speed in SI units
1 Pelton wheel
Single jet 3 to 30
Double jet 31 to 43
Four jet 44 to 60
2 Francis turbine
Radial 61 to 102
Mixed (Medium speed) 103 to 188
Mixed (Fast speed) 189 to 368
3 Kaplan (Propeller) turbine 369 to 856
4 Centrifugal pumps
Turbine pump 12 to 25
Volute pump 26 to 95
5 Mixed flow pump 96 to 210
6 Axial flow pump 211 to 320
7 Centrifugal compressor 32 to 74
8 Axial compressor 75 to 120
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9 Blowers 121 to 1050

1.11 Unit Quantities:

Question No 1.15: Define unit quantities. Derive expressions to each of them. (VTU, Jan-08, Jul-16)
Answer: In hydraulic turbines, it is usual to define quantities as unit flow, unit speed and unit power,
which are the values of the quantities under consideration per unit head.
Unit flow (Qu): Unit flow is the flow that occurs through the turbine while working under unit head.
Flow of fluid is given by, Q= A C v √ 2 gH (1.17)
Where A is area of nozzle and Cv is coefficient of velocity.
or Q=K √ H (1.18)
Where K= A C v √2 g proportionality constant.
But, from definition, H=1 m ,Q=Qu
Substitute in equation (1.18), Qu=K

Then, equation (1.18) can be written as, Q=Qu √ H

Q
or Q u=
√H
Unit speed (Nu): Unit speed is the speed at which the machine runs under unit head.
gH
Head coefficient is given by π 2= 2 2
N D
2
or N =KH (1.19)
gH
Where K= proportionality constant.
D2 π 2
From definition, N=N u , H=1 m
2
Substitute in equation (1.19), N u=K
Then, equation (1.19) can be written as, N 2=N 2u H
N
or N u=
√H
Unit power (Pu): Unit power is the power developed by the hydraulic machine while working under a
unit head.
Power developed by hydraulic machine is given by P=ρgQH
But, from equation (1.18), Q=K √ H
Then, P=Kρg H 3 / 2
3/2
or P=C H (1.20)
Where C=Kρg proportionality constant.

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Introduction to Turbomachines

From definition, P=Pu , H=1 m

Substitute in equation (1.20), Pu=C
3/ 2
Then, equation (1.20) can be written as, P=Pu H
P
or Pu=
H 3/ 2
1.12 Model Studies:
The principal of all model designs is to prepare a model, from its behaviour can produce a
trustworthy, consistent and accurate prediction of the prototype performance. For this prediction the
model and prototype should be geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar.Model is a small
scale replica of the actual machine and the actual machine is called prototype.
1.12.1 Geometric Similarity:It is the similarity of form or shape. Two systems, the model and
prototype are said to be geometrically similar if the ratios of all corresponding linear dimensions of the
systems are equal or homologous at all points.
lm b m d m
For geometric similarity: = =
l p bp d p
Where l, b and d are the length, width and depth respectively and m and p are the suffixes that indicate
model and prototype.
1.12.2 Kinematic Similarity: It is the similarity of motion. Two systems are considered to be
kinematically similar if they are geometrically similar and ratios of components of velocity at all
homologous points are equal.
( V 1) m ( V 2) m ( V 3 ) m
For kinematic similarity: = = =…
(V 1)p (V 2)p (V 3)p
Where ( V 1 )m , ( V 2 )m , ( V 3 )m are resultant velocities at points 1, 2, and 3 in the model and

( V 1 ) p , ( V 2 ) p , ( V 3 ) p are resultant velocities at the corresponding points in the prototype.

1.12.3 Dynamic Similarity: Two systems are considered to be dynamically similar if they are
geometrically and kinematically similar and the ratios of the corresponding forces acting at the
corresponding points are equal.
( F 1 )m ( F 2) m ( F 3 )m
For dynamic similarity: = = =…
( F 1) p ( F 2 ) p ( F 3 ) p
Where ( F 1) m , ( F 2 )m , ( F 3 )m are forces acting at points 1, 2, and 3 in the model and

( F 1) p , ( F 2 ) p , ( F 3 ) p are forces acting at the corresponding points in the prototype.

1.13 Moody’s Formula:

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Introduction to Turbomachines

Machines of different sizes handling oils and other viscous fluids undergo efficiency changes
under varying load conditions. For this reason, Moody has suggested an equation to determine turbine
efficiencies from experiments on a geometrically similar model.
For heads smaller than 150 m, the efficiencies of model and prototype are related by the
equation:
0.2
Dm
η p=1−( 1−ηm ) ( )
Dp
For heads larger than 150 m, the efficiencies of model and prototype are related by the
equation:
0.25 0.1
Dm Hm
η p=1−( 1−ηm ) ( ) ( )
Dp Hp
Since the power outputs for the prototype and model hydraulic turbines are
P p=η p ρ Q p g H p and Pm=ηm ρQm g H m , the power-ratio may be written as:
Pp η p Qp Hp
= ( )( )( )
P m ηm Qm Hm
It has been assumed here that similarity equations may be applied and the power incremented in
proportion to the machine efficiency.
From the flow coefficient,
3
Qp Np Dp
=
Qm Nm ( )( ) Dm
But, from the head coefficient,
1
Np D Hp
= m
N m Dp( )( ) Hm
2

Then flow–ratio may be written as,

1 2
Qp Hp Dp
=
Qm Hm ( )( )2
Dm
Finally the power-ratio may be written as,
2 3
Pp η p Dp Hp
= ( )( ) ( )
P m ηm Dm Hm
2

From the above relation the power output-ratio can be calculated using geometric ratio, head-
ratio and efficiency-ratio.
1.14Important Dimensionless Numbers:
Question No 1.16: Explain the following dimensionless numbers: (i) Froude’s number, (ii) Weber’s
number, (iii) Mach’s number and (iv) Euler’s number.(VTU, Dec-07/Jan-08)

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Introduction to Turbomachines

Answer:
(i) Froude’s number: It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to gravity force. Froude’s number has
considerable practical significance in free surface flow problems, like flow in orifices, flow over
notches, flow over the spillways etc. The flow in these problems has predominant gravitational forces.
V2
The Froude’s number is given by .
gL
(ii) Weber’s number: It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to the surface tension force. Weber’s
number has considerable practical significance in problems influenced by surface tension, like gas-
liquid and liquid-liquid interfaces and contact of such interfaces with a solid boundary.These problems
have predominant surface tension force.
2
ρLV
The Weber’s number is given by .
σ
(iii) Mach’s number: It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to elastic force. Mach’s number has
considerable practical significance in compressible flow problems, like shells, bullets, missiles and
rockets fired into air. These problems have predominant elastic force.
V
The Mach’s number is given by
√K / ρ
(iv) Euler’s number: It is defined as the ratio of pressure force to inertia force. Euler’s number has
considerable practical significance in modelling of hydraulic turbines and pumps. The flow in these
machines has predominant pressure forces.
P
The Euler’s number is given by .
ρV 2
Gas turbine enginess
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of continuous combustion, internal combustion engine. There
are three main components:

1. An upstream rotating gas compressor;

2. A downstream turbine on the same shaft;

3. A combustion chamber or area, called a combustor, in between 1. and 2. above.

A fourth component is often used to increase efficiency (turboprop, turbofan), to convert power into mechanical or electric
form (turboshaft, electric generator), or to achieve greater power to mass/volume ratio (afterburner).
The basic operation of the gas turbine is a Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid. Fresh atmospheric air flows through
the compressor that brings it to higher pressure. Energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the
combustion generates a high-temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands
down to the exhaust pressure, producing a shaft work output in the process. The turbine shaft work is used to drive the
compressor; the energy that is not used for compressing the working fluid comes out in the exhaust gases that can be used
to do external work, such as directly producing thrust in a turbojet engine, or rotating a second, independent turbine (known
as a power turbine) which can be connected to a fan, propeller, or electrical generator. The purpose of the gas turbine
determines the design so that the most desirable split of energy between the thrust and the shaft work is achieved. The
fourth step of the Brayton cycle (cooling of the working fluid) is omitted, as gas turbines are open systems that do not use
the same air again.

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Introduction to Turbomachines

Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, pumps, gas compressors, and tanks

The Brayton cycle

The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle named after George Brayton that describes the workings of a constant-
pressure heat engine. The original Brayton engines used a piston compressor and piston expander, but more modern gas
turbine engines and airbreathing jet engines also follow the Brayton cycle. Although the cycle is usually run as an open
system (and indeed must be run as such if internal combustion is used), it is conventionally assumed for the purposes
of thermodynamic analysis that the exhaust gases are reused in the intake, enabling analysis as a closed system.
The engine cycle is named after George Brayton (1830–1892), the American engineer who developed it originally for use in
piston engines, although it was originally proposed and patented by Englishman John Barber in 1791.[1] It is also sometimes
known as the Joule cycle. The reversed Joule cycle uses an external heat source and incorporates the use of a regenerator.
One type of Brayton cycle is open to the atmosphere and uses an internal combustion chamber; and another type is closed
and uses a heat exchanger.
A Brayton-type engine consists of three components: a compressor, a mixing chamber, and an expander.
Modern Brayton engines are almost always a turbine type, although Brayton only made piston engines. In the original 19th-
century Brayton engine, ambient air is drawn into a piston compressor, where it is compressed; ideally an isentropic process.
The compressed air then runs through a mixing chamber where fuel is added, an isobaric process. The pressurized air and
fuel mixture is then ignited in an expansion cylinder and energy is released, causing the heated air and combustion products
to expand through a piston/cylinder, another ideally isentropic process. Some of the work extracted by the piston/cylinder is
used to drive the compressor through a crankshaft arrangement.
Gas turbines are also Brayton engines. This also has three components: a gas compressor, a burner
(or combustion chamber), and an expansion turbine.
Ideal Brayton cycle:

1. isentropic process – ambient air is drawn into the compressor, where it is pressurized.

2. isobaric process – the compressed air then runs through a combustion chamber, where fuel is burned, heating that
air—a constant-pressure process, since the chamber is open to flow in and out.

3. isentropic process – the heated, pressurized air then gives up its energy, expanding through a turbine (or series of
turbines). Some of the work extracted by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.

4. isobaric process – heat rejection (in the atmosphere).

Actual Brayton cycle:

1. adiabatic process – compression

2. isobaric process – heat addition

3. adiabatic process – expansion

4. isobaric process – heat rejection

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Introduction to Turbomachines

Since neither the compression nor the expansion can be truly isentropic, losses through the compressor and the expander
represent sources of inescapable working inefficiencies. In general, increasing the compression ratio is the most direct way
to increase the overall power output of a Brayton system.[11]
The efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle is , where is the heat capacity ratio.[12] Figure 1 indicates how the cycle efficiency
changes with an increase in pressure ratio. Figure 2 indicates how the specific power output changes with an increase in the
gas turbine inlet temperature for two different pressure ratio values.

Combustion chamber

A combustor is a component or area of a gas turbine, ramjet, or scramjet engine where combustion takes place. It is also
known as a burner, combustion chamber or flame holder. In a gas turbine engine, the combustor or combustion
chamber is fed high pressure air by the compression system. The combustor then heats this air at constant pressure. After
heating, air passes from the combustor through the nozzle guide vanes to the turbine. In the case of a ramjet or scramjet
engines, the air is directly fed to the nozzle.
A combustor must contain and maintain stable combustion despite very high air flow rates. To do so combustors are
carefully designed to first mix and ignite the air and fuel, and then mix in more air to complete the combustion process. Early
gas turbine engines used a single chamber known as a can type combustor. Today three main configurations exist: can,
annular and cannular (also referred to as can-annular tubo-annular). Afterburners are often considered another type of
combustor.
Combustors play a crucial role in determining many of an engine's operating characteristics, such as fuel efficiency, levels of
emissions and transient response (the response to changing conditions such as fuel flow and air speed).

The objective of the combustor in a gas turbine is to add energy to the system to power the turbines, and produce a high
velocity gas to exhaust through the nozzle in aircraft applications. As with any engineering challenge, accomplishing this
requires balancing many design considerations, such as the following:
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Introduction to Turbomachines

 Completely combust the fuel. Otherwise, the engine wastes the unburnt fuel and creates unwanted emissions of
unburnt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO) and soot.

 Low pressure loss across the combustor. The turbine which the combustor feeds needs high pressure flow to
operate efficiently.

 The flame (combustion) must be held (contained) inside of the combustor. If combustion happens further back in
the engine, the turbine stages can easily be overheated and damaged. Additionally, as turbine blades continue to grow
more advanced and are able to withstand higher temperatures, the combustors are being designed to burn at higher
temperatures and the parts of the combustor need to be designed to withstand those higher temperatures.

 It should be capable of relighting at high altitude in an event of engine flame-out.

 Uniform exit temperature profile. If there are hot spots in the exit flow, the turbine may be subjected to thermal
stress or other types of damage. Similarly, the temperature profile within the combustor should avoid hot spots, as those
can damage or destroy a combustor from the inside.

 Small physical size and weight. Space and weight is at a premium in aircraft applications, so a well designed
combustor strives to be compact. Non-aircraft applications, like power generating gas turbines, are not as constrained
by this factor.

 Wide range of operation. Most combustors must be able to operate with a variety of inlet pressures, temperatures,
and mass flows. These factors change with both engine settings and environmental conditions (I.e., full throttle at low
altitude can be very different from idle throttle at high altitude).

 Environmental emissions. There are strict regulations on aircraft emissions of pollutants like carbon dioxide and
nitrogen oxides, so combustors need to be designed to minimize those emissions.

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