12.
CHEMICAL FACT SHEETS
History of guideline development
The 1958, 1963 and 1971 WHO International Standards for Drinking-water did not
refer to tetrachloroethene. In the first edition of the Guidelines for Drinking-water
Quality, published in 1984, a tentative guideline value of 0.01 mg/litre was recom-
mended; the guideline was designated as tentative because, although the carcino-
genicity data did not justify a full guideline value, the compound was considered to
have important health implications when present in drinking-water. The 1993 Guide-
lines established a health-based guideline value of 0.04 mg/litre for tetrachloroethene.
Assessment date
The risk assessment was originally conducted in 1993. The Final Task Force Meeting
in 2003 agreed that this risk assessment be brought forward to this edition of the
Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality.
Principal reference
WHO (2003) Tetrachloroethene in drinking-water. Background document for prepara-
tion of WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Geneva, World Health Organi-
zation (WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/23).
12.114 Toluene
Most toluene (in the form of benzene–toluene–xylene mixtures) is used in the blend-
ing of petrol. It is also used as a solvent and as a raw material in chemical production.
The main exposure is via air. Exposure is increased by smoking and in traffic.
Guideline value 0.7 mg/litre
Occurrence Concentrations of a few micrograms per litre have been found in
surface water, groundwater and drinking-water; point emissions can
lead to higher concentrations in groundwater (up to 1 mg/litre). It may
also penetrate plastic pipes from contaminated soil.
TDI 223 mg/kg of body weight, based on a LOAEL of 312 mg/kg of body
weight per day for marginal hepatotoxic effects observed in a 13-
week gavage study in mice, correcting for 5 days per week dosing and
using an uncertainty factor of 1000 (100 for inter- and intraspecies
variation and 10 for the short duration of the study and use of a
LOAEL instead of a NOAEL)
Limit of detection 0.13 mg/litre by GC with FID; 6 mg/litre by GC/MS
Treatment achievability 0.001 mg/litre should be achievable using air stripping
Guideline derivation
• allocation to water 10% of TDI
• weight 60-kg adult
• consumption 2 litres/day
Additional comments The guideline value exceeds the lowest reported odour threshold for
toluene in water.
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GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY
Toxicological review
Toluene is absorbed completely from the gastrointestinal tract and rapidly distributed
in the body, with a preference for adipose tissue. Toluene is rapidly metabolized and,
following conjugation, excreted predominantly in urine. With occupational exposure
to toluene by inhalation, impairment of the central nervous system and irritation of
mucous membranes are observed. The acute oral toxicity is low. Toluene exerts embry-
otoxic and fetotoxic effects, but there is no clear evidence of teratogenic activity in
laboratory animals and humans. In long-term inhalation studies in rats and mice,
there is no evidence for carcinogenicity of toluene. Genotoxicity tests in vitro were
negative, whereas in vivo assays showed conflicting results with respect to chromoso-
mal aberrations. IARC has concluded that there is inadequate evidence for the car-
cinogenicity of toluene in both experimental animals and humans and classified it as
Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans).
History of guideline development
The 1958, 1963 and 1971 WHO International Standards for Drinking-water did not
refer to toluene. In the first edition of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, pub-
lished in 1984, no guideline value was recommended after a detailed evaluation of
the compound. The 1993 Guidelines established a health-based guideline value of
0.7 mg/litre for toluene, but noted that this value exceeds the lowest reported odour
threshold for toluene in water (0.024 mg/litre).
Assessment date
The risk assessment was conducted in 2003.
Principal reference
WHO (2003) Toluene in drinking-water. Background document for preparation of
WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Geneva, World Health Organization
(WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/116).
12.115 Total dissolved solids (TDS)
TDS comprise inorganic salts (principally calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium,
bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates) and small amounts of organic matter that are
dissolved in water. TDS in drinking-water originate from natural sources, sewage,
urban runoff and industrial wastewater. Salts used for road de-icing in some coun-
tries may also contribute to the TDS content of drinking-water. Concentrations of
TDS in water vary considerably in different geological regions owing to differences in
the solubilities of minerals.
Reliable data on possible health effects associated with the ingestion of TDS in
drinking-water are not available, and no health-based guideline value is proposed.
However, the presence of high levels of TDS in drinking-water may be objectionable
to consumers (see chapter 10).
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