Do Chapter 4 Fluid Meci aics Hurd Mechanics is basically a study of the behavi () physically behaviour of fluids and fluid systems, and of the laws governing this behaviour, (w) action of forces on fluids and of the resulting flow pattern. Fluid mechanics may be divided into three divisions : 1. Hudrostatics that studies the mechanics of fluids at absolute and relative rest; the fluid elements are tree from shearing stresses, 2. Kinematics that deals with translation, rotation and deformation of fluid elements without vonsidering the force and energy causing such a motion. 3. Dynamics that prescribes the relations between velocities and accelerations and the forces __ whuch are exerted by or upon the moving fluids. Lo ‘After reading this chapter, the reader would be able to : () make distinction between the three states of matter (solid, liquid and gas), (@) understand the concept of a fluid, real and ideal fluid. (ii) make a brief review about the development of the exciting and fascinating subject of fluid mechanics. 7 (iv) appreciate the unlimited practical applications of fluid mechanics, 4.1 SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES Matter exists in two principal forms : solid and fluid, Fluid is further sub-divided into liquid and gas. Distinguishing features amongst these are : (i) The solids, liquids and gases exhibit different characteristics on account of their different molecular structure. Spacing and the latitude of the motion of molecules is large in a gas, small ina liquid and extremely small in a solid. Accordingly the intermolecular bonds are very weak in a gas, weak in a liquid and very strong in a solid. It is due to these aspects that solid is very compact and rigid in form, liquid accommodates itself to the shape of its container, and gas fills up the whole of the vessel containing it. (ii) For a given mass, the liquids have a definite volume irrespective of the size of the container. The variation of volume with temperature and pressure is insignificant. Liquid occupies the vessel fully or partially depending on its mass, and that it forms a free surface with the atmosphere. The gas, however, expands to fill any vessel in which it is contained and does not form any free surface. Accordingly, it may be stated; The solid has volume and shape; a liquid has volume but no shape; a gas has neither. (iii) For all practical purposes, the liquids like solids can be regarded as incompressible. This means that pressure and temperature changes have practically no effect on their volume. The gases are, however, readily compressible fluids. They expand infinitely in the absence of e ' 132Fluid Mechanics // 133 sure and contract easily under pressure. Never-the-less density variation is small. For example in flow of air in a ventilating system, the gas flow can also be treated as incompressible without involving any appreciable error. When a gas can be readily condensed to a liquid, we call ita vapour such as steam and ammonia. () The deformation due to normal and tangential forces for solids is such that within clastic limits, the deformation disappears and the solid body is restored to its original shape when the stress causing the deformation is removed. A fluid at rest can, however, sustain only normal stresses and deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress; no matter how small that shear stress may be. Even though the fluid comes to rest when the shear stress is removed, yet there is no tendency to restore the fluid body to its original shape or position. Thus a fluid can offer no permanent resistance to shear force and possesses a characteristic ability to flow oe change its shape. Flow means that the constituent Auid particles continuously change their positions relative to one another. This concept of fluid flow under 4 the application of a shear stress is illustrated in Fig. 4.1. ~ A fluid element occupying the initial position 011 continues to move or deform to new position 022, 033 etc., when a shear stress t is applied to it. The tendency of continuous deformation of a fluid s called fluidity, and the act of continuous deformation 's called flow. The above discussion can be summed up as : pees 1 2 > Flow Fig. 4.1. Fluid flow Liquid Gas (@ A given mass of liquid has a definite volume independent of the size or shape of the container; | _ however, it changes its shape easily and acquires | the shape of its container. (i) A free surface is formed if the volume of the container is greater than that of the liquid. (ui) Liquids can be regarded as incompressible for all practical purposes. (@) Pressure and temperature changes have practically no effect on the volume of a liquid. (o) Water, kerosene, petrol etc. are liquids. (A given mass of gas has no fixed volume; and it expands continuously to completely fill any container in which it is placed. (ii) No free surface is formed. (iii) Gases are readily compressible. (io) Agas expands infinitely in the absence of pressure and contracts easily under pressure. (2) Air, ammonia, carbon dioxide ete. are gases. 4.2 IDEAL AND REAL FLUIDS A fluid is said to be ideal if it is assumed to be both incompressible and inviscid (non-viscous). Further an ideal fluid has no surface tension. For an i forces are set up even during fluid motion. n=0 viscid fluid, viscosity is zero and no frictional -dp p= constant; K= o=0 dojo ~134 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering Ideal fluids are imaginary and do exist in nature. However most common fluids such as ai, water have very low value of viscosity and can be treated as ideal fluids for all practical p é without introducing any appreciable error. Since water is incompressible, it is move near to an idea $ fluid than air. ‘ Real or practical fluids have viscosity (j1), compressibility (K) and surface tension (6). Whenever § motion takes place, the tangential or shear forces always come into play due to viscosity and some frictional work is done. ‘ i 4.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF FLUID MECHANICS The subject of fluid mechanics encompasses a great many fascinating areas like : ; * design of a wide range of hydraulic structures (dams, canals, weirs etc.) and machinery 1 (pumps, turbines and fluid couplings) é * design of a complex network of pumping and pipelines for transporting liquids; flow ‘ of water through pipes and its distribution to domestic service lines : * fluidic control devices both pneumatic and hydraulic * design and analysis of gas turbines, rocket engines, conventional and supersonic aircraft ; * power generation from conventional methods such as hydroelectric, steam and gas turbines, to newer ones involving magneto fluid dynamic methods and devices for the measurement of various parameters, e.g., the pressure and velocity of a fluid at rest or in motion. study of men’s environment in the subjects like meteorology, oceanography and geology human circulatory system, ie,, flow of blood in veins and the vital role it plays in a variety of engineering applications. The numerous natural phenomenon such as the rain cycle, weather patterns, the rise of groundwater to the top of trees, winds, ocean waves and currents in large water bodies are also governed by the principles of fluid mechanics. Figure 4.2 briefly explains the significance of fluid mechanics and the vital role it plays in a variety of engineering applications. on ( Orifice meter v Reservoir > Y (Pressure measurement (i) Stability of dam (ii) Flow metering FL R i ; = 36) = ee = . | me version (¥) Drag and Litt (i) Boundary layer and its growth Fig. 4.2. Fluid mechanics applicationsFluid Mechanics // 135 The significance of fluid mechanics can be well judged by citing just one example of automobile deve where suspension is provided by pneumatic tyres, road shocks are reduced by hydraulic chuck absorbers, gasoline is pumped through tubes and later atomized, air resistance creates a drag en the vehicle as whole and the confidence that hydraulic brakes would operate when the vehicle is nade to stop. Undoubtedly, a study of the science of fluid mechanics is a must for an engineer so that he can understand the basic principles of fluid behaviour and apply the same to flow situations encountered jn engineering and physical problems, 4.4 FLUID PROPERTIES Every fluid has certain characteristics by means of which its physical condition may be described. such characteristics are called properties of the fluid. Before an analyst of fluid flow problems can venture to formulate the physical principles governing the flow situation, he has to be thoroughly familiar with the physical properties of fluids. Towards that end, this section seeks to provide asic insight into the fluid properties and their behaviour. 4.4.1 Specific weight, mass density and specific gravity (@) Specific weight (w) of a fluid is its weight per unit volume. wn (41) where W is the weight of the fluid havirg volume V. The weight of a body is the force with which the body is attracted to the centre of the earth. Itis the product of its mass and the local gravitational acceleration, ie., W = mg. The value of g at sea level is 9.807 m/s? approximately. Since weight is aapressed in newton, the unit of measurement of specific weight is N/m’. In terms of fundamental er For pure water under standard atmospheric pressure of 760 mm of mercury at mean sea level anda temperature of 4°C, the specific weight is 9810 N/m. For sea water, the specific weight equals 10 000 - 10 105 N/m? The increased value of specific weight of water is due to the presence of dissolved salts and suspended matter. The specific weight of petroleum and petroleum products varies from 6 350 - 8 350 N/m? and that of mercury at 0°C is 13 420 N/m*. Air has a specific weight of 11 9 N/m? at 15°C temperature and at standard atmospheric pressure. The specific weight of a fluid changes from: one place to another depending upon changes in the gravitational acceleration, (b) Density (p-pronounced rho) isa measure of the amount of fluid contained in a given volume and is defined as the mass per unit volume. mt P=y wn (4.2) where m is the mass of fluid having volume V. Fluid mass is a measure of the ability of a fluid Particle to resist acceleration and is approximately independent of its location on the earth’s surface. The units of density correspond to those of mass and volume. The dimensional formula of density in a fundamental units is (] or [=] and the corresponding units are kg/m? or N s?/m!. units, the dimensional formula of specific weight is [s] or [ i | The density of a fluid diminishes with rise of temperature except for water which has a maximum ‘alueat 4°C. The mass density of water at 15.5°C is 1000 kg/m3, and forair at 20°C and at atmospheric Pressure the mass density is 1.24 kg/m3.136 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering Relations 4.1 and 4.2 are valid only when the fluid eee without any blank space, ie, the fluid is a continuum. For a non-homog. , io ms, give average specific weight and density. To determine the pie oleate erat “y nt the volume is regarded as tending to zero and the limit of the correspot um dw = v0 y= WV um _ din Pe vio ya er expression W = m, “The weight W and the mass m of a fluid are related to each ray the exp) if Dividing this expression throughout by volume V of the fluid, we obtain : Wom Vv Vv Se eaeeaealS itational upon gravil Equations 4.3 reveals that specific weight w changes with location depending upon g pull, ity) of a fluid to the (©) Specific gravity (s) refers to the ratio of specific weight (or ey is water at 4C. ‘Specific weight (or mass density) of a standard fluid. For liquids the stan a same temperature and for gases the standard fluid is taken either air at 0°C or hydrogen at the Specific gravity is dimensionless and has no unite, “sc wei ass) is 136 A Satement thatthe specific gravity of mercury is 136 implies that its weight marl Simes that of same volume of water. In other words, mercury is 136 times heavier lume is the (2) Specific volume (v) represents the volume per unit mass of fluid; specific volu inverse of the mass density. = (43) Vv 1 oo» (4.4) vel mo , idy of flow of The concept of specific volume is found to be practically more useful in the study compressible fluids, ie, gases. EXAMPLE 4.1 2 litre of petrol weighs 14 N, Calculate the « Bravity of petrol with respect to water Solution : 2 litre = 2 x 103 m3 Specific weight is a measure of the weight per unit volume: specific weight, mass density, specific volume and specific 4 Specific weight w = Duio> = 7000 Nim? Mass density is related to specific volume by the relation, w=pg w 7000 ensity p= % _ 700 _ 1,4, 3 Mass density p a1 = 713.56 kg/m’ Specific volume v is the inverse of mass density 1 Pp 713.56 density of oil 713.56 density of water ~ 1000 14 x 107 m/kg Specific gravity s = = 0.7136van Fluid Mechanics // 137 EXAMPLE 4.2 papecific gravity of a liquid is 0.80, make calculations for its mass density, specific volume and specific nt (weight density). solution: Specific gravity = Ty 355 density of water Mass density of liquid p = 0.80 x 1000 = 800 kg/m? 1 1 p Bog = 125* 107 mkg, Specific weight (weight density) w = p g = 800 x 9.81 = 7848 Nim? Specific volume 0 = 442 Viscosity Viscosity is a property of the fluid by which it offers resistance to shear or angular deformation. Experimental evidence indicates that when any fluid flows over a solid surface the velocity is notuniform at any cross-section; it is zero (no slip) at the solid surface and progressively approaches te free stream velocity in the fluid layers far away from the solid surface. This aspect of the velocity profile (a curve connecting the tips of velocity vectors) indicates the existence of some resistance to iow due to friction between a fluid layer and the solid surface, and between adjacent layers of flui soli. Again the velocity gradient (the spatial rate of change of velocity du/dy) is large at the solid srtace and gradually diminishes to zero with distance from the wall. Evidently the resistance between the fluid and surface is greater when compared to that between the fluid layers themselves. The resistance to flow because of internal friction is called viscous resistance, and the property which enables the fluid to offer resistance to relative motion between adjacent layers is called the scosity of fluid. Viscosity is thus a measure of resistance to relative translational motion of adjacent layers of fluid. This property is manifested by all the real fluids, and it distinguishes them from ideal or non-viscous fluids. Molasses, tar and glycerine are examples of highly viscous liquids ; the sniermolecular force of attraction between their molecules very large and consequently they cannot be easily poured or stirred. Fluids like water, air and petrol have a very small viscosity; they flow such more easily and rapidly and are called thin fluids. ve fess —_+1+—_—_+ Veloci es = wae te oc —— FF Z = Fixed 7 Enlarged eee TOTTI 88 large ey v tome Fig. 4.3. Velocity profile and viscosity concept Newton’s Law of Viscosity Consider two adjacent layers at an infinitesimal distance dy apart and moving with velocity and (u + du), respectively. The upper layer moving with velocity (u + du) drags the lower layer along, with it by exerting a force F. However, the lower layer tries to retard or restrict the motion of upper layer by exerting a force equal and opposite to F. These two equal and opposite forces induce a shear oF viscous resistance t (pronounced tau) given by F/A where A is the contact area between the two lavers. Experimental measurements have shown that the shear stress is proportional to the spatial rate of velocity normal to the flow : te Hey w= (45)1238 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering ' The term se more usually called the velocity gradient at right angles t0 the ditecteg Ps , Sekeit steel The propertonality const (pronounced mew) in equation 4.5 is a function, Mheient of viscosity, absolute viscosity or dynamic visey,” 9 4S was hist suggested by Newton and is reterred toas the Newton's viscosity equatigy’ Newton's law of vrscostty Je follow ing observations help to appreciate the interaction between viscosity and veleg, drstribuition 4 mented and i called the ¢ © Maximum mar stresses occur where the velocity gradient is the largest, and the shy, esses disappear where the velocity gradient is zero. * Nehaity gradient at the solid boundary has a finite value. The velocity profile cang,, ove to the boundary because that would imply an infinite velocity gradie, sd, mm turn, an infinite shear stress. he asymp + Seiouity gradient becomes less steep (du/dy becomes small) with distance from i Sundry, Conseguently maximum value of shear stress occurs at the boundary ang progressively decreases with distance from the boundary. xtormation of fluid elements can be prescribed in terms of the angle of shear strain 4 cure $4 instncates a thin sheet of fluid element ABCD placed between two plates distance dy apan he sovy:th and the width of the plates are much gy | c tanger than the thickness dy so that the edge effects ety | » neglected. When force F is applied to the causes it to move at a small speed 4s sclative to the bottom plate. Velocity gradient xc up a shear stress = F/A which makes the fusd clement distort to position ABCD after a ime interval dt. stance BB’ = CC’ = speed x time = du x dt ! angular displacement 40, BB’ dy xd x dt = dy x d0; ate Pet pla na Fig. 4.4 Shear stress and time rate “9% of shear strain lev ohe Newton's law of viscosity, Fe, express the shear stress in terms of velocity gradient. 40 | wa (46 Apparently the shear stress in fluids is dependent on the rate of fluid deformation 22, This characteristic serves to distinguish a solid from a fluid. Whereas the shear stress in a solid material ly proportional to shear strain; the shear stress in a vi iscous fluid is proportional to time rate of strain. Dimensional Formula and Units of Viscosity The units of viscosity can be worked out from Newton’s equation of viscosity; + = yx duty Solving for the visconity j and inserting dimensions F, L, T for force, length and timeXN Fluid Mechanics // 139 we tefl) fe du/dy ~ (2 \*(r* >| 2 When the force dimension is expressed in terms of mass, F = | ba IF |, the dimensions for viscosity 1 fo terms of mass, length and ime become [ bl | i When appropnate umts are inserted for force, length and time, the dynamic viscosity will have oe units = N/m? _ Ns du /dy ( 1 ) © m? ’ x s*m Sometimes, the cvetticient of dynamie viscosity pis distinguished by poise (P) Lay Lpose= — cm see A pose tums out to be a relatively large unit, hence the unit centipoise (cP) is generally used : 1 001 P. Typical values of viscosity for water and air at 20°C and at standard atmospheric pressure water = 1.0 cP = 103 N s/m? Hair = 0.0181 cP = 0.0181 x 10 N s/m* Le. water is nearly 55 times as viscous as air. Specific viscosity is the ratio of the viscosity of fluid to the viscosity of water at 20°C. Since water has a viscosity of I cP at 20°C, the viscosity of any fluid expressed in centipoise units would be 2 measure of the viscosity of that relative to water. + Kinematic Viscosity ‘The ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density is defined as kinematic viscosity of fluid znd & denoted by v (pronounced new) : dynamic viscosity ‘mass density ‘The dimensional formula for kinematic viscosity is, elle} The kinematic viscosity does not involve force; its only dimensions being length and time as in kinematics of fluid flow. Typical units of v are m2/s or cm?/s, the latter being referred to as stoke ‘Se to perpetuate the name of the English physical Sir George Stokes. A centistoke (c St) is one- undredth of a stoke : 1 cSt = 0.01 St. Typical values of kinematics viscosity at 20°C and at standard Ea Kinematic viscosity = i (4.7) atmospheric pressure are: vwater = 1.0¢St=1« 10% m?/s v [Link]=15 x 10% m?/s ie, the kinematic viscosity of air is about 15 times greater than the corresponding value of water.140 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering y EXAMPLE 4.3 | (0 A lubricating oil of viscosity 11 undergoes steady shear between a fixed lower plat, "upper plate moving at speed V. The clearance between the plates is h. Show that 1¢% | velocity profile results if the fluid does not slip at either plate. ey, i) Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 em apart, the space between them being filled wig, of viscosity 14 poise, Compute the shear stress in the oil if the upper plate is moved yy velocity of 25 m/s. " Solution : The shear stress t is constant throughout 4y f the fluid for the given geometry and motion and, loving plate i ———————— ae theretore, trom Newton’s law of viscosity sy du ot = ~ = constant vy dy op h u=uy) = or u=atby The constants @ and b are evaluated from the no PITTTTTTTTTTTTTTIIVITITIITT OOOO = slip conditions at the upper and lower plates. radia: =0;0=a Fig. 4.5 + bh us Oat= y u=Vaty=h; Hence a = 0 and b = V/h. The velocity profile between the plates is than given by u = 4 andis Iunear as indicated in Fig. 4.6. {#) Viscous shear stress is given by the Newton’s law of viscosity du ay 4 poise = 1.4.N s/m2 25 m/s and dy=1.25% 107m t= 14 = 280 N/m? = 280 Pa 25 * {24x107 Although oil is very viscous, this is a modest shear stress; about 360 times less than atmospheric pressure, EXAMPLE 4.4 The clearance space between a shaft and a concentric sleeve has been filled with a Newtonian fluid. The sleeve attains a speed of 60 cm/s when a force of 500 N is applied to it parallel to the shaft. What force is needed if it is desired to move the sleeve with a speed of 300 cm/s ? ai Solution : For a Newtonian fluid, t= pp a Since the space between the shaft and the sleeve is very duu small, i.c,, the oil film is thin, it can be presumed that dy = ¢ Whereis the sleeve speed and ts the oil film thickness. Further force F Shear stress t= 7 =Fluid Mechanics // 144 A. wand f are constant and therefore F % w and accordingly itpepeat my Inserting the appropriate values, ty wo" plates are placed 0.15 mm apart and the space between them is filled with an oil of . The upper plate of area 1.5 m? is required to move with a speed of 0.5 m/s relative to the tower plate. Determine the necessary force and power required to maintain this speed. du ay Given = 1 poise = 0.1 Ns/m?; du =0.5 m/s dy = 0.15 mm = 0.15 x 109 m 01x05 0.15x10 ‘Shear resistance or force, F = shear stress x area 333.3 x 15 =500N (a) Power required to move the upper plate at a speed of 0.5 m/s. = Fu = (500 x 0.5) Nm/s = 250 W = 0.25 kW Solution : Viscous shear stress t = jt Shear stress t = 333.3 N/m? EXAMPLE 4.6 A dash pot 10 cm diameter and 12.5 cm long slides vertically down in a 10.05 cm diameter cylinder. The oil Gilling the annular space has a viscosity of 0.80 poise. Find the speed with which the piston slides down if toad on the piston is 10 N. Solution : Since the space between the dash pot and the cylinder is very small ie,, the oil film is d un. we can presume that aa “where w is the piston speed and fis the oil film thickness. a Shear stress t= p24 =p [10.05 em—>} dy “He Shear or viscous force = shear stress x are ut (Qnrl) Given: 2 em = 005 m T = 08 poise = 0.08 N/sm? Reson 10.05-10 Oil EP = 0.025 em = 0.00025 m Viscous force equals the load of 10 N a s+ 10= 008 x T5995 Hence piston speed u = 0.796 m/s x (2m x 0.05 x 0.125)142 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering v EXAMPLE 4.7 A cylinder of diameter 15m and weight 90 N slides a distance of 12.5 cm in a lubricated pipe. The ay between the cylinder and pipe is 2.5 x 10 cm. The cylinder is noted to decelerate at a rate of 0.6 mj2,% the speed is 6 m/s, Calculate the viscosity of the oil used for lubricating the pipe. } | du Solution : Viscous shear stress t= | ds Viscous resistance or force shear stress x area = pe emdt= 2X8 x 9 0.15) (0.125) = 14130 nN e 2.510 Invoking Newton’s second law : ZF = mass x acceleration 90 90-14130 p= Fr (06) 90 - 14130 =-55 6.76 x 10° N s/m? EXAMPLE 4.8 Find the kinematic viscosity of a liq 0.012 poise. stokes whose sp ic gravity is 0.95 and dynamic viscosity, EXAMPLE 4.9 A hydraulic lift used for lifting automobiles has 20 cm diameter ram which slides in a 20.016 cm diamete cylinder. The annular space between the cylinder and ram is filled with an oil of kinematic viscosity 35 stokes and relative density 0.85. If the travel of 3.2 m long ram has a uniform rate of 15 cms, estimate the frictional resistance experienced by the ram. Solution : Kinematic viscosity v = 3.5 stokes = 3.5 cm?/s = Mass density p = 0.85 x 1000 = 850 kg/m? Dynamic viscosity = pv 850 x (3.5 x 10) = 0.2975 N s/m? (20.4 = Thickness of oil film = ees 20) x107 Solution : = 0.012 poise = 0.012 x 0.1 = 1.2 x 10% N s/m? | Mass density of liquid = specific gravity x mass density of water P = 0.95 x 1000 = 950 kg/m? -3 . Kinematic viscosity v= © eee = 1.263 x 10 m?/s = 1.263 x 10 cm?/s = 1.263 x 107 stokes | 5 x 104 m2/s = 0.00008 m _ du V _ 0.2975x0.15 * oy "> 0.00008m shear stress x area = 557.81 x (mx 0.20 x 3.2) = 1121 N= 1.12 kN Shear stress 57.81 N/m? Frictional resistance EXAMPLE 4.10 Two square flat plates with each side 60 cm are spaced 12.5 mm apart. The lower plate is stationary and the upper plate requires a force of 100 N to keep it moving with a velocity of 2.5 m/s. The oil film between theFluid Mechanics // 143 lates has the same velocity as that of plates at the surface of contact. Assuming a linear velocity distribution, mine: (i the dynamic viscosity of the oil in pois {i0 the kinematic and cosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95. solution : Shearing stress t = Shearing area = 0.6 « 0.6 = 0.36 m2 Shearing force = tx A = 200 4x 0.36 = 72 p Equating it to the given force, 100 72 = 100; 7g, = 139Ns/m? = 13.9 poise (i) Kinematic viscosity of the oil, H 1.39 y= = = 14.63 x ?, p ~ 095x100 = 16 104 m?/s = 14.63 cm?/s = 14.63 stokes EXAMPLE 4.11 A cubical block weighing 4.5 N and having a 40 cm edge is allowed to slide down an inclined plane surface making an angle of 30° with the horizontal on which there is a uniform layer of oil 0.005 cm thick. If the expected steady state velocity of the block is 12.5 cmis, determine the viscosity of the oil. Also express the kinematic viscosity in stokes if the oil has a mass density of 800 kg/m? Solution : Component of weight of block along the plane = W sin & Assuming a linear velocity profile in the oil film, Cubical block Shear stress t= pt a aut 400m side Shearing force opposing motion = \t “ A Under equilibrium conditions : Wsina= Fl A Wsina Uniform oi . oo Weinaxt z+ Dynamic viscosity = 4.5sin 30° x (0.005 x10?) Fig. 4.7 (12.5 x10) x (0.4 x 0.4) 0.0056 N s/m? = 0.056 poise 0.0056 _ 800 =7 x10 cm?/s = 7 x 107 stokes " Kinematic viscosity v= 5 7x10 m?/s 4.4.3 Surface tension and capillarity Cohesion and Adhesion Liquids have characteristic properties of cohesion and adhesion Cohesion refers to the force444 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering represents the adhering or clinging of the fluid molecules to the solid surface with which they cop, ingontact. In brie, forces between like molecules are cohesive and the forces between unlike moe are adhesive. When a liquid like, mercury, is spilled on a smooth horizontal surface, it tend, » gather into droplets because the cohesive molecular forces are greater than the adhesive fox. | benwoen the mercury molecules and the material of the surface. Mercury tends to stay away fron the surtace and is said to be a not-wetting liquid. In case of water, adhesive forces are greater thy, cohesive foroes. Naturally when water is poured on the same smooth horizontal surface, it woyj, spread out and wet the horizontal surface. The wetting and non-wetting of the surface is dictated, the angle of contact between the liquid and the surface material. Reter to Fig. 4.8 which illustrates the liquid-gas interface with a solid surface. Liquid would wo the surface when @ < x/2 and the degree of wetting increases as 6 decreases to zero. For a wetting liquid @ > x/2, The contact angle is dependent on the nature and type of liquid, the solig ce and its cleanliness. For pure water in contact with a clean glass surface @ is essentially zer, degree. Even when the water is slightly contaminated, 8 becomes as high as 25 degree. Mercury, non-wetting liquid has @ between 130 to 150 degree. o 7 (b) Non-wetting liquid (mercury) @> 5 Wetting liquid = 2 Fig. 4.8. Wetting and non-wetting liquids (a) Wetting liquid (water) @ < ‘Surface Tension A liquid molecule lying well beneath the free surface of a liquid mass is surrounded by other molecules all around it. Consequently the moleculeis acted upon by the molecular forces of attraction (cohesion) that are equal in all directions. These equal and opposite forces cancel out; there is no resultant force acting upon the molecule within the fluid mass and this aspect keeps the liquid mass in equilibrium. Nevertheless, a liquid molecule at the free surface has no liquid molecules above it to counteract the forces due to molecules below it. Consequently as depicted in the molecular arrangement of Fig. 4.9, the molecules lying at the surface have a net attraction tending to pull them into the interior ofthe liquid mass. A quantum of energy /work is thus extended to bring the molecule to the free liquid surface which then acts like an elastic or stretched membrane. Energy expended per unit area of the surface is called surface tension; designated by sigma o. Surface tension occurs at the interface of a liquid and a gas or at the interface of two liquids, and is essentially due to inter- molecular forces of cohesion. It is primarily due to surface tension effects that : — an isolated drop of liquid takes nearly a spherical shape — birds can drink water from ponds — water can be poured into a clean glass tumbler to a level above the lip of tumbler — stretched water surface can support small objects like dust particles and a needle placed gently upon it — capillary rise and depression in thin-bored glass tubes.Fluid Mechanics // 145, _Fluid molecule Fig. 4.9. Forces of attraction on a liquid molecule Surtace tension forces are generally negligible in comparison with the pressure and gravitational sores, but become quite significant when there is a free surface and the boundary dimensions are wall cg. in the small scale models of hydraulic engineering structures. The dimensional formula for surface tension is [EI or [4] + it is usually expressed in Xm. The value of surface tension depends upon (i) nature of the liquid, (i) nature of the surrounding. matter which may be a solid, liquid or a gas, ii) kinetic energy and hence the temperature of liquid molecule. Growth in temperature results in a reduction of the inter-molecular cohesive forces and hence in a reduction of the surface tension force. At a critical point where the liquid and vapour phase become indistinguishable, the surface tension becomes zero. Surface tension Values for liquids re generally quoted when in contact with air as the surrounding medium. o= .073 N/m for air-water interface 1480 N/m for air-mercury interface The surface tension values drop with rise in temperature. EXAMPLE 4.12 List some occurrences which can be attributed to the physics of surface tension. Why the concept of surface tension is not applied to gases ? Solution : The following occurrences can be attributed to the physics of surface tension : () capillary rise or depression (ii) break-up of liquid jets (iif) formation of dew drops on grass early morning (io) dust particles collecting on water surface (v) formation of large soap bubbles with gentle blowing (ci) floating of a greased needle of steel on water surface. Certain insects (fly, mosquitoes) can creep freely on the water surface, (cit) spherical shape of a droplet of liquid. When a molten metal is poured into water from a suitable height, the falling stream of molten metal breaks up and the detached portions acquire spherical shape. This technique is used for preparing lead shots and glass marbles. Small drops of mercury are always spherical, but larger ones are somewhat flattened. Shape of the drop is governed by the combined influence of the surface tension and the gravitational force due to weight. For a tiny drop, the gravitational force is negligible and surface tension makes the drop spherical. However in case of larger drops, force of gravity is appreciable and tries to flatten the drop so as to lower the position of centre of gravity. Eventually the drop acquires an oval or elliptical shape. o=4146 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering Rain drops, tiny dew drops and small water drops ejected from a burette are alway, spherical. " (viii) On adding soap or detergent powder into water, its surface tension is lowered considera, This soap-water solution can more easily seep into the pores of clothes and remove the dirt and grease ete. F (a) Antiseptic creams are generally prepared in oil or greasy base of low surface tension so that even small amount of cream spreads on the whole of cut (wound) and prevents vozing out of the blood. or gases, the inter-molecular distance among gas molecules is very large and consequently there is no appreciable force of cohesion and as such the characteristic property of surface tension ig not exhibited /manifested by gases even though a gas is also a fluid. Capillary or Meniscus Effect When a small diameter glass tube, called the capillary tube is dipped into a water container, water nses in the tube to a level that stands higher than the level of water in the container. Conversely the surface of mercury is depressed down in the capillary tubing when it is dipped in preseny, The phenomenon of liquid rise or fallin a capillary tube is called the capillary or meniscus effect. Capillary is asurtace tension effect that depends upon the relative inter-molecular attraction between different substances; it is due to both cohesion and adhesion. Adhesion between glass and water molecules is greater than cohesion between water molecules. Consequently the water molecules spread over the glass surface and |} forma concave meniscus with small, angle of contact. Opposite conditions hold good for mercury i., cohesion between mercury moleculesis greater than adhesion of mercury to glass. Mercury then displays a convex meniscus with the angle of contact greater than eer (b) Capillary depression Knowing the surface tension o, angle of _{@) Cavillary rise ane contact 8, tube diameter d and specific weight Fig. 4.10 Capillary rise and depression of liquid w, the rise (for water) or depression (for mercury) of the liquid in the capillary tube can be worked out by the following analysis Weight of liquid raised or lowered in the capillary tube = (area of tube x rise or fall) x specific weight = (202 = (5H) w Vertical component of surface tension force = 6cos 8 x circumference =ocosOxnd=xdacosé When in equilibrium, the downward weight ofthe liquid column h is balanced by the vertical component of the force of surface tension. x Hence q Phw=ndocosé 4ocos8 or he aaa] + 48)Fiuid Mechanics // 147 rod, [som] 2.0086 Capillary tise sino (Gen) Fig. 4.11. Rise or depression of liquid in a capillary tube Itis to be noticed that for 0 < @ < 90°, his positive (concave meniscus and capillary rise) and that jor 90 $0 < 180°, is negative (convex meniscus and capillary depression). Evidently the capillary action is inversely proportional to the tube diameter. For precise work, the small diameter tubes are to be avoided; recommended minimum tube diameter for water and mercury is 6 mm. Further since the presence of dirt affects the surface tension and hence the capillary se or depression, the interior surface of the tube is to be kept clean. EXAMPLE 4.13 Explain why in a capillary tube, the meniscus of water is concave upwards while the meniscus of mercury is convex upwards. Calculate the capillary effects in millimeters in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter, when immersed in (i) ater and (ii) in mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20°C and the values of surface tension of water and mercury at 20°C in contact with air are 0.0735 N/m and 0.48 N/m respectively. The contact angle of water 220° and for mercury @ = 130°. Solution : The rise or depression h of a liquid in a capillary tube is given b: 46.c0s0 wd Case (i) : Capillary effect in water : 0.0735 N/m ; angle of contact @ = 0° 9800 N/m’ at 20°C (say) Peele ” © 9800x 0.004 Case (ii) : Capillary effect in mercury : 0 = 0.48 N/m ; angle of contact @ = 130° = 7.50 x 103 m = 7.50 mm (rise) w = (9800 x 13.6) N/m3 40.48 cos 130° , pene scl x103m= : + e90513.6)2<0.008 =~ 23! x 10° m= 2.31 mm (depression) EXAMPLE 4.14 Why should a mercury column in a thin glass tube be depressed while a water column be lifted up ? Calculate the size of glass tube if the capillary rise is limited to 2.2 mm of water. Assume suitable ‘values of required data at 20°C and 1 atm pressure.448 // Bosics of Mechanical Engineering v = =22x 103m Solution : Capillary nise h = 2.2mm ; The rise or depression /t of a liquid in capillary tubing is given by The most appropnate values of desired data at 20°C and 1 atm pressure are : Surtace tension 6 = 0.073 N/m for air water interface Angle of contact @ = 0 degree for water-clean glass surface Density of water p = 998 kg/m? 40.073 x cos 0° 22x 103 = jd =0.0136 m “(998 x9.81) xd Thus minimum diameter of tube should be 1.36 cm 4.4.4 Newtonian and non-newtonian fluids ; Distinchon between Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids can be readily illustrated when thy velocity gradient du/dy is plotted against the viscous shear stress T. Fluids tor which the viscosity is independent of velocity gradient are called Newtonian fluids For these fluids the plot between shear stress and velocity gradient is a straight line passing throug, the ongin. Slope of the line equals the coefficient of viscosity, w= t/(du/dy). Fluids represented by carves (a) and (b) are Newtonian fluids; fluid represented by line (a) is more viscous than that represented by line (b). Fluids like air, water, kerosene and thin lubricating oils are essentially Newtonian in chapter under normal working conditions. Fluids such as human blood, thick lubricating oils and certain suspensions for which the viscosity coefficient depends upon velocity gradient are referred to as non-Newtonian fluids. The viscous behaviour of a non- Newtonian fluid may be prescribed by the power law equation t = k (du/dy)" where kis a consistency index and nis a flow behaviour index. For a Newtonian du fluid, the consistency index k becomes Velocity gracient gy the dynamic viscosity coefficient 1 and and the flow behaviour index n assumes. a unity value. Fluids for which the flow behaviour index n is less than unity are called pseudo-plastic. Viscosity coefficient is smaller at greater rates of velocity gradient and the curve becomes flatter as the shear rate (i.e, velocity gradient) increases (curve c). Examples of pseudo-plastic fluids are the milk, blood, clay and liquid cement. Fluids for which the index n is greater than unity are called dilatant. Viscosity coefficient is more at greater rates of viscosity and the flow curve steeps with increasing shear rate (curve d). Concentrated solution of sugar and aqueous suspension of rice starch are examples of dilatant fluids. Viscous shear stress + Fig. 4.12. Variation of shear stress with velocity gradient (time rate of deformation) An ideal plastic substance indicates no deformation when stressed upto a certain point (yieldFluid Mechanics // 149 ‘gnes) and beyond that it behaves like a Newtonian fluid and hence is represented by line (e). For rain substances, there is finite deformation for a given load, ie., rate of deformation is zero Sew materials plot as ordinate (curve f) and are called elastic materials or ideal solids. Actual ‘Guts deform slightly when subjected to shear stress of larger magnitude and hence plot as a Sraight line almost vertical (¢). A fluid for which shear stress is zero (even if there is velocity dient) is the ideal fluid and it plots as abscissa (i). Fluids which show an apparent increase Sr wissity with time are called thixotropic. Conversely if the apparent viscosity decreases with tine, the fluid is called rheopectic. 45 PRESSURE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH HEIGHT 45.1, Pressure 4 fluid element or mass is essentially acted upon by two categories of forces ; body forces and surtace forces. Body forces on fluids element are caused by agencies such as gravitational, electric or magnetic fields. The magnitude of these forces is proportional to the mass of the fluid. Surface forces represent the action of the surrounding fluid on the element under consideration through direct contact. These forces are due to surface stresses like pressure (normal force) and shear (tangential orce). In fluids at rest, there is no relative motion between the layers of the fiuid. The velocity gradient is zero and hence there is no shear in the fluid. Consequently there is no tangential component of force and hence for a stationary fluid, the force exerted is normal to the surface of the containing vessel. This normal surface force is called the pressure force. The mathematical definition of intensity of pressure (or simply pressure), in the absence of shearing stress, is aE Po TA where dF represents the resultant force acting normal to an infinitesimal area dA. If the total force F acts uniformly over the entire area A, then p = F/A. Pressure has the dimensions of [FL* ] and is usually expressed in N/m/? (pascal), bar or atmosphere. 1 bar = 10° N/m? = 100 kPa 1atm = 101.3 kPa 45.2 Pascal's law An important and unique property of hydrostatic pressure is reflected in Pascal's law, which states tat Intensity of pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is same in all directions Consider a small wedge shaped element of stationary fuid and assume that the element has a unit depth perpendicular to the plane of the paper (Fig. 4.13). The eement is acted upon by the normal pressure forces and the vertical forces due to weight. Let p,, p,, and pg be the rressure intensities on the faces AB, BC and AC 2 spectively. Then : Force on face AB = p, x area of face AB = py (dy x1) = py dy Likewise, Force on face BC = p, dr Force on face AC = py ds The weight of fluid element is, = (area of triangular element x depth) x specific weight: 450 // Gesics of Mechanical Engineering 9 1 1 | = (Sardyat xwe 5 wdedy } element i ilibrium, and it acts chrongh the centre of gravity. Since the fluid element is in equilibrium, the forc,,, } the honzontal and vertical directions must balance. Resolving the forces in x-direction, p,dy= pyds sin ® From Fig 4.13 dy = ds sin® P, dy = py dys Py = Po Resolving the forces in y-direction, 1 nye = 5 war dy + pyds cos 0 Lot the sizeof the elemental system approach smaller and smaller dimensions; then sie ie torve (weight) which diminishes asthe product of two dimensions (dx and dy) can e neglected in comparison with the pressure forces for which the diminishing effect is proportional ction | in single dimension (dx). Thus in the limit Pye = pydscos 8 From Fig. 4.13: dx = ds cos @ Py ax= py dx Py = Py From equations 4.2 and 4.3, we have lh Pe=Py=Po (43) This result is independent of the angle @ and, therefore, it follows that pressure acts equally in all directions in a stationary fluid. Pressure at a point has only one value regardless of the orientation of the area upon which it is determined. Independence of direction implies that pressure is a scalar quantity. 4.5.3 Hydrostatic law Rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is Go) equal to weight density (specific weight) of the fluid. The fundamental equation relating pressure, density and vertical distance can be established by considering the equilibrium of an imaginary cylindrical clement in a body of fluid at rest. The cylindrical element, is of cross-sectional area dA and height dy. The pressure forces acting on the fluid element are : (i) Pressure force on bottom face AB =p dA acting in the upward direction. (ii) Pressure force on top face CD = (+220) aa acting in the downward direction. (iii) Weight of fluid element = specific weight x volume = w da dy (iv) Pressure forces on surface AC and BD are equal Fig. 4.14 Pressure-density-height and opposite and hence cancel out. relationship> Fluid Mechanics // 154 For the element to be in equilibrium, the sum of downward forces on the element must be equal othe upward corees, That is pda —(px Pay) dA wa dy ay ~ ay o Pew ov Since we are considering the variation of pressure only in the y-direction, the partial differential © canbe replaced by exact differential a dp dy This the fundamental equation of fluid statics and indicates that a negative pressure gradient ost upward along any vertical. Thus the pressure decreases in the upward direction and increases je downward direction with magnitude equal to specific weight. Letting height dy to be zero, then dp = 0, i, the pressure intensity remains the same if there is no = Oand therefore, _— AV dp + VpdA + Ap dV =0 feed Dividing throughout by p AV, one obtains : Fig. 4.18 Steady flow through a stream tube|§4 #/ Basics of Mechanical Engineering Vy o PAV = constant 4x Evadently the mass laid per unit time passing through any section of a stream tubes con., For an compressible fluid, the mass density p is constant and therefore : AV = constant te. AV, =A, V, Fquation 4.15 represents the continuity equation for the steady incompressible flow thy, elementary stream tube. The continuity equation states that in a varying duct, the average yer _ may change along the direction of flow but the produet (area x velocity) remains constant, Furth the mean velocities are inversely proportional to the cross-sectional areas of the flow Passage Vio A Vz Ay Continutty relation Q= A, V, = A, V, works with the restrictions : constant density, no friction, Meady flow, parallel stream tubes at each sections 1 and 2 and no branching of stream tubes. The product AV is the quantity (volume measure) of fluid which passes a reference Point pep unit time and is called the flow rate or discharge. Mass flow rate is the quantity (mass. measure) py of fluid which passes per unit time; the units are expressed in kg/s. Weight flow rate is the quantity (weight measure) « AV of fluid which passage the reference point per unit time; value is expressed mN/s. For a two-dimensional flow, the stream tube can be considered to be a unit dimension in the direction. Then the area along the stream tube is numerical equal to the spacing t of the streamlines Continuity equation for a stream tube in a two-dimensional, steady flow or incompressible fluig may then be prescribed as ; V, ty = Voty = constant 4.16) Apparently the mean velocity is inversely proportional to the spacing of the streamlines EXAMPLE 4.15 From a flow net diagram, it was found that the distances between two consecutive streamlines at two sersesgive sections are 1 em and 0.6 cm respectively Ifthe velocity atthe first section is 1 m/s: find the velocity at the other section. Also find the discharge between the two streamlines. Solution : For a two-dimensional flow V, ty = Vat, = constant (41, Given: V, =1m/s;t,= 1m =0.01 m: t= 0.6 em = 0.006 m . Vith _ 1x0.01 ” ty 70.006 = 167 m/s Further, discharge = V,t, = 1 x 0.01 = 0.01 m/s unit depth EXAMPLE 4.16 Water is flowing through a pipe of 0.5 m diameter with an average velocity of 1 m/s. What is the fate of discharge of water ? The same flow then passes through another section where the diameter is 1 m. What is the average flow velocity at this section ? Solution : Discharge Q = area x velocity 7 (0.5)? 1 = 0.196 misFluid Mechanics // 155 Let Vz be the velocity at the section where diameter is 1 m, From continuity considerations Q=A\V, =A,V, Bags)? Ay 4 (sy = Ar Le 1.25 mis Rap qi EXAMPLE 4.17 4 pipe AB branches into two pipes C and D as shown in Fig, 4.19. The pipe has diameter of 45 cm at A, ‘cm at B, 20cm at C and 15 cm at D. Determine the discharge at A if the velocity at A is 2 m/s. Also determine the velocities at B and D, if the velocity at C is 4 m/s. solution : The quantity of liquid passing through section A is : Qy = AgxVy= F (0.45)? x2 =0318 m/s From continuity considerations : Q = Asx Vy =Ag% Vp Vy = 2 ee ee Bo; 7 03y c From the geometry of branching pipes, it follows that : [Link] ¢ Qa =Qc+Qp Ry? x 7 8 0.318 = 7002) x4+F (015) xVp 45cme 300m ¢ = 0.1256 + 0.0177 Vy 7 18cm «=. Velocity at section is Fig 418 vy, = 2318-0.1256 D= 177 = 10-6 mvs 4.6.2. Eulers equation along a streamline -ler’s equation of motion is established by applying Newton’s second law of motion to a small element of fluid moving within a stream tube (Fig. 4.20). The element has a mean cross-sectional zrea dA, length ds and the centroid of the downstream face lies at a level dy higher than the centroid of the upstream face. Motion of the element is influenced by : *Normal forces due to pressure : Let p and (p + dp) be the pressure intensities at the upstream and downstream face respectively. Net pressure force acting on the element in the direction of motion is then given by, pdA-(p+dp) dA =~dpdA “Tangential force due to viscous shear : If the fluid element has a perimeter dP, then shear force on the element is ds = 1 dP ds where 1 is the frictional surface force per unit area acting on the walls of the stream tube. The sum of all the shearing forces is the measure of the energy lost due to friction. “Body force such as gravity acting in the direction of gravitational field. If p is the density of the fluid mass, then the body force equals pg dA ds. Its component in the direction of motion is = pgdA ds sin ® =pgdAdy (« sin 0= lll186 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering y W = pg dA ds Fig. 4.20 Fluid element with friction The resultant force in the direction of motion must equal to the product of mass and acceleration an that direction. That is ~ dp dA ~ pg dA dy-tdP ds =p dAdsa, (41g) Kemay be recalled that the velocity of an elementary fluid particle along a streamline is a function of position and time, u = fist) Bu 4, 4 Ou du = as tat du _ du ds, ou ad ~ Os dt OF oa ut as” ae au Fy =O and the partial differentials become the total differentials. Evidently for a steady flow, the acceleration of fluid In a steady flow the changes are with respect to position only; so a a - Substituting this result in equation 4.18, we obtain element along a streamline equals, a, = ~dp dA~pg dA dy-tdPds=pdAudu Dividing throughout by the fluid mass p dA ds and rearranging : tt, ld, dy _ _taP dsp ds “ds ~~ pdA (419) which is Fuler’s equation of motion. Here du . . . (the termu 7. is measure of convective acceleration experienced by the fluid as it moves from a region of one velocity to another region of different velocity ;eviciently it represents a change in kinetic energy. ldp (i) the term 5 Gg Tepresents the force per unit mass caused by the pressure distribution.Fluid Mechanics // 157 dy (i) the term & {> represents the force per unit mass resulting from gravitational pull. tdP (@) the term™ 5 qa_Prescribes the force per unit mass caused by friction. for tdeal fluids, t= 0 and, therefore, equation (4.15) reduces to : udu Ps gay a 12), oP yams S rdy 20 (4.20) Euler's equations 4.19 and 4.20 have been set up by considering the flow with a stream tube and = sch apply to the flow with a stream tube or along a streamline because as dA goes to zero, the fuid is not ideal and exhibits friction effects, the energy line would drop thereby indicating a cy dual loss of total energy. # pernoulli’s equation can also be recast as : yz wag (P+ uy = constant v2 or Pag P+ RY = constant (4.23) which isthe customary from in which the Bernoulli's equation is applied to gas flow. Each term in SS te, energy per unit volume. Since elevation change are frequently very small, the term wy ™ ay be dropped out. ‘The Bernoulli's equation forms the basis for solving a wide variety of fluid flow problems such vets issuing from an orifice, jet trajectory, flow under a gate and over a weir, flow metering by costruction meters, flow around submerged objects, and flows associated with pumps and turbines « Whilst working with Bernoulli's equation, one must have a clear understanding of the sumptions involved in its derivation and the corresponding limitations of its applications. * flow is steady, ie., at a given point there is no variation of fluid properties with respect to time. * flow is ideal, ic., it does not exhibit any frictional effects due to fluid viscosity. + flow és incompressible; no variation in fluid density. + flow is essentially one-dimensional, ie., along a streamline. However, the Bernoulli's equation can be applied across streamlines if the flow is irrotational. low is continuous and velocity is uniform over a section. + only gravity and pressure forces are present. No energy in the form of heat or work is either added to or subtracted from the fluid. 48.3 Bernoulli's theorem : principle af energy conservation Consider steady flow of incompressible liquid through a non-uniform pipe (a converging stream ving entirely in the x-y plane. Flow can be assumed to be uniform and normal to the inlet and et area. The fluid mass has an area A,, average velocity V, and pressure p, at entrance; the ~responding values at exist are A,, V, and p,. The mass of the fluid in the region abcd shift to net sition a’b’c'd” during an infinitely small internal of time. Since the area a’b’cd is common to both the regions abed and a’b’c’d’, it will not experience any nergy change. Evidently then the energy changes of the fluid masses in the section abb’a’ and did have to be considered. {A Invoking the principle of mass conservation, the following continuity equation applies : Fluid mass within the region abb’a’ = fluid mass within the region cc'd’d m =p A, ds, = pA, ds, (i Work done during displacement of fluid mass from ab to a’b’ force x displacement = p, A, ds,Fig. 4.22 Energy conservation during fluid flow ‘The displacement ds, is so small that any variation in fluid properties can be neglected. Likewise a the work done at exist equals == py Ay ds xr This work done is in opposite direction, i.,, force and displacements are in opposite directions; J hence negative sign, Net flow work (work done by pressure) = Py Ay ds, ~ Py Ap ds m aa (P1 -P2) (iif) The fluid flows downwards and therefore, Loss of potential energy = mg (y, = y>) (io) The fluid mass accelerates from velocity V; to V, and therefore, Gain of kinetic energy = rR -v2) From the principle of conservation of energy, loss of potential energy + work done by pressure = gain in kinetic energy mg (Ys ~va)+™ (Py~ pa) = 502 -vPy Dividing throughout by mg and using the relation w = pg, we obtain ; 2 (ys ye) + Wei) Rearrangement givesFluid Mechanics // 164 v2 op or 2g tw TY = constant which is the Bemoulli’s equation. Thus: “Ina steady flow system of frictionless incompressible fluid, the sum of velocity, pressure nd elevation heads remains constant at every section”. This is, however, on the assumption that nergy is neither added to nor taken away by some external agency. EXAMPLE 4.18 Vater is flowing with a velocity of 15 m/s and under a pressure of 300 kPa. If the height bove the datum is 30 m, calculate the total energy per unit weight of water. olution : Total energy per unit weight = kinetic energy + pressure energy + potential energy voip ast te 2g w 15? 300% 10° S00x10"' +30 = 11.42 + 30.58 +30 = 72 NavN 2x91 * 98107 +3088 XAMPLE 4.19 .7.5 cm diameter hose contains water flowing at a rate of 0.085 m*/s. If the pressure within the pipe is ) kPa gauge, work out the maximum height to which the water may be sprayed ? olution : The problem deals with the conversion of all the energy of water into potential energy. At 1aximum height, both the pressure and velocity will become zero. discharge 0.085 Flow velocity V = "8" = > = 19.25 m/s sectional area Fours} ; v? _ (19.25)? Kinetic => = ic energy of flow = 5°59] = 1888m p _70x10° e1 ste =7.13 Pressure energy = = "555 Considering level of hose as the potential energy of datum, the total energy is : 18.88 + 7.13 + 0 = 26.01 m XAMPLE 4.20 _ pipe 12.5 cm in diameter is used to transport oil of relative density 0.75 under a pressure of 1 bar. If ne total energy relative to a datum plane 2.5 m below the centre of pipe is 20 NmV/N (or J/N or m), work ut the flow rate of oil. olution : Energy per newton of oil 2 v2 op =—+2e = ow! v2 1x10° ve = + SO _ 425 = 59 +2. a 2x9.81 * 0.75x9810 axoa1 * 1959 +25 y =3.91 2x981V 162 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering How velocity V = /29.81x3.91 = 8.76 m/s n 2 ¥ = = 5 (0.125)° x 8.76 = 0.1075 m/s Discharge Q = AV = 7 (0.125) MPLE 4.21 eee water pipe of diameter 15 cm converges to 7.5 cm diameter. If the pressures at the two sections are 400 kPa, and 150 kPa respectively, calculate the flow rate of water. Solution : Apply the Bernoulli’s equation at the entrance section 1-1 and exit section 2-2 of the horizontal pipe, 2 VW Pyy, VE 2g w 2g Since the pipe is laid horizontal: y, = y, VE-VP _pi-p _ (400=150) x 10° _ li 2g w 9810 From continuity considerations A\V, =A, Vy © 2 . = x (0.15) 4 Vy, =4V, Ail) ™ 2 = (0.075 3g (0.075) 577 m/s Flow rateQ =A, V, = (0.15)? x5.77 = 0.102 m'/s EXAMPLE 4.22 A Pipe 300 metres long has a slope of 1 in 100 and tapers from 1m diameter at the high end to 0.5 rnd wong low end. Quantity of water flowing is 5400 litres per minute. If the pressure at the high end is 70 kPa, find the pressure at the low end. Solution : Flow area at the lower end, A; = © (0.57 =0:196 m? Flow area at the highend, A, = £ (1.0)? =0.785 me Discharge Q = 5400 litre/min = 90 litres/s 0.09 m/s From continuity considerations, Q = AV, = AyV, 0.09 Vy = dag 7046 m/sFluid Mechanics // 163 09 A and Vp = )7g5 = 0.115 m/s Applying Bernoulli's equation between the wo pipe ends : aa With horizontal line through the lower end asthe datum for elevation head, Datum line _ 0. 1 m=O and y= 795X300 =3m V Fig. 4.23, Pr (0.115)? _ 70x10? = +0 = 81 9810 2x98 9810 *° Solution gives : p, = 99330 N/m? = 99.33 kPa EXAMPLE 4.23 2m long pipeline tapers uniformly from 10 cm diameter to 20 cm diameter at its upper end. The pipe centre line slopes upwards at an angle of 30° to the horizontal and the flow direction is from smaller to bigger cross-section. If the pressure gauges installed at the lower and upper ends of the pipeline read 200 kPa and 230 kPa respectively, determine the flow rate and the fluid pressure at the mid-length of the pipeline. Assume no energy losses. Solution : Applying Bernoulli's equation between sections 1 and 2, 2 mv Pn VE AM yy, Bey hearse With horizontal line through section 1 as the datum for elevation head, y=0 and y,=2sin30°=1m 200x107 Vv? 230x109 | VP = sho = OO 9810” 2g 9810" 2g rezone Ve-V3 _ (230-200) x 10° 2g 9810 = 4.058 For continuity considerations: Ay V, = Ay V> ve-/4? 29.81 215 m/s Fig. 4.24 Discharge Q = A, V, At the mid-length of pipeline, D, = 15cm=0.15m Fore 9.215 = 0.0723 m3/s164 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering 2 DY y - m=(o) ae Applying Bernoulli's’ equation to sections 1 and 3, 2 =) 9.215 = 4.095 m/s 200x108 8.2157 Pa, (4.09 9810 2x981 9810 2x 9.81 Solution gives : py = 2.29 x 105 N/m? = 2.29 bar +1x:sin 30° 4.6.4 Viscous and Turbulent Flow Flow regimes and Reynolds number The flow of water through pipes has been studied by various scientists and engineer, and various theoretical and empirical solutions have been suggested from time to tome. Thy Russian scientist D. Mendeleev was the first to suggest that there are two kinds of liquig motion : laminar and turbulent. In a laminar flow, the fluid particles move in flat or curyeq unmixing layers or streams and follow a smooth continuous path. There is no transverse displacement of fluid particles which remain in an orderly sequence in each layer. Soldiers o, 2 parade provide a somewhat crude analogy to laminar flow. In turbulent flow, motion of the fluid particles is irregular and the path lines are erratic curves. Streamlines are intertwined and change in position from instant to instant. This may be attributed to the fact that over an above the velocity components in the flow direction, there also exist cross components of velocity in the lateral direction. Consequently there is intermingling of fluid particles resulting into fluctuations in the fluid velocity and pressure. The turbulent flow resembles a crowd of commuters in a rail road station during the rush hour. It was Osborne Reynolds, an English scientist who confirmed the existence of these two regimes experimentally, and postulated that under certain conditions there could be transition from one regime to the other and vice versa. The apparatus design by Reynolds for his experimental set up consists essentially of : — a constant head tank filled with water — a small tank containing dye — a horizontal glass tube with round entry — a regulative valve The general arrangement of cs Dye the set up is shown in Fig, 4.25. Reynolds allowed the water to flow through the pipe with Valve = : Tank different mean velocities and XY ‘No mixing of dye maintained constant head by wah main team controlling the inflow in the over head tank. The nature of flow in Valve the pipe was rendered visible by allowing a coloured dye (aniline) to flow slowly from a capillary |_Dyejet Oscilations of tube which wae so placed that the ‘cass ube I ye in turbulent flow filament of coloured fluid entered Fig. 4.25 Set-up for Reynolds experimentFiuid Mechanics // 165, ge centrally. Reynolds observed that when the flow velocities are low, the dye remain in ® (en of straight and stable filament stretching along the tube length. Evidently during flow oS etocities, the fluid particles are not mixing with one another and they move in layers aftairs indicative of steady laminar flow. “pen the flow velocity is slowly increased, a disturbance or instability starts to develop in the WS the line breaks up into a helical path, Such a fluid flow wherein the motions are randomised Swular represents turbulent flow, and the velocity at which it initiates is called the lower ai velocity. Eventually, with a further increase in the flow velocity, the dye line breaks aNitelv and the dye gets diffused throughout the flow. The flow velocity at this instant is “Withe higher critical velocity. The sequence of development of turbulent flow with an increase Nie velonty is illustrated in Fig, 4.24, sevnolds conducted experiments with tubes of different diameters and with water at oowat temperatures, i¢,, at different densities and viscosities. His investigations revealed jurthe kind of fluid flow is governed by the following parameters : _ dynamic viscosity of the fluid, jt — density of fluid, p — mean flow velocity, V and — characteristic dimension of the stream cross-section, for example the diameter d of the pipe. |A grouping of these variables results into a dimensionless quantity Re = Vdp/p, called the jemnolds number. This number represents the ratio of inertia to viscous forces. At low Reynolds “Gnter, the viscous forces predominate and the flow is laminar. At higher values of Reynolds vember, the inertia forces overcome the viscous friction forces and consequently the fluid layers crak up into a turbulent flow. The change from laminar to turbulent flow is referred to as transition. Reynolds observed gat instability of flow occurs at a value of Re about 2000 regardless of the tube diameter. It has ‘pw been established that factors like surface roughness, vibration and eddies set up by sharp comers are essential to create turbulence. By increasing the stilling time and providing the pipe ‘ze with more streamlined inlet and eliminating all possible vibrations; it is possible to maintain Gminar flow upto Re as high as 51,000. This laminar flow at the higher Reynolds number is, ‘owever, inherently unstable and a slight disturbance transforms it instantly into turbulent flow. “he higher critical Reynolds number of really indeterminate; its value depends upon the care sien to prevent any initial disturbance from affecting the flow. There also exist a lower critical Reynold number below which disturbance of any magnitude ceventually damped by viscous action. The approximate values of lower critical Reynolds number me: + 2520 for circular pipes and tubes # 1000 for parallel walls 500 for free surface, i.e., open channel flows #1 for flow around a sphere. For water flowing through a tube and at 12°C, the critical velocity is : R,Xv 2320x0.0124 288 Veg = dd This critical velocity for various pipe diameters has the value : dom 01 10 10.0 100.0 V,cm/s 288 288 2.88 0.288 Evidently in the ordinary water pipe lines for which the diameters are of the order of several cmtimeters, the flow is essentially turbulent.166 4 Basics of Mechenicel Engineering deat 4 | Reynolds member : its determination aaa Rev noid number cannot be predicted analytically; it has to be deter, eerertmentally Moan flow velocity V and the pressure loss dp due to resistance between my voce encticms | metre apart in a length of uniform horizontal pipe are recorded (Fig, 4.25) "7\) A graph between * and V (Fig. 4.26) is found to follow the law : | dp £ = AV tog, (SP) = tog, K+ og, ¥ } ! log, (t ) ~ log, K one log, V Fig. 4.26 Simple pipe flow experiment Fig. 4.27 Result of pipe flow experiment The following observations can be gleaned from a logarithmic plot of the variables as depice: in Fig. 427, ds . * Atlow velocities, i.¢., in the steady flow laminar regime, (2) varies directly in proportion = the flow velocity. This aspect is represented by the straight line OA with slope 1 : 1, ie., exponer: =1, * The line FG representing turbulent flow hasa slope ranging from about 1.72 to 2.0 and depend: upon the magnitude of Reynolds number and surface roughness. * The transition from laminar to turbulent behaviur resulting from a increase in velocity may represented by any path starting from point A and meeting at point F. The transition may ths follow the path ABEF or ABCF. * The transition from turbulent to laminar flow condition may be achieved by suitable decreas ; in the flow velocity. During this change over, the previous path may not be exactly traced. The lr | GF is followed but subsequently instead of tracing the path FCBA or FEBA, line FEA is traced. At point A, the flow becomes laminar and then the line AO. representing laminar flow is followed. Apparently, there are two critical velocities : (i) upper or high critical velocity which corresponds to change from laminar to turbulent flow : point B or C. (i) lower critical velect | which corresponds to change from turbulent to laminar flow, point A. The Reynolds numberFluid Mechanics // 167 aevsponding to upper and lower critical velocities are called upper and lower critical Reynolds cymber, respectively. As mentioned earlier the lower critical Reynolds number has the value Soo tor circular pipes and tubes. However, it has been suggested by Ludwig Schiller that for sntinary pipes with degree of roughness, the lower critical Reynolds number should correspond the value 2000 to decide whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Further, for a converging value is high ; divergence gives a lower value. Generally the flow is considered to be : + laminar if Reynolds number < 2000 * turbulent if Reynolds number > 4000. i EXAMPLE 4.24 ‘gnumerate important characteristics of laminar flow. Give examples where such flow ais encountered. An oil of specific gravity 0.85 and viscosity 3.8 poise flows in a 5 cm diameter horizontal pipe at the rate of 4 litre per second. Comment whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. elution : The flow is laminar if the Reynolds number : Re = “4P < 2000 Hu 3 Given: 4 =005m; V,,= fa = 2.037 m/s Xoo? 7 (0.05) 3. Ns p =850kg/m?; 1 =3.8 poise = 38 x 0.1 = 0.38 NS m . Re = 2.037 x 0.05 x 850 “ = —o38 = 227.82 < 2000 and hence the flow is laminar. EXAMPLE 4.25 Sketch the Reynolds apparatus and explain how the laminar flow can be demonstrated with the help of this apparatus. What is the physical significance of lower critical velocity ? What value of Reynolds ‘umber characterizes it for (i) pipe flow (ii) flow between parallel plates and (ii) open channel flow ? What size pipe should be installed to carry 5.5 x 10-3 m°/s of medium oil (kinematic viscosity v = ¢ x 10 m/s) under laminar flow conditions ? discharge _5.5x10° _ 7.006x107 area’ Rep - @ 4 Solution : Average velocity Vi. = For laminar flow conditions : Re < 2000 Vande _ Vaod _ 999 mn v 7.006 x 10° d 7006x107" x =2000 ; d=0.58: a 6x10° We may use a standard 60 cm diameter pipe. That is REVIEW QUESTIONS A. Conceptual and Conventional questions : 1. Define a fluid and distinguish between ideal and real fluids. 2 How does (i) a fluid differ from a solid, (i) a liquid differ from a solid ? el. 1684 Basics of Mechanical Engineering & 4 sow ” 10. ne 12, 13, ra 15, 16. 17, 18. 19. Cite some examples ty illustrate the importance of fluid mechanics in the engineering field Define and distinguish between the following set of liquid properties (0 specific weight and mass density (ii) cohesion and adhesion (8) surtace tensity end capiliarity (iv) dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity Dehine : mass density, specific weight, specific volume and_ specific gravity. What is meant by viscosity of a liquid? How does it manifest and in what units it is measured? Explain how the surface tension accounts for: (i) formation of a droplet, and_ (ii) rise of lig vapillary. State and prove Pascal's law. What is meant by intensity of pressure and pressure head? State and prove the hydrostatic law and adpat it for incompressible fluids. Explain the concept of absolute, gauge and vacuum pressures. ‘Consider one-dimensional, frictionless steady flow of a fluid in an elementary stream tube, Show thy do dA a ep AV Hence deduce the continuity equation AV = constant for an incompressible fluid flow. Menition the different forces that are included while setting the Euler's equation. What are the different forms of energy in a fluid ? Explain each of them. Establish the Bernoulli's theorem from the Euler equation of motion through a stream tube. Mento, the assumptions made. Bernoulls's equation for steay flow may be expressed as 2 vee 2g w Each term on the left side is an energy term of different type. What are they and how they represen: energy form? Enumerate important characteristics of (i) laminar flow, (i) turbulent flow. Sketch the Reynold’s apparatus and explain how the laminar flow can be demonstrated with the help of this apparatus, What is the physical significance of lower critical number? What value of Reynolds number characterises it for (@ pipe flow, and (i) flow between parallel plates ? 0 B. Fill in the blanks with appropriate word/words: (vill) A pressure reading below the atmospheric pressure is known as . () When subjected to may be (ii) An ideal uid is both ... and (a is a property of fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to relative motion between adjacent layers. (i) The ratio between dynamic viscosity and density is defined as (2) Stoke is the unit of (vi) According to force, a fluid deforms continuously no matter how small this force ~ law, intensity of pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is same in all directions. (il) The hydrostatic law states that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to (ix) The Bernoulli's equation refers to conservation of (2) The flow of fluid through a pipe is laminar when the Reynolds number is less than . (xi) Newton’s law of viscosity is a relationship between shear stress and rate ofFluid Mechanics // 168 ‘eer (i) incompressible, non-viscous; (ii) viscosity; (iv) kinematic viscosity; (0) kinematic viscosity; (i) specail’ law; (Ci) specific weight; (vii) vacuum; (ix) energy; (x) 2320; (xi) angular deformation. ¢ Multiple choice questions: 4 fluid is a substance that is pratically incompressible and non-viscous () obey's the Newton's law of viscosity (© cannot reamin at rest under the action of any shear force @) always expands until it fills any container. t + A fluid which obeys the relation p= is called . du /dy (@) real fluid (6) perfect fluid (© ideal fluid (@) newtonian fluid Poise isa unit of (@) density (©) surface tension (<) dynamic viscosity (a) kinematic viscosity 4 All liquid surfaces tend to stretch. This phenomenon is called (@) cohesion () adhesion (©) surface tension (@ cavitation 5. Alllof the following statements are correct, except (@) For an ideal fluid 1 = 0 and p = constant (®) Capillary action is due to surface tension (@) The water is about 55 times more viscous than air (@ The dimension of surface tension is J/m?. & Continuity equation deals with the law of conservation of (@) mass (®) energy (© momentum (@ force Each term of Bernoulli's equation stated in the form 2 BY ey constant 23 w has units of @N (b) Nm/N () Nm/kg @I/s & The flow of fluid through a pipe is laminar when 2 (a) the fluid is ideal (b) the fluid is viscous (©) the Reynold’s number is less than 2000 (@) there is lateral dispersion of smoke or dye injected into flow stream. Answers: 1L@ 8} 2d) 30 40 5.) 6 (@) 720 aa9