Air Pressure and

Winds
Meteorology Today
An Introduction to Weather, Climate and the
Environment – C. Donald Ahrens
Newton’s Laws of Motion
n  1st Law : An object at rest will remain at rest and an
object in motion will remain in motion (and travel at
constant velocity along a straight line) as long as no
force is exerted on the object.

n  2nd Law: The force exerted on an object equals its mass

times the acceleration produced.
Newton’s 2nd Law of motion
n  The force exerted on an object is equal to its mass times
the acceleration produced

n  F (real forces) =ma [units:- Newton - N =(kg m s-2 )]

n  Sum of all the forces along the line of motion of a unit

mass produces an acceleration in the direction of the
resultant force

n  Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity

¨  Slowing down
¨  Speeding up
¨  Changing direction (turning)
 Atmospheric Forces
n  There may be more than one force acting on an object.
Newton’s 2nd law refers to the net or total force.

n  An object will accelerate in the direction of the net force.

Hence we need to identify the forces that affect the
horizontal movement of air.

The forces acting on an air parcel include:

Pressure gradient force
Coriolis force
Centripetal force
Friction
 Forces that influence the winds
n  There are a number of forces which influence the flow of
air aloft.

n  We have already learnt that horizontal differences in

atmospheric pressure cause the air to move (i.e. the
wind to blow).

n  The first force we will examine is the Pressure Gradient

Force (PGF)
 Tank A is 2/3 full and tank B is
half full.

Pressure at the bottom of the

tanks is proportional to the
weight of the water above.

Hence the pressure at the

bottom of tank A is greater
than the pressure at the
bottom of tank B.
There is a net force directed from tank A to tank B (i.e. from
higher to lower pressure.
N.B. the greater the pressure difference the stronger the force,
the faster the water moves.
This is similarly to how atmospheric pressure causes the air to
move.
 Higher pressure to the left and
lower pressure to the right on
the map gives a pressure
change that occurs over
some distance (i.e. a
pressure gradient).

Pressure gradient = difference in pressure = ∆p

distance d
Between points 1 and 2 the pressure gradient is 4mb per 100km

What would happen if the isobars were closer together?

A rapid change in pressure over a short distance (i.e. a steep
or strong pressure gradient.

If the isobars were further apart, a difference in pressure over a

large distance (i.e. a gentle/weak/slack pressure gradient
n  When differences in horizontal pressure exists there is a
net force (pressure gradient force) acting on the air.

n  PGF is directed from higher to lower pressure at

right angles to the isobars.

n  The magnitude of the PGF is directly related to the

pressure gradient.

n  Steep (weak) pressure gradients correspond to strong

(weak) pressure gradient forces.
n  PGF is the force that causes the wind to blow.

n  Closely (widely) spaced isobars on a map indicate steep

(slack) pressure gradients, strong (weak) forces and
strong (light) winds.
Notice the tightly packed isobars along the green line are
producing a steep pressure gradient of 32mb per 500km and
strong surface winds of 40knots.
Pressure Gradient/Force
n  Vector: It has a
magnitude and direction

n  Magnitude: how fast the

pressure changes in a
given direction

n  Direction: the direction of

the fastest increase of
pressure

n  In which direction is the

pressure gradient?
1 Δp
n  In which direction is the PGF = −
ρ d
pressure gradient force?
The Coriolis Force
n  If the only force acting on the air was the pressure
gradient force winds would blow directly from higher to
lower pressure.

n  This is not always the case, so there must be at least

another force acting.

n  The moment the air starts to move under the direction of

the PGF it is deflected by the Coriolis Force.

n  This is an apparent force due to the rotation of the earth.

Coriolis Force

§  An apparent force caused by the rotation of the earth’s surface

§  Objects are deflected to the right of their path in the Northern

Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere
n  All free moving objects seem to be deflected from a
straight line because the earth rotates under them.

n  The coriolis force causes the wind to deflect to the

right (left) of its intended path in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere.

n  The magnitude of the Coriolis force varies with the

speed of the moving object and the latitude.

n  The stronger the wind speed the greater the deflection.

n  This force is a minimum at the equator and a maximum

at the poles.
n  To someone on the earth’s surface objects moving in
any direction are deflected to the right (left) of their path
in the Northern (Southern) hemisphere.

n  The amount of deflection depends on

The rotation of the earth
The latitude
The object’s speed

The coriolis force acts at right angles to the wind

influencing only the wind direction and not the
speed.
Factors Affecting the Coriolis Force
Rotation (Ω) - the faster
the earth spins the bigger
the force

Wind speed (V) - the

faster the air is moving
the greater the force

Latitude (ϕ) – Minimum at

the equator and a
maximum at the poles

The magnitude of the

Coriolis Force per unit
mass = 2 Ω sin ϕv= fv
where f is the coriolis
parameter
Geostrophic Winds –straight flow
n  When the pressure
gradient force exactly
balances the coriolis force
we say we are in
geostrophic balance
n  It occurs at higher altitudes
( > 1km)
n  Wind blows parallel to the
isobars (heights) with lower
pressure (heights) to the
left (right) of the flow in the
Northern (Southern)
Hemisphere
n  Wider contours = weaker
flow
n  Narrower contours =
stronger flow
 A mathematical look at the
geostrophic wind

n  The geostrophic wind is a balance between the coriolis

force and PGF. Looking only at the magnitude of these
forces:
n  1 Δp
2Ω sin φVg = −
ρ d
1 Δp
Vg =
2Ω sin φρ d
Example
n  Suppose the wind is blowing parallel to the isobars in the
Northern Hemisphere at 400, the spacing between the
isobars is 200km and the pressure difference is 4mb. If the
altitude is 5600m above sea-level where the temperature
is -25oC and the air density is 0.7kg/m3 , find the
magnitude of the geostrophic wind.
sin φ = sin( 40 o ) = 0.64;2Ω = 2(7.29 ×10 −5 radian / s) = 14.6 ×10 −5 s −1
d = 200km = 2 ×10 5 m
Δp = 4mb = 400Pa = 400 Nm − 2 = 400kgms − 2 m − 2 = 400kgm−1s − 2
T = −25 0 C ; ρ = 0.7kgm−3
1 Δp 400kgm−1s −2
Vg = =
2Ω sin φρ d 14.6 ×10 −5 s −1 (0.64)(0.7kgm−3 )(2 ×10 5 m)

= 30.6ms −1
 Gradient Wind (curved flow) Winds aloft do not always blow
in a straight line, they curve and
loop following the pattern of the
isobars.
In the Northern hemisphere
winds blow counterclockwise
around a low.

N.B. the wind is accelerating

since it is constantly changing
direction. This acceleration is
directed inwards and is known
as the centripetal acceleration.

From Newton’s 2nd law if an object is accelerating a net force

must be acting. This force is directed inward and is called the
centripetal force.
Centripetal Force
V2
n  Centripetal force = −
r

For light winds and little curvature (straight flow i.e

large radius) the centripetal force is weak; for strong
winds and small radii (tornadoes, hurricanes) the
centripetal force is large.
 Centrifugal Force V2
r

n  There is a force equal and

opposite to the centripetal force;
the centrifugal force. This force
acts outward away from the center
of rotation
Gradient Wind (curved flow)
n  The centripetal force results
from an imbalance between the
coriolis force and PGF.

n  The inwards PGF is greater

than the outward coriolis force
resulting in the inward
centripetal force.

n  The gradient wind results from

a balance between three
forces; PGF, coriolis force and
centripetal force.
 n  In the Northern hemisphere winds
blow clockwise around a high.
n  The greater inward directed
coriolis force as compared to the
lesser outward directed PGF gives
rise to a inward directed
centripetal force.
n  Since the coriolis force (CF)
increases as the wind speed
increases and CF is greater
around a high than around a low,
we should expect the winds to be
greater around a high.
Winds are normally stronger around a low since the isobars are usually
spaced much closer (stronger pressure gradient). Near the equator
(small CF) the centripetal force can be as large as PGF.
When CF is negligible the wind is called cyclostrophic.
N.B. Cyclostrophic flow only occurs around a low.
 Gradient Wind Equations
n  Balance between PGF, CF, Net
n  Around a high:
|PGF| = |CF| + |Net*|

1 Δp V2
= 2Ω sin φV +
ρ d r

V2 1 Δp
+ fV − =0
r ρ d

n  * use Net as the centrifugal force

(use only the magnitudes of the
forces)
Gradient Wind Equation Around a Low
n  |CF| = |PGF| + |Net*|
1 ΔP V 2
2Ω sin φV = +
ρ d r

V2 1 ΔP
− fV + =0
r ρ d
n  * use Net as the
centrifugal force (use only
the magnitudes of the
forces)
Upper Level Winds

This is a 500mb chart with height contours (solid

lines), isotherms (dashed red lines) and winds.
Recall: Regions of lowest (highest) elevations are
associated with the coolest (warmest) air
 Upper Level Winds

Where winds blow in a east/west direction

paralleling lines of latitude, the wind flow is termed
zonal
When winds follow a north/south path paralleling the
meridian lines, the flow is termed meridional
 Recall: On this
surface chart the
winds cross the
isobars blowing from
higher to lower
pressure.

Along the green line

a pressure gradient
of 32mb per 500km
is producing a wind
of 40knots.

. an upper-level chart this same pressure (temperature)

On
gradient would produce a stronger wind.
n  Recall the geostrophic wind equation
1 Δp
Vg =
2Ω sin φρ d
Δp 32 mb
=
d 500km
1mb = 100Pa
Pa = Nm − 2 = (kgms − 2 )(m − 2 ) = kgm−1s − 2
3200kgm−1s − 2
Vg =
2 × 7.29 ×10 −5 s −1 (sin 40)(1.2kgm−3 )500 ×10 3 m
= 57 ms −1 (110knots)

n  Note that the upper level wind speed of 110 knots is much
stronger than the surface wind speed of 40 knots
Surface Winds
n  Why do surface winds cross the isobars and why do they
blow more slowly than the winds aloft? Friction!

n  The frictional drag of the ground slows down the wind.

n  As we move away from the earth’s surface the effect of

friction decreases and wind speeds tend to increase.

n  The layer in the atmosphere that is influenced by friction

is known as the friction layer (planetary boundary
layer) which extends upward to near 1km.
 In the upper levels (above the
friction layer) the wind is near
geostrophic blowing parallel to
the isobars (contours) with
PGF balanced by CF.

At the surface, friction reduces

the wind speed hence reducing
the CF. The weaker CF can no
longer balance the PGF and
the wind blows across the
isobars towards lower
pressure.

In the Northern hemisphere surface winds blow

counterclockwise and into a low and flow clockwise and out
of a high.
Buys-Ballots Law
n  ALOFT – if you stand with your back to the wind, lower
pressure will be to your left (right) and higher pressure to
your right (left) in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere

n  At the SURFACE – if you stand with your back to the

wind, then turn clockwise 30°, lower pressure will be to
your left and higher pressure to your right in the Northern
Hemisphere, and vise versa in the Southern Hemisphere
Is This a Surface or Upper Air Chart?
Winds and Vertical Air Motions
n  Near the surface as air moves into the
center of a low it must go somewhere.

n  This converging (moving horizontally

inward) air cannot go into the ground
so it must rise.

n  Aloft the air diverges (moves

horizontally outward) to compensate
for the converging surface air.

n  If upper level divergence is greater

than surface convergence what will
happen to the surface pressure?
Winds and Vertical Air Motions
n  If upper level divergence is greater
than surface convergence what will
happen to the surface pressure?

n  More air is leaving the column at the

top than is being replaced at the
surface.
n  Surface pressure will fall (isobars will
become more tightly packed).
n  Pressure gradient increases and in
turn PGF hence the surface winds
increase.
Winds and Vertical Air Motions
n  Near the surface as air moves away from
the center of a high, air aloft must
converge and sink to replace it.

n  As long as upper level convergence

balances low level divergence the central
pressure in the high will not change.

n  Convergence and divergence are vital to

the development or weakening of surface
pressure systems.
Vertical Air Motions
n  Recall: Differences in pressure causes the air to move.

n  Atmospheric pressure decreases rapidly with height

hence there is always a strong pressure gradient force
directed upward.

n  Why does the air not rush off into space?

Hydrostatic Equilibrium n  The upward PGF is nearly
always balanced by the
downward force of gravity.

n  When these forces are in

balance the air is said to
be in hydrostatic
equilibrium.

n  Here there is no net

vertical force acting hence
no net vertical
acceleration.
This balance does not exists for violent thunderstorms and
tornadoes where the air shows significant vertical acceleration.
The Hydrostatic Equation
By convention upward is taken to be
positive, while downward is negative.
Since gravity acts downward:

PGFvertical + (− g ) = 0
PGFvertical = g
1 Δp
− =g
ρ Δz
Δp
= − ρg
Δz
 Example
n  Compute the difference in surface pressure at the
surface of a 1000m thick layer of air if the density is
1.1kgm-3 and the magnitude of gravity is taken as
9.8ms-2 .
ρ = 1.1kgm −3
g = 9.8ms − 2
Δz = 1000m
Δp
= − ρg i.e. a pressure change
Δz
of 107.8mb per 1000m
Δp = − ρgΔz
(near 10mb per 100m
= 1.1kgm −3 (9.8ms − 2 )(1000m) which we used to bring
= 10780 kgm −1s − 2 ( Nm − 2 ) station pressure to sea-
level pressure)
= 107.8mb