In any research, the step of analysis of the data is one of the most crucial tasks
requiring proficient know ledge to handle the data collected as per the pre decided
research design of the pro ject.
Analysis of data is defined by Prof Wilkinson and Bhandarkar as-
A number of closely related operations that are performed with the
purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in such a
manner that they will yield answers to the research questions or suggest
hypothesis or que stions if no such questions or hypothesis had initiated the
study.
According to Goode , Bar r and Scales,
analysis is a process which enters into research in one form o r another form
the very beginning …It may be fair to say that research consists in general of
two larger steps –t he gathering of data, but no amount of analysis can validly
extract from the data factors which are not present.
In his book on research methodology, C. R. Kothari explains that the term analysis
refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of
relationship that exist among data-groups. He quotes G.B.Giles to further elaborate
the concept as “in the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of
significance to determine with what validity data can be said t o indicate any
conclusions”
Hence, whether it is a qualitative or quantitative research even if the data is sufficient
and valid, it will not serve any purpose unless it is carefully processed and
scientifically analyzed and interpreted.
3. DIFFERENCE B ETWEEN DATA ANALYSIS, PROC ESSING AND
INTERPRETATIO N
The general understanding is that data analysis and processing are on e and the same.
However a number of researchers and authors are of the opinion that both of them are
two very distinct steps in the research process where data processing leads to data
analysis. Lets us understand the difference between the two in more detail.
Prof. John Gauing is of the opinion that processing of data refers to concentrating,
recasting and dealing
with the data so that they are as responsive to analysis, while analysis of data refers to
seeing the data in the lig ht of hypothesis of research questions and the prevailing
theories and drawing conclusions that are as amenable to theory formation as
possible. 1
According to Francis Ru mmel, “the analysis and interpretation of data involve the
objective material in the possession of the researcher and his subjective reaction and
desires to derive from the data the inherent meaning in their relation to the problem.
To avoid making conclusions or interpretations from insufficient or i nvalid data, the
final analysis must be anticipated in detail when plans are being made for collecting
information.
3.1 Data Processing
Once the data is collected, following steps are taken to process the data into
more measurable and concise manner:
a. Editing
In the stage of editing all the raw data that is collected is checked for
errors, omissions sometimes legibility and consistency as well. This
ensure basic standard in t he data collected and facilitate further
processing.
b. Coding
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of
categories or classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the
research problem under consideration. They must also be exhaustive
(i.e., there must be a class for every data item) and also that of mutual
exclusively which means that a specific answer can be placed in one
and only one cell in a given category set. 2 Coding can also be pre or
post. Pre coding meaning codes being assigned while the questionnaire
or interview schedule is being prepared. In the case of post coding,
codes are assigned to the answers after they are collected.
c. Classification
Once the data is collected it is to be divided into homogeneous groups
for further analysis on the basis of common characteristics.
d. Tabulation
Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the
same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further
analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of
data in columns and rows.
Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons-
1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive
statement to a minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and
omissions.
4. It provides the basis for various statistical computations.
Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic
devices. The choice depends on the size and type of study, cost
considerations, time pressures and the availability of tabulating
machines or computers. In relatively large inquiries, we may use
mechanical or computer tabulation if other factors are favorable and
necessary facilities are available.3
Tabulation may be a very effective way of making legal research
manageable, readable and understandable.
Types of table
There are generally two types of tables simple and complex. They are
discussed following:
(i) Simple table/ frequency distribution
Under it , the different attribute are stated in the left hand column
and
the frequency or extend of occurrence of each of theses classed
are written in another column. In this three things are essential)
the classes made must be mutually exclusive, b) the tabulation
must have internal logic and order, and c) the class intervals
must carefully and reasonably selected.4 Following is an
illustration of the same.
In a complex table, bi or multivariate are used. Th ese have
become more popular in the research representation in recent
years. Following is an example of the same.
Table 2- Multivariate
SE
Income X Total
(Rupees) Male Female
Rura
l Urban Rural Urban
Below 100 20 23 8 12 63
101-500 18 30 10 36 94
501-1000 10 28 5 21 64
In t he above table there are three variants i.e income, residence
and sex are being studied and tabulated.
Preparation of a table
Following are certain guidelines to be kept in mind while
preparing a table:
1. Title of the table - give suitable heading to each table which
should be short and appropriate
2. Sub headings and captions - subheadings to different
columns and rows must be given. Captions are given to the
various classifications made like income, age, sex etc.
3. Size of the column- each column must have the correct size
which make them look more attractive
4. Arrangement of items in rows and columns - items must be
arranged in one order like alphabetically, chronologically etc.
5. Totals - the total for different columns must be different.
6. Demarcation of columns - If columns have been divided
further into sub groups, they should be in an suitable order and
sub headings
7. Footnotes - If there is anything special about the table or
figures which need to be bought attention to, the same should
be mentioned in a footnote.
3.2 Data Interpretation
Once the data has been processed and analyzed, the final step required in the
research process is interpretation of the data. The line between analysis and
interpretation is very thin. Through interpretation one understands what the given
research findings really mean and what is the underlying generalization which is
manifested thought the data collected. This can be descriptive or analytical or
theoretical. The data is interpreted from the point of the research questions and
hypothesis is tested. While interpretation is being done, generalizations are drawn.
Thus, interpretation consists of conclusion s that the researcher has reached after
the data has been processed and analyzed.
It is interesting to mention that Bloom’s taxonomy has laid down a structure on data
presentation6:
1. Describe - Pen down the ‘facts’ observed/ heard after filtering the no n relevant data.
2. Classify - Group the material based similarities, categorize, and make headings.
3. Interpret - identify important features and patterns in the light of the research
questions or hypothesis and then represent them.
4. TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis depends up on the nature of research that the researcher is undertaking. Types
of data analysis vary depending upon whether the research is qualitative or quantitative in
nature. In the present module, as earlier stated we will be studying various types of data
analysis from the stand point of quantitative research only.
4.1 Descriptive analysis
According to C Emory, “descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of one
variable. This study provides us with profiles of companies, work groups, persons
and other subjects on any multiple characteristics such as size , composition, efficiency,
preferences, et c.”7
Illustration: The researcher is collecting data from various law colleges in India to map
the job preferences o f the students in the final year of LL.B. In such a research job
preferences like litigation, corporate, further studies, judiciary etc becomes the variable.
Under it statistical tools like percentage and means are used and the data is then
represented through a graph. The data analysis may be having one variable also known as
one-dimensional analysis or two variables/ bivariate analysis or more than two variables
also described as multivariate analysis.
4.2 Inferential analysis
Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing
hypotheses in order to determine with what validity data can be said t o indicate some
conclusion or conclusions. It is also concerned with the estimation of population values.
It is mainly on the basis of inferential analysis that the task o f interpretation (i.e., the task
of drawing inferences and conclusions) is performed. Illustration.
The researcher is studying the access to justice system in India and his hypothesis beings
that the India justice delivery system favors the haves and marginalizes the have not’s.
The data collected is from various stages in the delivery system like police
station, courts of justice, litigants etc. Once the data is collected, proceeded then the
researcher does inferential analysis to test the validity of the hypotheses.
5. GENERAL CHARATERISTICS OF ANALYSIS OF THE DAT A
1. The researcher should keep in mind that the analysis of data will vary depending
upon the type of study i.e. qualitative or quantitative or mixed in nature.
2. The researcher should posses thorough knowledge of the area of research as well
as the data collected by him which will help in the analysis of data.
3. The data to be analyzed and interpreted should:
a. Be reproducible,
b. Be readily disposed to quantitative treatment
c. Have significance for some systematic theory, and can serve as broad
generalization.
4. The researcher should keep a clear set of hypothesis formulated at the very start
of the research which will lead to clearer actions and better data collection as well
as analysis.
5. In case the data collected is from vague clues rather than according to the specific
hypothesis, in such cases the data are analyzed inductively or investigated during
the process and not by means of any prescribed set of rules.
6. For a successful study, the task of analysis and interpretation should be designed
before the data is actually collected.
6. STATISTICAL AN ALYSIS OF DATA
Statistics is an important tool in the hands of a researcher for a good research.
Croxton and Cowden, two well known statisticians have introduced a simple, definition of
statistics. In their words, “statistics may be defined as the science of collection, presenting
and analysis and interpretation of numerical data.” 8
Statistics is not merely a device for collecting numerical data but also a means of sound
techniques for their handling, analysis and drawing value inferences from them.
When the data are collected, edited, classified, tabulated, it is analyzed and interpreted
with the help of various statistical techniques and tools depending up on the nature of the
investigation.
6.1 Uses of statistics
Statistics is useful in all fields of research and study. One of the greatest advantages of
the use of statistics is that in a research with large data, it helps in reducing such data into
a more manageable size for the purpose of analysis and interpretation. It also helps in
comparing two or more series as well as draw inferences and conclusions of the research.
Illustration- The researcher is doing an impact analysis of the National Food Security
Act, 2013 in the National Capital Territory. The universe of the researcher in such a case
is Delhi, and the population is all the segments of people who are eligible for the food
under the said Act. T he tool of data collection chosen by the researcher is survey
method. Once the data is collected, the size of the data would be big. Here, statistical
tools would be of great assistance to the researcher to achieve his research objective.
6.2 Limitations of statistics
Though statistical methods are of great value to a researcher, t hey carry with themselves
certain limitations which must be kept in mind while decciding a tool of data analysis.
They are:
1. Qualitative values like subjective perceptions, qualities and attributes are not
considered under statistics. It only considers quantities. This by faar is the greatest
limitation of statistic s.
2. Statistics studies and analysis group attributes rather than individual
characteristics and values.
3. Statistical analysis is mostly based on average; hence the inferences drawn
through them are only approximate and not exact like that of mathematics.
4. Statistics only help discover, analyze certain characteristics. It doe s not explain
the picture. Hence, it only forms a part of the inference and interpretation .
6.3 Tools of statistical analysis
There are various statistic al tools which are available for the researcher’s assistance
1.Measure central tendency
The term central tendency connotes the average. The most common central
tendency tools are average or mean, median, mode, geometric mean and harmonic
mean.
2.Measure of dispersion
The measure of dispersion or variability is the most common corrective measure
for the concept of average. The most common method of the same is standard
deviation. Others are mean deviation and range.
3.Measure of asymmetry
The tools used under it are skewness and kurtosis. Skewness is a measure that refers
to the extent of symmetry or asymmetry in a distribution. It is use d to describe the shape of a
distribution. Kurtosis is a measure that indicates the degree to which a curve of a frequency
distribution is peaked or flat-topped.
4. Measure of relationship
Correlation and coefficient is commonly used to measure the relationship. It is
mostly used for prediction. Higher the degree of correlation, greater the accuracy
with which one can predict a score. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is the
frequently used measure in case of statistics of variables, whereas Yule’s
coefficient of association is used in case of statistics of attributes. Multiple
correlation coefficient, partial correlation coefficient, regression analysis, etc., are
other important measures often used by a researcher.9
5. Other measures
Index number and analysis of time series are some of the other tools of data analysis.
Index numbers are indicators which reflect the relative changes in the level of a
certain phenomenon in any given period called the current period with respect to its
values in some other period called the base period selected primarily for this
comparison.
Illustration: Index number is used to compare the changes in the national income of
India from independence (1947) to the year 2014.
Analysis of time series
A time series is an arrangement of statistical data in accordance with its time of
occurrence. If the values of a phenomenon are observed at different periods of time, the
values so obtained will show appreciable variations.
6.4 Statistical software packages
To assist the researcher in quantitative data analysis, there are various statistic softwares
available for computerized statistical data analysis. Some of them are available in the
open source/ public domain i.e. free of cost while others are paid and purchased
softwares. They are of great help when analyzing large quantities of data.
The two most commonly used softwares are SAS (Statistical Analysis System) and SPSS
(Statistical Package for Social Sciences).
7. ANALYSIS WHE N HYPOTHESIS EXISTS
When specific hypothesis has been set down, then the major part of analysis involves
getting the appropriate combinations of data and reading them so as to verify or
falsify the hypothesis. A hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection is known as
‘null hypotheses. Null hypothesis is very much useful in testing the significant
difference between assumed and observed values.
8. PRECUATIONS I N ANALYSIS AND INTERPERTATION OF DATA
Following are some of the common precautions to be kept in mind while analyzing and
interpreting the data:
1. Comprehensive knowledge and proper perspective
The researcher while analyzing and interpreting the data must have thorough
knowledge of the research from a wider perspective rather than analyzing the
immediate element of the problem.
2. Take into account all pertinent elements
The researcher must keep all relevant factors/elements into consideration while
analyzing and interpreting the data. Failure to do so will make the generalizations
drawn inaccurate.
3. Limitations of the study
The researcher must mention all the limitations in the study like non-representation in
sampling, bias in the data, inadequacy in the design, inaccurate statistical analysis
etc .
4. Proper evaluation of data
Suitable interpretation of data lies on proper evaluation of facts. The researcher
must interpret and analyze the data thoroughly himself for better results.
9. DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATATION
A very convenient and appealing method of data representation is by using
various forms of diagrams. They in a very meaningful way highlight the salient
features of the data which makes them easy to understand. Following are
examples of some of the diagrammatic representations that may be employed in
the research report. It may be noted that all th e diagrams are fictitious and made
only for illustrative purpose here:
a) Graph
In a graph there are two axis the X and Y axis. X axis is horizontal and the Y
axis is vertical intersecting the X axis. The point where intersection occurs is
the place of origin. The independent variables are scaled on the X axis and the
dependent one on the Y axis.
Following is an illustration of the same.
In the graph the growth of female literacy in India since independence has
been shown. The X axis has the years while the Y axis has the rate of growth
of women literacy in India.
Graph
In a complex table, bi or multivariate are used. These have become more
popular in the research representation in recent years. Following is an
example of the same.
b.Bar diagram
The bar diagram s are drawn either vertically or horizontally. E ach bar indicates the
value of the variable.
Illustration- The following bar diagram shows by way of exam ple what was the
voters turn out till the year 2010 general election in the state of D elhi. The data is
merely for illustration purpose.
c) Pie chart
In a pie chart, t he data is presented in the form of a circle with each category
occupying a segment that is proportional according to the size of its data.
10. CONCLUSION
In the research process, daata analysis is a very important and scientific step especially
when the researcher is conducting a quantitative research. The r esearcher must
understand the research area comprehensively and do the processing, analysis and finally
interpretation with the help of various techniques and to ols of analysis depending upon
the nature , scope and aims of the research being condu cted.
