ASSIGNMENT NO.

DESIGN OF HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

SUBMITTED TO: Asst. prof. Sahibdeep Singh

SUBMITTED BY: Manpreet Kaur

CLASS : M. tech (Ist year)
BRANCH : Structural engineering
CRN : 194517
URN : 1905886
Que 1: Write a note on stiffness and drift limitations.
Ans: (a) STIFFNESS: In general terms, it is defined as the property of a material which is rigid
and difficult to bend. In structural engineering, the term 'stiffness' refers to the rigidity of a
structural element, this means the extent to which the element is able to resist deformation or
deflection under the action of an applied force. In contrast, flexibility or pliability is a measure of
how flexible a component is, i.e. the less stiff it is, and the more flexible it is.

The expression of stiffness for an elastic body is as below.

Where k is denoted as stiffness, F as applied force and as displacement.

Increasing the stiffness or rigidity of a structural element reduces its deflection under load. This
can be done by strengthening its section or increasing its size. A structure that is too stiff (often
referred to as brittle) will be prone to failure under relatively small deformation demands. An
example of a brittle structure is an unreinforced masonry building, which will tolerate very little
displacement before the onset of damage and failure.

STIFFNESS IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS:

High rise buildings are generally different from low rise buildings, as are subjected to laterally
forces along with longitudinal forces. Lateral forces are generally seismic forces and wind forces.
In order to protect the structure from effect of these forces, stiffness plays an important role. The
points are discussed as below:
 When the column stiffness is higher. The natural period of the building is low.
An example is presented here:

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 (Earthquake behaviour of building: C.V.R. Murty)
In the above figure, G and H are high rise buildings. Stiffness of H is more so that’s why its natural
period is less.
 Stiffness can be advantageous with respect to earthquake damage because it can limit the
deformation demands on a building.
 There is evidence supporting the effects of the stiffness of beams and columns in the overall
RC H.R.B. stiffness and its retrofit technique decisions.
The lateral stiffness is a major consideration in the design of a tall building. Under the ultimate
limit state, the lateral deflections must be limited to prevent 2nd order P – delta effects from gravity
loading to be large enough to precipitate collapse. In addition, serviceability requires these
deflections not to affect elevator rails, doors, glass partitions and prevent dynamic motions to cause
discomfort to the occupants and sensitive equipment. This is one of the major differences of tall
buildings with respect to low rise buildings.

(b) DRIFT: Due to shaking of ground surface, the substructure as well as the superstructure is
vibrated. During earthquake, there will be a drift on the high rise structures. Then it can be included
that the more the height, the more the drift. The drift of the structure decreases with increase in the
width of the structure.

DRIFT ANALYSIS
Drift in building frames is a result of flexural and shear mode contributions, due to the column
axial deformations and to the diagonal and girder deformations, respectively. In low rise braced
structures, the shear mode displacements are the most significant and, will largely determine the

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lateral stiffness of the structure. In medium to high rise structures, the higher axial forces and
deformations in the columns, and the accumulation of their effects over a greater height, cause the
flexural component of displacement to become dominant.

DRIFT LIMITATIONS:
Maximum story drift corresponding to the design lateral force including displacement due to
vertical deformation of the isolation system shall not exceed the following limits:

1. The maximum story drift of the structure above the isolation system calculated by response
spectrum analysis shall not exceed 0.015h,
2. The maximum story drift of the structure above the isolation system calculated by response
history analysis based on the force-deflection characteristics of nonlinear elements of the lateral
force-resisting system shall not exceed 0.020h.

Que 2: Throw some light on effect of winds on high-rise structures in the context of stability
Criteria.
Ans: Wind load is the one of the major lateral loads that acts on a high rise building. , wind load
effects cannot be neglected and are considered very important when high rise buildings are to be
designed. The load from the wind rarely affects the design up to ten storey building. However, the
effect is more crucial in case of buildings higher than ten storey. High strength new materials have
been developed over the past years. Wind load can be divided into two:
 Static loading
 Dynamic loading

STATIC: Structurally, static effect is a term of analysis independent of time and static wind effect
primarily causes elastic bending and twisting of structure.

DYNAMIC: Dynamic analysis is an attempt to take into account how the system responds to the
change through the period of time. For tall, long span and slender structures a dynamic analysis of
the structure is essential. Wind gusts cause fluctuating forces on the structure which induce large
dynamic motions, including oscillations. The dynamic wind pressure produces sinusoidal or

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narrow-band random vibration motions on the building in both along- and across-wind direction
as well as rotation about the vertical axis
The magnitudes of the displacements depends on the wind velocity distribution and direction but
also on the mass, stiffness and shape of the building. For some cases the effects from the across-
wind actions are greater than the along-wind actions on the building. The dynamic response is
considered when a building is relatively flexible to investigate the stress levels and the
accelerations that may affect the comfort of the occupants.

EFFECTS OF WIND ON HIGH RISE BUILDINGS:

 Galloping: It is transverse oscillations of some structures due to the development of
aerodynamic forces which are in phase with the motion. It is characterized by the
progressively increasing amplitude of transverse vibration with increase in wind speed. All
structures with non-circular cross-sections, such as triangular, square, polygons, angles,
crosses, T sections and twisted cables are prone to this excitation.
Solution: To reduce the impact of high winds on a tall building is with an approach called
corner softening and tapering. Smoothed -off sharp edges of a structure make it more
aerodynamic and reduce the strength of vortices they create.
 Flutter: Flutter is unstable oscillatory motion of a structure due to coupling between
aerodynamic force and elastic deformation of the structure. Perhaps the’ most common
form is oscillatory motion due to combined bending and torsion. Long span suspension
bridge decks or any member of a structure with large values of d/t ( where d is the depth of
a structure or structural member parallel to wind stream and t is the least lateral dimension
of a member ) are prone to low speed flutter.
Solution: Flutter is solved by using a combination of design considerations in order to shift
the frequencies at which the building would prefer to vibrate (it’s natural frequencies). For
example, altering the stiffness or mass distribution of the structure or adding dampers will
change its natural frequencies of vibration. Creating a twist in a building’s form can also
reduce the impact of vortex shedding, which is the cause of flutter.
 Ovalling: This walled structures with open ends at one or both ends such as oil storage
tanks, and natural draught cooling towers in which the ratio of the diameter of minimum
lateral dimension to the wall thickness is of the order of 100 or more, are prone to ovalling

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 oscillations. These oscillations are characterized by periodic radial deformation of the
hollow structure.

Que 3: What are different types of lateral loads that can be applied on a high-rise structure?
Explain.
Ans: Most lateral loads are live loads whose main component is a horizontal force acting on the
structure. Typical lateral loads would be:
 Wind load
 Earthquake load
 Fluid and earth pressure load

1. WIND LOAD: The most common lateral load is a wind load. The Eiffel Tower is one
example of a building which has a structure that was designed to resist a high wind load.
Wind against a building builds up a positive pressure on the windward side and a negative
pressure (or suction) on the leeward side. Depending upon the shape of the structure it may
also cause a negative pressure on the side walls or even the roof. The pressure on the walls
and roof is not uniform, but varies across the surface. Winds can apply loads to structures
from unexpected directions. Thus, a designer must be well aware of the dangers implied
by this lateral load. The magnitude of the pressure that acts upon the surfaces is
proportional to the square of the wind speed. Wind loads vary around the world.
Meteorological data collected by national weather services are one of the most reliable
sources of wind data. Factors that effect the wind load include the geographic location,
elevation, degree of exposure, relationship to nearby structures, building height and size,
direction of prevailing winds, velocity of prevailing winds and positive or negative
pressures due to architectural design features (atriums, entrances, or other openings). All
of these factors are taken into account when the lateral loads on the facades are calculated.
It is often necessary to examine more than one wind load case.

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 Variation of wind load with increase in height

2. EARTHQUAKE LOAD: Earthquake loads are another lateral live load. They are very
complex, uncertain, and potentially more damaging than wind loads. It is quite fortunate
that they do not occur frequently. The earthquake creates ground movements that can be
categorized as a "shake," "rattle," and a "roll." Every structure in an earthquake zone must
be able to withstand all three of these loadings of different intensities. Although the ground
under a structure may shift in any direction, only the horizontal components of this
movement are usually considered critical in a structural analysis. It is assumed that a load-
bearing structure which supports properly calculated design loads for vertical dead and live
loads are adequate for the vertical component of the earthquake. The "static equivalent
load" method is used to design most small and moderate-sized buildings. The lateral load
resisting systems for earthquake loads are similar to those for wind loads. Both are designed
as if they are horizontally applied to the structural system. The wind load is considered to
be more of a constant force while the earthquake load is almost instantaneous. The wind
load is an external force, the magnitude of which depends upon the height of the building,
the velocity of the wind and the amount of surface area that the wind "attacks." The
magnitude earthquake load depends up the mass of the structure, the stiffness of the
structural system and the acceleration of the surface of the earth. It can be seen that the
application of these two types of loads is very different.

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 Application of ground motion acceleration

3. FLUID AND EARTH PRESSURE LOADS: Liquids produce horizontal loads in many
structures. The horizontal pressure of a liquid increases linearly with depth and is
proportional to the density of the liquid. This is similar for earth pressures. These last are
a bit more complex in that the load due to earth pressure varies with its depth, any
surcharge, the type of soil and its moisture content.

Que 4: Describe braced frame structures with diagrams.

Ans: BRACED FRAME: A braced frame is a structural system commonly used in structures
subject to lateral loads such as wind and seismic pressure. The members in a braced frame are
generally made of structural steel, which can work effectively both in tension and compression.
The beams and columns that form the frame carry vertical loads, and the bracing system carries
the lateral loads. The positioning of braces, however, can be problematic as they can interfere with
the design of the face and the position of openings. Buildings adopting high-tech or post-modernist
styles have responded to this by expressing bracing as an internal or external design feature.

BRACING SYSTEMS:
 Vertical bracing
 Horizontal bracing
Vertical bracing: Bracing between column lines (in vertical planes) provides load paths for the
transference of horizontal forces to ground level. Framed buildings require at least three planes of
vertical bracing to brace both directions in plan and to resist torsion about a vertical axis.

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Horizontal bracing: The bracing at each floor (in horizontal planes) provides load paths for the
transference of horizontal forces to the planes of vertical bracing. Horizontal bracing is needed at
each floor level, however, the floor system itself may provide sufficient resistance. Roofs may
require bracing.

TYPES OF BRACINGS:
1. Single diagonals: Trussing, or triangulation, is formed by inserting diagonal structural
members into rectangular areas of a structural frame, helping to stabilise the frame. If a
single brace is used, it must be sufficiently resistant to tension and compression.

Single diagonal bracing

2. Cross bracing: Cross-bracing (or X-bracing) uses two diagonal members crossing each
other. These only need to be resistant to tension, one brace at a time acting to resist
sideways forces, depending on the direction of loading. As a result, steel cables can also
be used for cross-bracing. However, cross bracing on the outside face of a building can
interfere with the positioning and functioning of window openings. It also results in greater
bending in floor beams.

3. K-bracing: K-braces connect to the columns at mid-height. This frame has more flexibility
for the provision of openings in the facade and results in the least bending in floor beams.

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 K-bracing is generally discouraged in seismic regions because of the potential for column
failure if the compression brace buckles.

K-Bracing

4. V-bracing: Two diagonal members forming a V-shape extend downwards from the top
two corners of a horizontal member and meet at a centre point on the lower horizontal
member (left-hand diagram). Inverted V-bracing (right-hand diagram, also known as
chevron bracing) involves the two members meeting at a centre point on the upper
horizontal member. Both systems can significantly reduce the buckling capacity of the
compression brace so that it is less than the tension yield capacity of the tension brace. This
can mean that when the braces reach their resistance capacity, the load must instead be
resisted in the bending of the horizontal member.

V-Bracing Inverted V-bracing

5. Concentric bracing: Concentrically braced frame are those in which the centerlines of
members that meet at a joint intersect at same work point form a vertical truss system that
resist lateral forces.
6. Eccentric bracing: Eccentric bracing is commonly used in seismic regions. It is similar to
V-bracing but bracing members do not meet at a centre point. This means there is a space
between them at the top connection. Bracing members connect to separate points on the
horizontal beams. This is so the 'link' between the bracing members absorbs energy from
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 seismic activity through plastic deformation. Eccentric single diagonals can also be used
to brace a frame.

Eccentric Bracing

Que 5: Explain the reasons why the drift in high-rise buildings should be sufficiently low.
Ans: DRIFT: Due to shaking of ground surface, the substructure as well as the superstructure is
vibrated. During earthquake, there will be a drift on the high rise structures. Then it can be included
that the more the height, the more the drift. The drift of the structure decreases with increase in the
width of the structure.

REASONS FOR THE DRIFT IN HIGH-RISE BHILDINGS SHOULD BE LOW: Lateral

deflection is the predicted movement of a structure under lateral loads; and story drift is defined
as the difference in lateral deflection between two adjacent stories. Lateral deflection and drift
have three primary effects on a structure; the movement can affect the structural elements (such as
beams and columns); the movements can affect non-structural elements (such as the windows and
cladding); and the movements can affect adjacent structures. Without proper consideration during
the design process, large deflections and drifts can have adverse effects on structural elements,
nonstructural elements, and adjacent structures. Drift and lateral Deflections must be limited in
order to:
 Prevent second- order P-delta effects due to gravity loading, precipitating collapse.
 Allow the functioning of non-structural components, such as elevators and doors.
avoid distress in the structure.
 Prevent excessive cracking and consequent loss of stiffness.
 Avoid any redistribution of load to non-load bearing partitions, in fills, cladding, or glazing.

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  Prevent dynamic motions from causing discomfort to occupants, or affecting sensitive
equipment.
 Maintain the stability of the structure.
In the design process, the stiffness of joints, particularly in precast or prefabricated structures, must
be given attention to develop lateral stiffness of the structure and present progressive failure.
Torsional deformations must not be overlooked, especially due to diurnal thermal drift in steel
frames. As building height increases, the drift index should become lower to keep the top story
deflection to suitably low level. If the excessive, the drift of a structure can be reduced by:
 Changing the geometric configuration to alter the mode of lateral load resistance.
 Increasing the bending stiffness of the horizontal members.
 Adding additional stiffness by the inclusion of stiffer wall or core members.
 Achieving stiffer connections, by sloping the exterior columns.
 In extreme circumstances, it may be necessary to add dampers, which may be of the passive
or active type.

Que 6: What do you understand by drift index and inter-storey drift index? Give an exceptional
case where limiting these values won’t help to satisfy other criteria.
Ans: DRIFT INDEX: The parameter that measures the lateral stiffness is the drift index. It is
defined as the ratio of the maximum deflection at the top of the building to the total height of the
building.

INTER STOREY DRIFT INDEX: Each floor has an index called the inter-story drift index
which checks for localized excessive deformation. There is no national code requirement for the
drift index, but 1/400 is a traditionally accepted limit. Different countries use from 0.01 to
0.05(1/1000 as low as 1/200). Lower values are used for hotels and condominiums because the
noise and discomfort at those levels are unacceptable. For conventional structures, the preferred
range is 0.0015 to0.0030.

EXCEPTIONS: The code makes two important exceptions to this rule.

 The first one states that the limit can be exceeded if it can be shown “that greater drift can
be tolerated by both structural and nonstructural elements that could affect life safety.”

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  The second exception specifically exempts from any drift limitations single-story steel-
framed buildings used for factory, manufacturing, storage, business workshop, and some
other occupancies. To qualify for this exemption, a building cannot have any frame-
attached equipment, unless it is detailed to accommodate the drift. To avoid damage from
large frame movements, the code further requires that the walls laterally braced by the steel
frame be designed to accommodate the drift. This goal is to be achieved by a deformation
compatibility analysis and by meeting certain prescribed requirements for wall anchorage
and connections.

Que 7: Explain how building should be designed to resist fire.

Ans: Buildings need to be designed to offer an acceptable level of fire safety and minimize the
risks from heat and smoke. The primary objective is to reduce to within acceptable limits the
potential for death or injury to the occupants of a building and others who may become involved,
such as the fire and rescue service. Also crucial are protecting contents and ensuring that as much
as possible of a building can continue to function after a fire - and that it can be repaired. The risk
to adjoining properties also needs to be considered, as well as possible environmental pollution.
There are two types of fuel that are:
 The influence of designers.
 The building fabric and its contents.

The fire safety of the fabric materials is often expressed in terms of its ignitability or
combustibility, with particular regard to the structural elements which must remain in place for
stability. The internal finishes may offer a fuel source and need to be carefully specified, while the
materials of the building’s contents also provide varying fire risks, such as textiles, furniture and
plastics.

Requirements to design:
 Knowledge of temperature gradient across the member.
 The degree of restraint afforded by the supports and surrounding structures.
 Stress in the members.

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  The mechanical properties of the structural materials, particularly elastic modulus or
stiffness and strength.

The main design options to ensure fire safety are:

 Prevention: controlling ignition and fuel sources so that fires do not start.
 Communications: if ignition occurs, ensuring occupants are informed and any active fire
systems are triggered.
 Escape: ensuring that occupants of buildings and surrounding areas are able to move to
places of safety.
 Containment: fire should be contained to the smallest possible area, limiting the threat to
life safety and the extent of property likely to be damaged.
 Extinguishment: ensuring that fire can be extinguished quickly and with minimal
consequential damage.

Que 8: Write a note on the following

Ans: (a) WAFFLE SLAB: Waffle slab or ribbed slab is a structural component which is plain on
its top and contains grid like system on its bottom surface. The top of ribbed slab is normally thin
and the bottom grid lines are generally ribs which are laid perpendicular to each other with equal
depth. Waffle slab has two directional reinforcement. All the ribs are directed from column heads
or beams. The depth of ribs maintained is as same as depth of column head or beam. Because of
the ribs and double reinforcement, it is more stable and recommended for larger span slabs or
foundations.

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 Waffle slab

CHARACTERISTICS OF WAFFLE SLABS:

 Waffle slabs are generally suitable for flat areas.
 Volume of concrete used is very less compared to others.
 The reinforcement in the waffle slab is provided in the form of mesh or individual bars.
 Separate excavation for beams is not required in case of waffle slab.
 The bottom surface of slab is looks like waffle which is obtained by using cardboard panels
or pods etc.
 The thickness of waffle slab recommended is 85 to 100 mm while the overall depth of slab
is limited to 300 to 600 mm.
 The width of beams or ribs provided in waffle slab are generally 110 to 200 mm.
 Spacing of ribs recommended is 600 to 1500 mm.
 Reinforced waffle slabs can be constructed for the span up to 16 meters while beyond that
length prefabricated waffle slab is preferable.
 Waffle slab is good against shrinkage and it is lower than stiffened rafts and footing slabs.
 Waffle slab requires only 70% of concrete and 80 % of steel from the concrete and steel
used for stiffened raft.

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(b) THREE WAY BEAM SYSTEM: This beam system is comprised on primary beams, and
secondary beams which often bear perpendicular on top. It is common to have long spanning
members (typically Open Web Steel Joists) running parallel to the secondary beams, underneath
the primary beams. A two way beam system tends to be utilized more when the elimination of
columns within the building footprint is desired and having a thicker floor depth is not a concern.
It is used when a large column- free space is required, where long-spanning plate girders or trusses
can be used to carry the primary beam, which in turn support a layer of secondary beams.

(c) COMPOSITE STEEL-CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS: Composite slabs, comprising

lightly reinforced concrete cast on profiled steel, decking are an option whether the beams are
down stand or integrated within the slab depth for a shallow floor form of construction. The slabs

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are normally reinforced using an upper layer of mesh and occasionally, additional bars in the
troughs (usually for longer periods of fire resistance and heavy loads). Fiber reinforcement may
also be used. Spans of up to 4.5 m can be achieved using trapezoidal decking (80 mm deep). Some
so-called deep decking profiles also exist (over 200 mm deep), that can span 6 m or so without
propping during construction. Composite slabs are an excellent choice when speed of construction
is important. Bundles of decking are lifted into place on the steel structure, for distribution by
hand. The number of crane lifts needed, when compared with the precast alternative, is greatly
reduced. The ability to stack the pieces of decking into bundles also reduces transport time and
costs.

During construction, once in place the decking provides other benefits in terms of acting as a
working platform for storage of materials. When appropriately orientated and fixed to the steel
beams it can restrain them against lateral torsional buckling.

The profiled decking is often designed to be continuous over two spans when acting as formwork.
Composite slabs are normally designed to be simple spanning at room temperature, but continuous
under fire conditions. This continuity is achieved thanks to nominal reinforcement, which also
fulfils other roles such as crack control that continues over intermediate supports (its influence -
assumed to be beneficial - is ignored for room temperature design.

Trapezoidal decking of 50 to 60 mm depth can span around 3 m unpropped, 80 mm deep

trapezoidal profiles can span up to around 4.5 m unpropped, and deep decking can achieve around
6 m. Overall slab depths range from 130 mm upwards. Two hours fire resistance can be achieved
without the need to fire protect the steel decking.

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It is possible to form openings in composite slabs, although this should be planned and the
openings formed at the construction stage rather than having to cut out concrete. Openings up to
300 mm square require no additional provisions, those up to 700 mm require additional
reinforcement locally around the opening, and those in excess of 700 mm require the use of
trimming steel to support the opening.

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