10/9/2007

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Chapter 2

Conservation Laws of Fluid Motion

andd Boundary
B d Conditions
C diti

Prepared by: Prof. Dr. I. Sezai

Eastern Mediterranean University
Mechanical Engineering Department

Governing Equations of Fluid Flow and Heat

Transfer
The governing equations of fluid flow represent
mathematical statements of the conservation laws of
physics.

• The mass of fluid is conserved

• The rate of change of momentum equals the sum of the
f
forces on a fluid
fl id particle
i l (Newton’s
(N ’ secondd law)
l )
• The rate of change of energy is equal to the sum of the
rate of heat addition to and the rate of work done on a
fluid particle (first law of thermodynamics).

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The six faces are labelled

N, S, E, W, T, B

The center of the element is

located at position (x, y, z)

ρ = ρ (x, y, z, t) p = p (x, y, z, t) Fig. 2-1 Fluid element for

T = T (x, y, z, t) u = u (x, y, z, t) conservation laws.

Fluid properties at faces are approximated by means of the two terms

of the Taylor series
The pressure at the E and W faces, can be expressed as

∂p 1 ∂p 1
p− δx and p+ δx
∂x 2 ∂x 2

Mass Conservation in Three Dimensions

 Rate of increase   Net rate of flow 

 of mass in  =  of mass into 
 fluid element   fluid element 
   

∂ ∂ρ  ∂( ρ u ) 1   ∂( ρu) 1 
( ρδ xδ yδ z ) = (δ xδ yδ z ) =  ρ u − δ x  δ yδ z −  ρ u + δ x  δ yδ z
∂t ∂t  ∂x 2   ∂x 2 
 ∂( ρ v) 1   ∂ ( ρ v) 1 
+  ρv − 2 δ y  δ xδ z −  ρ v + 2 δ y  δ xδ z
 ∂y   ∂y 
 ∂ ( ρ w) 1   ∂ ( ρ w) 1 
+  ρw − 2 δ z  δ xδ y −  ρ w + 2 δ z  δ xδ y
 ∂z   ∂z 

∂ρ ∂ ( ρ u ) ∂ ( ρ v) ∂ ( ρ w) Net flow of mass out of the control volume

+ + + =0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ρ
Or in more compact vector notation Æ + div( ρ u) = 0 (2-4)
∂t
∂ ( ρ u ) ∂ ( ρ v) ∂ ( ρ w)
For an incompressible fluid ρ = const Æ div( ρ u) = 0 or ∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z
=0

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Rates of change following a fluid particle and for

a fluid element
The total or substantial derivative of ø with respect to time following a
fluid particle is
Dφ ∂φ ∂φ dx ∂φ dyy ∂φ dz
= + + +
Dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
A fluid particle follows the flow, so
dx / dt = u
dy / dt = v
dz / dt = w

Hence the substantive derivative of ø is given by

Dφ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
= +u +v +w = + u ⋅ gradφ
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

Dø/Dt defines the rate of change of property ø per unit mass.

The rate of change of property ø per unit volume for a fluid particle is
ρDø/Dt, hence
Dφ  ∂φ 
ρ = ρ + u ⋅ gradφ 
Dt  ∂t 
ρ = mass per unit volume.

Lhs of the mass conservation equation (2-4) is

∂ρ
+ div( ρ u)
∂t
The ggeneralization of these terms for an arbitraryy conserved property
p p y is
∂ ( ρφ ) (2-9)
+ div( ρφ u)
∂t
 Net rate of flow of φ 
 Rate of increase   
 +
  out of fluid element 
 of φ per unit volume   
 per unit volume 

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Rewriting eq. (2-9)

= 0 (due to conservation
of mass)
 
∂ ( ρφ )  ∂φ   ∂ρ  Dφ
+ div( ρφ u) = ρ  + u ⋅ gradφ  + φ  + div( ρ u)  = ρ
∂t  ∂t   ∂t  Dt

 Rate of increase   Net rate of flow of φ   Rate of increase 

     
 of φ of  +  out of  =  of φ for a 
 fluid element   fluid element   fluid particle 
     

x-momentum u Du ∂( ρu )
ρ + div ( ρ uu )
Dt ∂t
y-momentum v Dv ∂ ( ρ v)
ρ + div ( ρ vu )
Dt ∂t
z-momentum w Dw ∂ ( ρ w)
ρ + div ( ρ wu )
Dt ∂t
energy E DE ∂( ρ E )
ρ + div ( ρ Eu )
Dt ∂t

The rates of increase of x-, y-, and z-momentum per unit volume are

Du Dv Dw
ρ ρ ρ
Dt Dt Dt
We distinguish two types of forces on fluid particles:
• surface
f f
forces - pressure forces
f
- viscous forces
• body forces - gravity forces
- centrifugal forces
source terms
- Coriolis forces
- electromagnetic force

The pressure, a normal stress, is denoted by p.

Viscous stresses are denoted by τ.

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Fig. 2-3 Stress components on three

faces of fluid element.
The suffices i and j in τij indicate that
the stress component acts in the j-
direction on a surface normal to the i-
direction.

First we consider the x-

components of the forces
due to pressure p and stress
components τxx, τyx and τzx
shown in Fig. 2-4.

Fig. 2-4 Stress components in

the x-direction.

The net force in the x-direction is the

sum of the force components acting
in that direction on the fluid element.
On the pair of faces (E, W) we have

 ∂p 1   ∂τ xx 1  
 p − ∂x 2 δ x  − τ xx − ∂x 2 δ x   δ yδ z
   
  ∂p 1   ∂τ xx 1  
+ −  p + δ x  + τ xx + δ x  δ yδ z
  ∂x 2   ∂x 2  
 ∂p ∂τ  (2-12a)
=  − + xx  δ xδ yδ z
 ∂x ∂x 
The net force in the x-direction on the ppair of faces (N,
( , S)) is
 ∂τ   ∂τ  ∂τ
−  τ yx − yx 12 δ y  δ xδ z +  τ yx + yx 12 δ y  δ xδ z = yx δ xδ yδ z (2-12b)
 ∂y   ∂y  ∂y

The net force in the x-direction on the pair of faces (T, B) is

 ∂τ   ∂τ  ∂τ
−  τ zx − zx 12 δ z  δ xδ y +  τ zx + zx 12 δ z  δ xδ y = zx δ xδ yδ z (2-12c)
 ∂z   ∂z  ∂z

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The total force per unit volume on the fluid due to these surface
stresses is equal to the sum of (2-12a), (2-12b), (2-12c) divided by the
volume δxδyδz:
∂ (− p + τ xx ) ∂τ yx ∂τ zx
+ + (2.13)
∂x ∂y ∂z
To find x-component of the momentum equation:
 Rate of change of   Total force in x-direction   Total force in x-direction 
 x-momentum of  =  on the element due to  +  on the element due to 
 fluid particle   surface stresses   body forces 
 
   
   

Eqn.(2.11) Eqn.(2.13) S Mx

Du ∂ (− p + τ xx ) ∂τ yx ∂τ zx
ρ = + + + S Mx (2.14a)
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z

SMx = Body force on the element per unit volume in x-direction

SMz = –ρg (body force due to gravity per unit volume)

Similarly, y-component of the momentum equation is

Dv ∂τ xy ∂ (− p + τ yy ) ∂τ zy
ρ = + + + S My (2.14b)
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z

d z-component off the

and, h momentum equation
i isi

Dw ∂τ xz ∂τ yz ∂ (− p + τ zz )
ρ = + + + S Mz (2.14c)
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z

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Energy Equation in Three Dimensions

The energy equation is derived from the first law of thermodynamics
which states that

( )
Rate of increase  Net rate of   Net rate of work 
=  heat added to  +  done on 
of energy of fluid particle  fluid particle   fluid particle 
  
   
DE
ρ
Dt

Work Done byy Surface Forces = Fsurface forces × V

V = velocity component in the direction of the force.

The surface forces given by (2.12a-c) all act in the x-direction.

The net rate of work done by these forces acting in x-direction is
 ∂ [u (− p + τ xx ) ] ∂ (uτ yx ) ∂ (uτ zx ) 
 + +  δ xδ yδ z (2.16a)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Similarly work done by surface stresses in y and z-direction
Similarly, direction are
 ∂ (vτ xy ) ∂ v(− p + τ yy )  ∂ (vτ zy ) 
 +  +  δ xδ yδ z (2.16b)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 ∂ ( wτ xz ) ∂ ( wτ yz ) ∂ [ w(− p + τ zz ) ] 
 + +  δ xδ yδ z (2.16c)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

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Summing (2.16a-c) yields the total rate of work done on the fluid
particle by surface stresses:

∂ (uτ xx ) ∂ (uτ yx ) ∂ (uτ zx ) ∂ (vτ xy ) ∂ (vτ yy ) ∂ (vτ zy )

[ −div( pu)] + + + + + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ( wτ xz ) ∂ ( wτ yz ) ∂ ( wτ zz )
+ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

where
∂ (up ) ∂ (vp ) ∂ ( wp )
− div( pu) = − − −
∂x ∂y ∂z

Energy Flux due to Heat Conduction

The heat flux vector has three
components qx, qy, qz

The net rate of heat transfer to the CV due to heat flow in x-direction is

 ∂qx 1   ∂qx 1   ∂qx

 qx − ∂x 2 δ x  −  qx + ∂x 2 δ x   δ yδ z = − ∂x δ xδ yδ z (2.18b-c)
   

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Similarly, the net rates of heat transfer to the fluid due to heat flows in
the y- and z-direction are
∂q y ∂q
− δ xδ yδ z and − z δ xδ yδ z (2.18b-c)
∂y ∂z
The net rate of heat added to CV per unit volume is the sum of (2.18a-
c)) divided b δxδyδz
di id d by δ δ δ
∂q ∂q y ∂qz
− x− − = − div q
∂x ∂y ∂z (2.19)
∂T ∂T ∂T
qx = − k q y = −k qz = − k
∂x ∂y ∂z
This can be written in vector form as
q = −k grad T
Combining (2.19) and (2.20) yields the rate of heat addition to the
CV due to heat conduction
−div q = div(k grad T )

Energy Equation
sum of the net rate of work done on the CV
by surface stresses (2.17)

 ∂ (uτ xx ) ∂ (uτ yx ) ∂ (uτ zx ) ∂ (vτ xy ) 
 −div( pu) + + + + 
DE ∂ x ∂y ∂z ∂x 
ρ = (2.22)
Dt  + ∂ (vτ yy ) + ∂ (vτ zy ) + ∂ ( wτ xz ) + ∂ ( wτ yz ) + ∂ ( wτ zz ) 
 ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z 

+ div(k grad T ) + SE
  
N
net rate of heat addition rate of increase of energy
to the fluid (2.21) due to sources

E = i + 12 (u 2 + v 2 + w2 )
 

kinetic energy
i = internal (thermal) energy
SE = source of energy per unit volume per unit time (i.e. effects of
potential energy changes)

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Multiplying
the x-momentum equation (2.14a) by u
the y-momentum equation (2.14a) by v
the z-momentum equation (2.14a) by w

and adding the results together

D  12 (u 2 + v 2 + w2   ∂τ ∂τ ∂τ 
ρ = −u ⋅ grad p + u  xx + yx + zx 
Dt  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 ∂τ xyy ∂τ yy ∂τ zyy 
+ v + + 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 ∂τ ∂τ ∂τ 
+ w  xz + yz + zz  + u ⋅ S M (2.23)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

Subtracting (2.23) from (2.22)

Di ∂u ∂u
ρ = − p div u + div( k grad T ) + τ xx + τ yx
Dt ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂w
+ τ zx + τ xy + τ yy + τ zy + τ xz
∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
∂w ∂w
+ τ yz + τ zz + Si
∂y ∂z
where Si =SE – u.SM
For an incompressible fluid Æ i = cT and div u = 0 (c = specific heat)

DT ∂u ∂u ∂u
ρc = div( k grad T ) + τ xx + τ yx + τ zx
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂w
+ τ xy + τ yy + τ zy + τ xz
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
∂w ∂w
+ τ yz + τ zz + Si
∂y ∂z

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h =i+ p/ρ and ho = h + 12 (u 2 + v 2 + w2 )

Specific enthalphy Specific total enthalphy

Combiningg these two definitions with the one for specific

p gy E
energy
ho = i + p / ρ + 12 (u 2 + v 2 + w2 ) = E + p / ρ (2.26)

Substituting of (2.26) into (2.22) yields the (total) enthalphy equation

∂ ( ρ ho )
+ div( ρ ho u) = div( k grad T )
∂t
∂p ∂ (uτ xx ) ∂ (uτ yx ) ∂ (uτ zx )
+ + + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ (vτ xy ) ∂ (vτ yy ) ∂ (vτ zy )
+ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ( wτ xz ) ∂ ( wτ yz ) ∂ ( wτ zz ) (2.27)
+ + + + Sh
∂x ∂y ∂z

Equations of State
• Thermodynamic variables: ρ, p, i and T.
• Relationships between the thermodynamic variables can be obtained
through the assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium.
• Equations of state for pressure p and specific internal energy i:
p = p(ρ, T) and i = i(ρ, T)
• For a perfect gas equations of state are
p = ρRT and i = CvT
• In the flow of compressible fluids the equations of state provide the
linkage between the energy equation and mass conservation and
momentum equations.
• Liquids and gases flowing at low speeds behave as incompressible
fluids.
• Without density variations there is no linkage between the energy
equation and the mass conservation and momentum equations.

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Navier-Stokes Equations for a Newtonian Fluid

• We need a suitable model for the viscous stresses τij.
• Viscous stresses can be expressed as functions of the
local deformation rate (or strain rate).
rate)
• In 3D flows the local rate of deformation is
composed of the linear deformation rate and the
volumetric deformation rate.
• All ggases and manyy liquids
q are isotropic.
p
• The rate of linear deformation of a fluid element has
nine components in 3D, six of which are
independent in isotropic fluids.
• They are denoted by the symbol eij.

There are three linear elongating deformation components:

∂u ∂v ∂w
exx = eyy = ezz =
∂x ∂y ∂z
There are also shearing linear deformation components:
 ∂u ∂v   ∂u ∂w 
exy = eyx = 12  +  exz = ezx = 12  + 
 ∂y ∂x   ∂z ∂x 
 ∂v ∂w 
eyz = ezy = 12  + 
 ∂z ∂y 
The volumetric deformation is given by
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + = div u
∂x ∂y ∂z

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• In a Newtonian fluid the viscous stresses are

proportional to the rates of deformation.
• The 3D form of Newton’s law of viscosity for
compressible flows involves two constants of
proportionality:
- The (first) dynamic viscosity, µ, to relate stresses
to linear deformations,
- The second viscosity, λ, to relate stresses to the
volumetric
l t i deformation.
d f ti

The nine viscous stress components, of which six are independent, are
∂u ∂v ∂w
τ xx = 2 µ + λ div u τ yy = 2µ + λ div u τ zz = 2µ + λ div u
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂u ∂v   ∂u ∂w 
τ xy = τ yx = µ  +  τ xz = τ zx = µ  + 
 ∂y ∂x   ∂z ∂x 
 ∂v ∂w 
τ yz = τ zy = µ  + 
 ∂z ∂y  (2.31)

Not much is known about the second viscosity λ, because its effect is
small.
For gases a good working approximation is λ = –⅔
⅔µ
Liquids are incompressible so the mass conservation equation is
div u = 0

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Substitution of the above shear stresses (2.31) into (2.14a-c) yields the
Navier Stokes equations

Du ∂p ∂  ∂u  ∂  ∂u ∂v 
ρ = − +  2µ + λ div u  +  µ + 
Dt ∂x ∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y ∂x  (2.32a)
∂  ∂v ∂w 
+ µ + + S Mx
∂z  ∂z ∂x 

Dv ∂p ∂  ∂u ∂v  ∂  ∂v 
ρ = − + µ +  +  2µ + λ div u  (2.32b)
Dt ∂y ∂x  ∂y ∂x  ∂y  ∂y 
∂  ∂v ∂w 
+ µ + + S My
∂z  ∂z ∂y 

Dw ∂p ∂  ∂u ∂w  ∂  ∂v ∂w 
ρ = − + µ + + µ + (2.32c)
Dt ∂z ∂x  ∂z ∂x  ∂y  ∂z ∂y 
∂  ∂w 
+ 2µ + λ div u  + S Mz
∂z  ∂z 

Often it is useful to rearrange the viscous stress terms as follows:

∂  ∂u  ∂  ∂u ∂v  ∂  ∂v ∂w 
2µ + λ div u  +  µ + + µ +
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y ∂x  ∂z  ∂z ∂x 
∂  ∂u  ∂  ∂u  ∂  ∂u  div( µ grad u )
= µ + µ + µ 
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z 
 ∂  ∂u  ∂  ∂v  ∂  ∂w   ∂ S Mx
+ µ + µ + µ   + (λ div u)
 ∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂x  ∂z  ∂x   ∂x
= div( µ grad u ) + S Mx

The viscous stresses in the y- and z-momentum equations can be re-

cast in a similar manner.
To simplify the momentum equations:
‘hide’ the two smaller contributions to the viscous stress terms in the
momentum source.
Defining a new source by
SM = SM + sM (2.33)

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the Navier-Stokes equations can be written in the most useful form for
the development of the finite volume method:

Du ∂p
ρ = − + div( µ grad u ) + S Mx
Dt ∂x ((2.34a))

Dv ∂p
ρ = − + div( µ grad v) + S My (2.34b)
Dt ∂y

Dw ∂p
ρ = − + div( µ grad w) + S Mz (2.34c)
Dt ∂z

If we use the Newtonian model for viscous stresses in the internal

energy equation (2.24) we obtain

Di
ρ = − p div u + div(k grad T ) + Φ + Si (2.35)
Dt

The dissipation function Φ is

  ∂u 2  ∂v  2  ∂w  2   ∂u ∂v  2 
 2   +   +   + +  
  ∂x   ∂y   ∂z    ∂y ∂x  
Φ=µ  + λ (div u)
2
(2.36)
2
  ∂u ∂w   ∂v ∂w 
2

+  +  + +  
  ∂z ∂x   ∂z ∂y  

The dissipation function represents a source of internal energy due

to deformation work on the fluid particle.

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Conservative Form of the Governing Equations of

Fluid Flow
The conservative or divergence form of the time-dependent 3-D flow
and energy equations of a compressible Newtonian fluid:
∂ρ
Mass + div( ρ u) = 0 (2.4)
∂t
∂( ρu) ∂p
x-momentum + div( ρ uu) = − + div( µ grad u ) + S Mx (2.37a)
∂t ∂x
∂ ( ρ v) ∂p
y -momentum + div( ρ vu) = − + div( µ grad v) + S My (2.37b)
∂t ∂y
∂ ( ρ w) ∂p (2.37c)
z -momentum + div( ρ wu) = − + div( µ grad w) + S Mz
∂t ∂z
∂( ρi)
internal energy + div( ρ iu ) = − p div u + div(k grad T ) + Φ + Si (2.38c)
∂t
equations of state p = p ( ρ , T ) and i = i ( ρ , T ) (2.28)
e.g. for a perfect gas:
p = ρ RT and i = CvT (2.29)
Table 2.1
A system of seven equations with seven unknowns Æ this system is
mathematically closed.

Differential and Integral Forms of the General

Transport Equations
Equations in Table 2.1 can usefully written in the following form:
∂ ( ρφ )
+ div( ρφ u) = div( µ grad φ ) + Sφ (2 39)
(2.39)
∂t

 Rate of increase   Net rate of flow   Rate of increase   Rate of increase 

 of φ of fluid  +  of φ out of  =  of φ due to  +  of φ due to 
 element   fluid element   diffusion   sources 
       

Rate of change
g term convective term diffusive term source term

Equation (2.39) is used as the starting point in finite volume method.

φ = 1, u , v, w, i 
By setting Γ = 0, µ , k  → we obtain equations in Table 2.1.
 Sφ = 0, ( S Mx − ∂p / ∂x),..., 

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In the finite volume method (2.39) is integrated over 3-D control

volume yielding

∂ ( ρφ )
∫
CV
∂t
dV + ∫ div( ρφ u)dV = ∫ div(Γ grad φ )dV + ∫ Sφ dV
CV CV CV
(2.40)

For a vector a Gauss’ divergence theorem states

CV
∫ div adV =∫ n ⋅ adA
A
(2.41)

Applying Gauss’ divergence theorem, equation (2.40) can be written

as

∂ 
 ∫ ρφ dV  + ∫ n ⋅ ( ρφ u)dA = ∫ n ⋅ (Γ grad φ )dA + ∫ Sφ dV (2.42)
∂t  CV  A A CV

Equation (2.42) can be expressed as follows:

 Net rate of   Rate of increase 

( Rate of + 
)
decrease of φ due to  =  of φ due to
(
 + Net rate of
increase of φ  convection across   diffusion across  creation of φ
 the boundaries   the boundaries 
)
   
In steady state problems the rate of change term of (2.42) is equal to
zero.

∫ n ⋅ ( ρφu)dA =∫ n ⋅ (Γ grad φ )dA + ∫ Sφ dV

A A CV
(2.43)

Integrating (2.42)
(2 42) with respect to time
∂ 
∫ ∂t  ∫ ρφ dV dt + ∫ ∫ n ⋅ ( ρφu)dAdt
∆t CV ∆t A
= ∫ ∫ n ⋅ (Γ grad φ )dAdt + ∫ ∫ Sφ dVdt (2.44)
∆t A ∆t CV

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Auxiliary Conditions for Viscous Fluid Flow Equations

Table 2-5 Boundary conditions for compressible viscous flow.
Initial conditions for unsteady flows:
• Everywhere in the solution region ρ, u and T must be given at time t = 0
Boundary conditions for unsteady and steady flows:
• On solid walls u = uw (no-slip condition)
T = Tw (fixed temperature) or k∂T/∂n = –qw (fixed heat flux)
• On fluid boundaries inlet: ρ, u and T must be known as a function of position
outlet: –p +µ∂un/∂n =Fn and –p +µ∂ut/∂n =Ft (stress continuity)

Suffices: n → normal direction

to boundary
t → tangential direction
F → given surface stress
For incompressible viscous flows:
Table 2.5 is applicable, except that there are no conditions on the density ρ.

Outflow boundaries:
• High Re flows far from solid objects in an external flow
• Fully developed flow out of a duct.

F these
For h bboundaries:
d i
Pressure = specified
∂un/∂n = 0
∂T/∂n = 0

Sources and sinks of mass are placed on the inlet and outlet
boundaries to ensure the correct mass flow into and out of domain.

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Boundary conditions for an internal flow problem.

Boundary conditions for an external flow problem.

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Example to symmetry boundary conditions:

∂φ
=0
∂r

Example to cyclic boundary conditions:

Cyclic b.c.: φ1 = φ2

1
1 2

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