)

Introduction
phere
Pedos
Soil (

Welcome
Soils are one of Earth’s essential natural we eat and most of the materials we use for
resources, yet they are often taken for paper, buildings, and clothing are dependent
granted. Most people do not realize that soils on soils. Soils play an important role in the
are a living, breathing world supporting nearly amount and types of gases in the atmosphere.
all terrestrial life. Soils and the functions they They store and transfer heat, affect the
play within an ecosystem vary greatly from temperature of the atmosphere, and control
one location to another as a result of many the activities of plants and other organisms
factors, including differences in climate, the living in the soil. By studying these functions

Introduction
animal and plant life living on them, the soil’s that soils play, students and scientists learn to
parent material, the position of the soil on the interpret a site’s climate, geology, vegetation,
landscape, and the age of the soil. hydrology, and human history. They begin to
Scientists, engineers, farmers, developers understand soil as an important component
and other professionals consider a soil’s of every land ecosystem on Earth and of the
physical and chemical characteristics, Earth System as a whole.
moisture content and temperature to make
decisions such as: Scientists Need GLOBE Data
• Where is the best place to build a The data students collect through the GLOBE
building? soil measurements are invaluable to scientists
• What types of crops will grow best in a in many fields. For example, Soil scientists
use the data to better understand how soils

Protocols
particular field?
• Will the basement of a house flood form, how they should be managed, and
when it rains? what their potential is for plant growth and
other land use. Hydrologists use the data to
• How can the quality of the groundwater
determine water movement through a soil and
in the area be improved?
a watershed and the effect of soils on water
Using the data collected in the GLOBE Soil chemistry. They also examine the effects of
(Pedosphere) Investigation, students help different types of soil on the sedimentation
scientists describe soils and understand in rivers and lakes. Meteorologists and
how they function. They determine how climatologists use soil data in weather and

Learning Activities
soils change and the ways they affect other climate prediction models. Atmospheric
parts of the ecosystem, such as the climate, scientists want to know the effect of soils on
vegetation, and hydrology. Information about humidity, temperature, reflected light, and
soils is integrated with data from the other fluxes of gases such as CO2 and methane.
GLOBE protocol investigations to gain a Biologists examine the properties of soil to
better view of Earth as a system. understand its potential for supporting plant
and animal life. Anthropologists study the soil
in order to reconstruct the human history of
Why Investigate Soils? an area.
Soils develop on top of Earth’s land surface as When data are available for many areas of
a thin layer, known as the pedosphere. This the world, scientists study the spatial patterns
thin layer is a precious natural resource and of soil properties. When a full set of GLOBE
so deeply affects every part of the ecosystem atmosphere, hydrology, land cover and soils
Appendix

that it is often called the “great integrator.” data exists at a specific site, scientists can
For example, soils hold nutrients and water use the information to run computer models
for plants and animals. They filter and clean to understand how the whole ecosystem
water that passes through them. They can functions and to make predictions about what
change the chemistry of water and the amount the ecosystem will be like in the future.
that recharges the groundwater or returns
to the atmosphere to form rain. The foods

GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 1 Soil (Pedosphere)

The Big Picture nutrients. Animals and microorganisms
living in the soil control the rates of
decomposition for organic and waste
Soil Composition materials. Organisms in the soil
Soils are composed of four main components: contribute to the exchange of gases
• Mineral particles of different sizes. such as carbon dioxide, oxygen,
• Organic materials from the remains of and nitrogen between the soil and
dead plants and animals. the atmosphere. They also help the
• Water that fills open pore spaces. soil filter impurities in water. Human
• Air that fills open pore spaces. actions transform the soil as well, as
The use and function of a soil depends on the we farm, build, dam, dig, process,
amount of each component. For example, a transport, and dispose of waste.
good soil for growing agricultural plants has 4. Topography: The location of a soil on
about 45% minerals, 5% organic matter, 25% a landscape also affects its formation
air, and 25% water. Plants that live in wetlands and its resulting properties. For
require more water and less air. Soils used as example, soils at the bottom of a hill
raw material for bricks need to be completely will get more water than soils on the
free of organic matter. hillside, and soils on slopes that get
direct sunlight will be drier than soils
The Five Soil Forming Factors on slopes that do not.
5. Time: The amount of time that the
The properties of a soil are the result of the other 4 factors listed above have been
interaction between the Five Soil Forming interacting with each other affects the
Factors. These factors are: properties of the soil. Some properties,
1. Parent Material: The material from such as temperature and moisture
which the soil is formed determines content, change quickly, often over
many of its properties. The parent minutes and hours. Others, such as
material of a soil may be bedrock, mineral changes, occur very slowly
organic material, construction material, over hundreds or thousands of years.
or loose soil material deposited by Figure SOIL-I-1 lists different soil
wind, water, glaciers, volcanoes, or properties and the approximate time it
moved down a slope by gravity. takes for them to change.
2. Climate: Heat, rain, ice, snow, wind,
Soil Profiles
sunshine, and other environmental
forces break down parent material, The five soil-forming factors differ from place
move loose soil material, determine to place causing soil properties to vary from
the animals and plants able to survive one location to another. Each area of soil on
at a location, and affect the rates a landscape has unique characteristics. A
of soil forming processes and the vertical section at one location is called a soil
resulting soil properties. profile. See Figure SOIL-I-2. When we look
3. Organisms: The soil is home to closely at the properties of a soil profile and
large numbers of plants, animals, consider the five soil forming factors, the story
and microorganisms. The physical of the soil at that site and the formation of the
and chemical properties of a soil area is revealed.
determine the type and number of The chapters of the soil story at any location
organisms that can survive and thrive are read in the layers of the soil profile.
in that soil. Organisms also shape These layers are known as horizons. Soil
the soil they live in. For example, the horizons can be as thin as a few millimeters
growth of roots and the movement or thicker than a meter. Individual horizons
of animals and microorganisms shift are identified by the properties they contain
materials and chemicals around in the that are different from the horizons above and
soil profile. The dead remains of soil below them. Some soil horizons are formed
organisms become organic matter as a result of the weathering of minerals
that enriches the soil with carbon and and decomposition of organic materials that
GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 2 Soil (Pedosphere)
Figure SOIL-I-1

Welcome
Soil Properties That Change Over Time
Properties that change Properties that change Properties that change
over minutes or hours over months or years over hundreds and
thousands of years

Temperature Soil pH Mineral content

Moisture content Soil color Particle size distribution
Local composition of air Soil structure Horizons
Bulk density Particle density
Soil organic matter

Introduction
Soil fertility
Microorganisms, animals,
plants

move down the soil profile over time. This Moisture in the Soil
movement, called illuviation, influences the Moisture plays a major role in the chemical,
horizon’s composition and properties. Other biological and physical activities that take
horizons may be formed by the disturbance place in the soil. Chemically, moisture
of the soil profile from erosion, deposition, transports substances through the profile.
or biological activity. Soils may also have This affects soil properties such as color,
been altered by human activity. For example, texture, pH, and fertility. Biologically, moisture

Protocols
builders compact soil, change its composition, determines the types of plants that grow in
move soil from one location to another, or the soil and affects the way the roots are
replace horizons in a different order from their distributed. For example, in desert areas
original formation. where soils are dry, plants such as cacti
must store water or send roots deep into the
soil to tap water buried tens of meters below
Figure SOIL-I-2: Soil Profile the surface. Plants in tropical regions have
many of their roots near the surface where
organic material stores much of the water

Learning Activities
and nutrients the plants need. Agricultural
plants grow best in soils where water occupies
O O Horizon- Plant litter.approximately one-fourth
Organic debris (leaves, etc.) in various of the soil volume
stages of decay. as vapor or liquid. Physically, soil moisture
A is part
A Horizon- Zone of eluviation. Zoneof the hydrologic
of maximum humus cycle. Water falls
accumulation (usuallyon the soil surface as precipitation. This
dark brown).

E water Zone
E Horizon- Zone of eluviation. seeps down
of maximum into the soil in a process
eluviation
(usually light colored)called infiltration. After water infiltrates the

soil, it is stored in the horizons, taken up by

plants, moved upward by evaporation, or
B movedclay.
B Horizon- Zone of translocated downward into the underlying bedrock
to become ground water. The amount of
moisture contained in a soil can change
Appendix

rapidly, sometimes increasing within minutes

or hours. In contrast, it might take weeks or
C C Horizon- Weathered unconsolidated material.
months for soils to dry out. If a soil horizon is
compacted, has very small pore spaces, or
is saturated with water, infiltration will occur
R R Horizon- Bedrock slowly, increasing the potential for flooding

in an area. If the water cannot move down

GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 3 Soil (Pedosphere)

into the soil fast enough, it will flow over the biological activity in the soil. Generally, the
surface as runoff and may rapidly end up in warmer the soil, the greater the biological
streams or other water bodies. When the soil activity of microorganisms living in the soil.
is not covered by vegetation and the slope of Microorganisms in warm tropical soils break
the land is steep, water erosion occurs. Deep down organic materials much faster than
scars are formed in the landscape as a result microorganisms in cold climate soils. Near the
of the combined force of the runoff water surface, the temperature and moisture of the
and soil particles flowing over the surface. soil affect the atmosphere as heat and water
When a soil horizon is dry, or has large pore vapor are exchanged between the land and
spaces that are similar in size to the horizon the air. These effects are smaller than those
above, water will infiltrate the horizon quickly. at the surfaces of oceans, seas, and large
If the soil gets too dry and is not covered by lakes, but can significantly influence local
vegetation, wind erosion may occur. weather conditions. Hurricanes have been
The surface layer of soil is in direct content found to intensify when they pass over soil
with the atmosphere and moisture entering that is saturated with water. Meteorologists
or leaving the soil passes through this layer. have found that their forecasts can be
Except in hyper arid conditions, the only soil improved if they factor soil temperature and
property that can be measured from satellites moisture into their calculations.
is the moisture in the top 5 cm. NASA has
flown the Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) Soils Around the World
mission to measure this environmental Following are examples of six different
property. Calibration and validation of SMAP soil profiles and landscapes. See Figures
data need in situ measurements of surface SOIL-I-4 through I-9.
soil moisture, and GLOBE and SMAP have
partnered to obtain these data from GLOBE
participants.

Soil Temperature
The temperature of a soil can change
quickly. Near the surface, it changes almost
as quickly as the air temperature changes,
but because soil is denser than air, its
temperature variations are less. Daily and
annual cycles of soil temperature can be
measured. During a typical day, the soil
is cool in the morning, warms during the
afternoon, and then cools down again at
night. See Figure SOIL-I-3. Over the course
of the year, the soil warms up or cools down
with the seasons. Because soil temperature
changes more slowly than air temperature, it
acts as an insulator, protecting soil organisms
and buried pipes from the extremes of air
temperature variations. In temperate regions,
the surface soil may freeze in winter and thaw
in the spring, while in some colder climates, a
permanent layer of ice, called permafrost, is
found below the soil surface. In either case,
the ground never freezes below a certain
depth. The overlying soil acts as insulation
so that the temperature of the deeper layers
of soil is almost constant throughout the year.
Temperature greatly affects the chemical and

GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 4 Soil (Pedosphere)

Figure SOIL-I-3

Air and Soil Temperatures for one week

35

30

25
Temperature (degrees C)

20

15

10

Soil 50 cm (C) Soil 10 cm (C)

5
Soil 5 cm (C) Air (C)

0
4/6/01 4/6/01 4/7/01 4/7/01 4/8/01 4/8/01 4/9/01 4/9/01 4/10/01 4/10/01 4/11/01 4/11/01 4/12/01 4/12/01 4/13/01 4/13/01 4/14/01
0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00

Date and Time

GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 5 Soil (Pedosphere)

Figure SOIL-I-4: Grassland soils sampled in the southern part of Texas in the USA

These soils are common in the mid-western USA, and in

the grasslands of Argentina and Ukraine. They are usually
deep and dark in color, and are among the best soils for
growing crops. Their dark color is caused by many years
of grass roots dying, decomposing, and building up the
organic matter content that allows the soil to hold the water
and nutrients needed for excellent plant growth.

Figure SOIL-I-5: Soil formed under a forest in far eastern Russia, near the city of Magadan

Most of the organic matter in this soil comes from the leaves and
roots of coniferous trees that die and decompose near the surface.
When this decomposed organic matter mixes with rain, acids form
that leach, or remove, materials from the top horizons of the soil.
The white layer you see below the dark surface layer was caused
by organic acids that removed the nutrients, organics, clays, iron,
and other materials in the layer and left behind soil particles that are
only mineral in composition. Below this horizon is a dark horizon
that contains materials that were leached from the horizon above and deposited or illuviated. This horizon has
a dark color because of the organic matter deposited there. The next horizon has a red color due to iron oxide
brought in from the horizon above and coating the soil particles. The horizon below this one has fewer or different
types of iron oxides coating the inorganic soil particles creating a yellow color. The lowest horizon in the profile
is the original parent material from which the soil formed. At this site, the parent material is a sandy deposit
from glaciers. At one time, the whole soil looked like this bottom horizon, but over time, soil-forming processes
changed its properties.
GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 6 Soil (Pedosphere)
 Figure SOIL-I-6: A tropical environment in Northern Queensland, Australia

Notice the bright red colors and the depth to which the soil is
uniform. It is very difficult to distinguish unique horizons. Hot
temperatures and lots of rain help to form weathered soils
like this. In tropical climates, organic matter decomposes
very quickly and transforms into inactive material that binds
with clay. Most of the nutrients have been leached from this
soil by intense rainfall. Left behind are weathered minerals
coated by iron oxides giving the soil its bright red color.

Figure SOIL-I-7: Soil formed under a very cold climate near Inuvik in the Northwest Territory of Canada

The “hummocky” or wavy surface of this soil is caused by freezing and thawing of water stored in the soil year
after year. The black zones indicate places where organic materials have accumulated during freezing and
thawing cycles. The process of freezing and thawing and churning of the soil is called cryoturbation. This soil
is not very developed and has only slight indications of horizons that can be seen by faint color differences.
At the bottom of the profile is a layer called permafrost, which consists of ice, soil, or a mixture of both. The
permafrost layer stays below 0˚C throughout the year. The dark, thick organic material in this soil accumulates
because decomposition is very slow in cold climates.

GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 7 Soil (Pedosphere)

Figure SOIL-I-8: Soil formed under very dry or arid conditions in New Mexico, USA

A light brown horizon at the surface is often found in

environments where organic matter is limited. High
amounts of organic matter form dark soils. In dry places,
organic matter is not returned to the soil because very little
vegetation grows there. When rainfall does occur in this
environment, the sandy texture of the soils allow materials
to be carried downward into the lower horizons of the
profile. The white streaks near the bottom of this profile are
formed from deposits of calcium carbonate that can become very hard as they accumulate over time.

Figure SOIL-I-9: Wet soil sampled in Louisiana, USA

Wet soils are found in many parts of the world. The
surface horizon is usually dark because organic matter
accumulates when the soil is saturated with water.
When these conditions occur, there is not enough
oxygen for organisms to decompose the organic
material. Colors of the lower horizon are usually
grayish. Sometimes, as in this picture, the gray soil
color has orange or brown streaks within it, which are
called mottles. The gray colors indicate that the soil
was wet for a long period of time, while the mottles
show us where some oxygen was present in the soil.

Dr. John Kimble and Sharon Waltman of the USDA Natural

Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center,
Lincoln, Nebraska provided the photographs shown here.

GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 8 Soil (Pedosphere)

GLOBE Measurements Carried out in the Classroom or Lab*

Welcome
• Bulk Density
What measurements are taken? • Particle Density
In the GLOBE Soil Investigation, two sets of • Particle Size Distribution
soil measurements are made. The first set, • pH
known as Soil Characterization, describes • Soil Fertility (N, P, K)
the physical and chemical characteristics
Soil Moisture and Temperature
of each horizon in a soil profile. Some
Soil Characterization measurements are Measurements
carried out in the field, while others are Carried out in the Field
done in a laboratory or classroom. Soil • Soil Temperature

Introduction
Characterization measurements are carried
out one time for an identified site. The second • Soil Moisture Monitoring
set of measurements are Soil Moisture Carried out in the Classroom or Lab*
and Temperature, which determine the
• Gravimetric and Volumetric Soil
water and temperature properties of soil
at specified depths. Soil moisture and Moisture
temperature measurements are carried out
repeatedly and can be directly compared Individual Measurements
with the air temperature and precipitation
measurements that are described in the Soil Characterization
Atmosphere Investigation. Although these two At a soil site, horizons in a soil profile are
sets of soil measurements are different, having distinguished from one another by differences

Protocols
both soil characterization and soil moisture in their structure, color, consistence, texture,
at a given location provides the most amount and the amount of roots, rocks, and free
of meaningful information. For example, carbonates they contain. Laboratory or
differences in soil temperature and moisture classroom analyses of bulk density, particle
between one site and another that have the density, particle size distribution, pH, and
same air temperature and precipitation may be soil fertility also reveal differences among
due to differences in the soil characterization horizons.
properties. Understanding the physical
and chemical properties of the soil will help Structure
to interpret patterns in soil moisture and

Learning Activities
Structure refers to the natural shape of
temperature. aggregates of soil particles, called peds, in the
soil. The soil structure provides information
Soil Characterization Measurements about the size and shape of pore spaces in
Carried Out in the Field the soil through which water, heat, and air
• Site Description flow, and in which plant roots grow. Soil ped
structure is described as granular, blocky,
• Horizon Depths
prismatic, columnar, or platy. If the soil lacks
• Soil Structure structure, it is described as either single
• Soil Color grained or massive.
• Soil Consistence
• Soil Texture Color
• Roots The color of soil is determined by the chemical
• Rocks coatings on soil particles, the amount of
Appendix

• Carbonates organic matter in the soil, and the moisture

content of the soil. For example, soil color
tends to be darker when organic matter is
present. Minerals, such as iron, can create
shades of red and yellow on the surface of
* Lab measurements use samples collected in soil particles. Soil in dry areas may appear
the field. white due to coatings of calcium carbonate

GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 9 Soil (Pedosphere)

on the soil particles. Soil color is also affected Roots
by moisture content. The amount of moisture An estimate of the roots in each horizon in
contained in the soil depends on how long the a soil profile illustrates the depth to which
soil has been freely draining or whether it is roots go to obtain nutrients and water. The
saturated with water. Typically, the greater the more roots found in a horizon, the more water
moisture content of a soil, the darker its color. and nutrients being removed from the soil,
Consistence and the more organic matter being returned.
Knowing the amount of roots in each horizon
Consistence describes the firmness of the allows scientists to estimate the soil’s fertility,
individual peds and the degree to which they bulk density, water holding capacity, and its
break apart. The terms used to describe depth. For example, a very compact horizon
soil consistence are loose, friable, firm, and will inhibit root development whereas a porous
extremely firm. A soil with friable consistence horizon will not.
will be easier for roots, shovels, or plows
to move through than a soil with a firm Rocks
consistence. An estimate of the number of rocks in each
Texture horizon helps to understand the movement
of water, heat, and air through the soil, root
The texture describes how a soil feels and is growth, and the amount of soil material
determined by the amounts of sand, silt, and involved in chemical and physical reactions.
clay particles present in the soil sample. The
soil texture influences how much water, heat, Soil particles greater than 2 mm in size are
and nutrients will be stored in the soil profile. considered to be rocks.
Human hands are sensitive to the difference Carbonates
in size of soil particles. Sand is the largest
particle size group, and feels gritty. Silt is the Carbonates of calcium or other elements
next particle size group, and feels smooth or accumulate in areas where there is little
floury. Clay is the smallest particle size group weathering from water. The presence of
and feels sticky and is hard to squeeze. See carbonates in soil may indicate a dry climate
Figure SOIL-I-10. The actual amount of sand, or a particular type of parent material rich in
silt, and clay size particles in a soil sample calcium, such as limestone. Free carbonates
is called the particle size distribution and is often coat soil particles in soils that are
measured in a laboratory or classroom. basic (i.e., pH greater than 7). These soils
are common in arid or semi-arid climates.
Figure SOIL-I-10: Particle Size Groups Carbonates are usually white in color and
can be scratched easily with a fingernail.
Sometimes in dry climates, carbonates form
a hard and dense horizon similar to cement,
Sand and plant roots cannot grow through it. To test
2.00-0.05 mm for carbonates, an acid, such as vinegar, is
squirted on the soil. If carbonates are present,
there will be a chemical reaction between the
vinegar (an acid) and the carbonates (a base)
Silt to produce carbon dioxide. When carbon
0.05-0.002 mm
dioxide is produced, the vinegar bubbles or
effervesces. The more carbonates present,
the more bubbles or effervescence occurs.
Clay
<0.002 mm Bulk Density
Soil bulk density is a measure of how tightly
Relative (not actual) size of sand, silt, and clay particles. packed or dense the soil is and is measured
by the mass of dry soil in a unit of volume (g/
cm3). See Figure SOIL-I-11. Soil bulk density
depends on the composition of the soil,
structure of the soil peds, the distribution of
GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 10 Soil (Pedosphere)
the sand, silt, and clay particles, the volume same volume of particles. By knowing both

Welcome
of pore space, and how tightly the particles the particle density and the bulk density, the
are packed. Soils made of minerals (sand, silt, porosity (the proportion of the soil volume that
and clay) will have a different bulk density than is pore space) can be calculated. Porosity
soils made of organic material. In general, establishes the amount of air or water that can
the bulk density of soils ranges from 0.5 g/ be stored or moved through the soil.
cm3 in soils with many spaces, to as high as
2.0 g/cm3 or greater in very compact mineral Particle Size Distribution
horizons. The proportion of each particle size group
(sand, silt, or clay) in the soil is called the
Knowing the bulk density of a soil is important soil particle-size distribution. Sand is the
for many reasons. Bulk density indicates largest soil particle, silt is intermediate in size,
how tightly soil particles are packed and the

Introduction
and clay is the smallest. The particle-size
ease with which roots can grow through soil distribution of a soil sample determines its
horizons. Bulk density is also used when exact textural class (which is “estimated” in
converting between mass and volume for a the field by doing the Soil Texture Protocol). It
soil sample. If the mass of a soil sample is also helps determine how much water, heat,
known, its volume is calculated by dividing the and nutrients the soil will hold, how fast water
sample mass by the bulk density of the soil. and heat will move through the soil, and the
If the volume of a soil sample is known, the structure and consistence of the soil.
mass is calculated by multiplying the sample
volume by the bulk density of the soil. The amount of sand, silt, and clay in a soil
sample is determined by a settling method
Particle Density using an instrument called a hydrometer.
The particle density of a soil sample is the A dried sample of soil is first dispersed so

Protocols
mass of dry soil in a particular volume of the that none of the particles stick together, and
soil when all of the air spaces have been then it is suspended in water and allowed to
removed. See Figure SOIL-I-11. The type settle. The largest particles (sand) settle out
of minerals the soil particles are made of in minutes while the smallest particles (clay)
affects the particle density. Soils consisting stay suspended for days. A hydrometer is
of pure quartz particles generally have a used to measure the specific gravity of the
particle density of 2.65 g/cm3. Soils consisting soil suspension after settling has proceeded
of particles made of minerals other than for specific amounts of time.
quartz will have a different mass for the

Learning Activities
Figure SOIL-I-11: A Comparison of Bulk Density and Particle Density

Pore Space
Mixture of
Volume air, water,
for Bulk minerals and
Density organic matter Volume
for Particle Solids
Density
Appendix

Bulk density is a measure of the mass of all the solids in a unit volume of soil including all the pore
space filled by air and water. If the volume were compressed so that there were no pore spaces left for
air or water, the mass of the particles divided by the volume they occupy would be the particle density.

GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 11 Soil (Pedosphere)

Soil pH those in a desert, have values below 0.05 g/g
The pH of a soil horizon (how acidic or (gravimetric) or 0.05 mL/mL (volumetric). Only
basic the soil is) is determined by the parent organic-rich soils, peat or some clays absorb
material from which the soil is formed, the large amounts of water and have values
chemical nature of the rain or other water above 0.50 g/g (gravimetric) or 0.05 mL/mL
entering the soil, land management practices, (volumetric). The soil moisture measurement
and the activities of organisms (plants, helps to define the role of the soil storage in
animals, and microorganisms) living in the the dynamics of the ecosystem. For example,
soil. Just like the pH of water, the pH of soil soil moisture measurements reveal the ability
is measured on a logarithmic scale (see the of the soil to hold or transmit water affecting
Introduction of the Hydrology Investigation for groundwater recharge, surface runoff, and
a description of pH). Soil pH is an indication transpiration and evaporation of water into the
of the soil’s chemistry and fertility. The activity atmosphere. It also describes the ability of the
of the chemical substances in the soil affects soil to provide nutrients and water to plants,
the pH levels. Different plants grow at different affecting their growth and survival.
pH values. Farmers sometimes add materials
to the soil to change its pH depending on the Soil Temperature
types of plants they want to grow. The pH of Soil acts as an insulator for heat flowing
the soil also affects the pH of ground water between the solid earth below the soil and
or nearby water bodies such as streams or the atmosphere. Thus, soil temperatures can
lakes. Soil pH can be related to the water be relatively cool in the summer or relatively
pH measured in the Hydrology Investigation warm in the winter. These soil temperature
and the precipitation pH measured in the variations affect plant growth, the timing
Atmosphere Investigation. of bud-burst or leaf fall, and the rate of
decomposition of organic materials.
Soil Fertility
The fertility of a soil is determined by the Soil temperatures typically have a smaller
amount of nutrients it contains. Nitrogen daily range than air temperatures and deeper
(N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are soil temperatures usually vary less. Soil
three of the most important nutrients needed temperature extremes range from 50˚ C for
by plants for optimum plant growth. Each near-surface summer desert soils (warmer
horizon in a soil profile can be tested for the than the maximum air temperature!) to
presence of these nutrients. The results of values below freezing in high latitude or high
these measurements help to determine the elevation soils in the winter.
suitability of a soil for growing plants. Soil
fertility can be related to water chemistry Soil Study Site Selection
measurements carried out in the Hydrology Soil study sites for carrying out soil
Investigation. characterization measurements and soil
moisture and temperature measurements
Soil Moisture should be carefully selected.
Soil moisture, also known as Soil Water For soil characterization measurements, a site
Content (SWC), can be calculated by mass should be considered that allows students to
(gravimetric) or by volume (volumetric) and dig a hole with either a shovel or an auger. The
is presented as a ratio of water to soil. When purpose is to expose a soil profile that is one
measuring for gravimetric soil moisture, the meter deep. If this is not possible, students
ratio is of the mass of water contained in a have the option to sample the top 10 cm of the
soil sample to the mass of dry matter in that soil profile. It is important to check with local
sample. This ratio typically ranges from 0.05 utility companies to be sure there are no pipes
g/g to 0.50 g/g. When measuring volumetric or wires buried at the site chosen for digging.
soil moisture, the ratio is the volume of water A site that is chosen close to the site where
contained in a volume of soil. The volumetric soil moisture and temperature measurements
content of the soil can be as great as 0.5 cc/ are being made will help to understand these
cc; the volume ratio typically ranges from 0.05 measurements better. A soil characterization
cc/cc to 0.50 cc/cc. Only extremely dry soils site chosen near or in the Land Cover study
that retain a small amount of water, such as site will help interpret the role that the soil
GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 12 Soil (Pedosphere)
properties play in controlling the type and a time series of surface soil moisture data.
amount of plant growth. Ideally samples are collected on mornings

Welcome
For soil moisture measurements, a site that when SMAP flies over a site – 3 times every
is open should be considered. The site must 8 days for most locations. Periodic data from
not be irrigated, should have uniform soil 5 cm and 10 cm is useful in characterizing
characteristics, be relatively undisturbed, and the seasonal and annual patterns of a site.
be safe for digging. Soil moisture samples are If observations are taken for a limited time
collected from the surface (0-5 cm) and 10 period, try to choose a time when soil is drying
cm depths. Samples may also be collected at out or becoming wet.
depths of 30 cm, 60 cm, and 90 cm to obtain Daily and continuous soil moisture data from
a depth profile. If possible, the site should be sensors are broadly useful and not generally
within 100 m of a GLOBE Atmosphere Study available.
Site or other location where precipitation

Introduction
measurements are being collected. Soil temperature measurements are carried
out at least once each week. The Digital Multi-
For soil temperature measurements, a site Day Max/Min/Current Air and Soil Temperature
should be selected that is adjacent to a Protocol provides for daily measurement of
GLOBE Atmosphere Study site, or some other the maximum and minimum soil temperatures
location where air temperature measurements from a depth of 10 cm. Optional protocols
are taken. Alternatively, soil temperature can are available for measuring daily maximum
be measured at a soil moisture study site. The and minimum soil temperatures at 5 cm and
site should be in the open and representative 50 cm depths and for collecting soil and air
of the soils in the area. Soil temperature temperature every 15 minutes using a data
measurements are made at depths of 5 and logger.
10 cm with all protocols and also at 50 cm

Protocols
with monitoring protocols. Field Considerations
Many teachers find that their students take
Site Description great pride and satisfaction in digging a soil
After students have selected a site for their pit to expose a soil profile. Occasionally, adult
soil measurements, they use the following volunteers are needed to assist, or someone
identifying factors to define and describe in the area with a backhoe can be asked
the location they plan to study: latitude and to help out. When digging, all necessary
longitude (using GPS receivers), elevation, precautions should be taken to avoid buried
slope, aspect (the direction of the steepest utilities. To keep the hole from being a hazard

Learning Activities
slope), type of vegetation covering the soil, to both people and animals, the pit should be
parent material, current land use practices, open only while students are conducting their
and the position of the soil on the landscape. observations. It should be kept well covered
The students determine some of these when the class is not working in it.
properties at the site, while other properties
are established using local resources such as Managing Students
maps, soil survey reports, and local experts. Depending on the size of the soil pit and the
number of students, it might be possible to
Frequency of Measurements work on the pit as a class. In other cases, it
Soil characterization measurements should is better to allow groups of 3-5 students into
be carried out one time for each Soil the pit at a time. There are many strategies
Characterization Study Site. More than one for using multiple groups of students to collect
study site can be used in order to identify data from different horizons or to collect
Appendix

soil properties at different locations (such as duplicate samples. Teachers should expect
at the soil moisture and temperature sites, the soil characterization measurements and
land cover site, or along different parts of the sampling procedures to take several hours.
landscape for example). Some teachers choose to carry out the
To help understand the global picture of soil measurements on repeated visits. Experts in
moisture, GLOBE has partnered with the Soil Science from local Universities, the USDA
NASA SMAP Mission. The priority is to build Natural Resources Conservation Service,

GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 13 Soil (Pedosphere)

Figure SOIL-I-12
Basic Protocols Advanced Protocols Learning Activities
National Science
Charac- Temperature Soil Bulk Soil pH Particle Particle Soil Just Passing Just

Education Standards
terization

Moisture Density Size Density Fertility
Distribution
Through

Passing
Through-Beg.

Earth and Space Science

Concepts

Earth materials are solid rocks,
soil, water, biota, and the gases n n n n
of the atmosphere.
Soils have properties of color,
texture, structure, consistence, n n n n n n n n n n
density, pH, fertility; they support
the growth of many types of plants.
The surface of Earth changes. n n n n n
Soils are often found in layers,
with each having a different n n n n n
chemical composition and texture.
Soils consist of minerals (less
than 2 mm), organic material, n n n n n n n n
air and water.
Water circulates through soil
n n n n n n n n
changing the properties of both
the soil and the water.

Physical Science Concepts

Objects have observable
n n n n n n n n
properties.
Energy is conserved. n
Heat moves from warmer
n
to colder objects.
Chemical reactions take place in
n n
every part of the environment.

Life Science Concepts

Atoms and molecules cycle
among the living and nonliving n
components of the ecosystem.

Scientific Inquiry Abilities

Identify answerable questions. n n n n n n n n n n
Design and conduct
n n n n n n n n n n
an investigation.
Use appropriate tools and
n n n n n n n n n n
techniques including mathematics
to gather, analyze, and interpret data.
Develop descriptions and
n n n n n n n n n n
explanations, predictions and
models using evidence.
Communicate procedures
n n n n n n n n n n
and explanations.

GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 14 Soil (Pedosphere)

and other agricultural agencies can provide Educational Objectives
assistance with digging, describing the site,

Welcome
Students participating in the activities
and characterizing the soil. presented in this chapter should gain scientific
Soil moisture samples should be collected inquiry abilities and understanding of a number
from as large an area around a school as of scientific concepts. See Figure SOIL-I-12.
possible. For comparison to SMAP data These abilities include the use of a variety of
10+ sites within a 20 km radius is ideal. specific instruments and techniques to take
This allows all students (and parents) to measurements and analyze the resulting
participate. Teams of students and parents data along with general approaches to
can work together to collect site descriptions, inquiry. The Scientific Inquiry Abilities listed in
GPS coordinates, near-surface gravimetric Figure SOIL-I-12 and in the grey boxes at the
samples, and any other GLOBE data that beginning of each protocol are based on the

Introduction
interests the class. Other groups of students assumption that the teacher has completed
can be responsible for weighing the wet soil the protocol including the Looking at the
as soon after sample collection as possible Data section. If this section is not used, not
and then beginning the drying process. It all of the inquiry abilities will be covered. The
might be useful to contact and work with Science Concepts included in the figure and
soil scientists from local colleges, the USDA grey boxes are outlined in the United States
Natural Resource Conservation Service and National Science Education Standards as
other agencies to help dry samples. Generally, recommended by the US National Research
a team of two or three students is appropriate Council and include those for Earth and
for taking soil moisture samples or manually Space Science and Physical Science. Figure
reading soil moisture sensors. SOIL-I-12 provides a summary indicating
which concepts and abilities are covered in

Protocols
Soil temperature readings from the digital which protocols or learning activities.
max/min thermometer are taken along with air
temperature readings at least once every 7
days. Temperature probe measurements are
best made by small teams (2-3 students) on
a daily or weekly schedule. One successful
strategy is to have one experienced student
helping a less experienced student, who later
becomes the mentor to new team members.
Data collection takes 10-20 minutes.

Learning Activities
Combining the Measurements
In the GLOBE Soil Investigation, students
study both the soil properties that change
very slowly (soil characterization), and
those that change rapidly (soil temperature
and moisture). Without knowing the slowly
changing properties of the soil profile, it is
difficult to understand the dynamic moisture
and temperature changes that occur. In the
same way, the patterns in moisture and
temperature in the soil over time, affect
the formation of the soil. Teachers are
Appendix

encouraged to combine soil characterization

measurements with soil temperature and
moisture measurements so that students
gain a true understanding of the way the
pedosphere functions and affects the rest of
the ecosystem.

GLOBE® 2014 Introduction - 15 Soil (Pedosphere)