Continuity and Navier-Stokes Equations in Cartesian Coordinates The continuity equation (Eq. 9-16) and the Navier-Stokes equation (Eg. 9-60) are expanded in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) and (u, v, w): Incompressible continuity equation: au, au, aw ox ay az x-component of the incompressible Navier-Stokes equation: (9-61a) Pu ou ou ou ou oP eu Pu pl +u—+u—+w = a5, tas tM +5 + x at ax ay az ax? ay y-component of the incompressible Navier—Stokes equation: =) (9-61b) av av av av av aP ev | ev pl —+u—+v—+w =-—+pg,ty ++ y at ax ay az a ax? ay’ z-component of the incompressible Navier-Stokes equation: =) (9-61c) aw aw, ow, ow aw) OP ew, ew pl ee ot ox ay az 0: ~) (9-614)Continuity and Navier-Stokes Equations in Cylindrical Coordinates The continuity equation (Eq. 9-16) and the Navier-Stokes equation (Eq. 9-60) are expanded in cylindrical coordinates (r, @, z) and (u,, Ug, u.): 1a) 1 a) 2) _ 0 (9-62; or r 00 az (S822) Incompressible continuity equation: r-component of the incompressible Navier-Stokes equation: ou, au, uy du, uh ou, pl tue Oy ot or r 00 r * az Pe [2 a = _ r or Par ror or 0-component of the incompressible Navier-Stokes equation: OUg OUg Uy Uy UMy Uy p| — a+ ou, u, 1 0u, 2 du, 4 *] (9-628) Po Pa 7? 8 az tu, + t+ = a ar r 00 r Me az 1P, oy [! a ( duj\ uy , 1 uy , 2 du, eu) (0-620) = — r _ Cc, 730 8 Ma ar) PO PO PO ae z-component of the incompressible Navier-Stokes equation: ou, ou, Uy OU, ou. o( +u,— + te ua) ot or r 00 4 aP ) 10u, Pu, La _ + pe + wl 4 + 9-621 ag | PB: ult AG ar) PoP a (S620)9-6 = DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW PROBLEMS In this section we show how to apply the differential equations of motion in both Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates. There are two types of problems for which the differential equations (continuity and Navier-Stokes) are useful: + Calculating the pressure field for a known velocity field + Calculating both the velocity and pressure fields for a flow of known ‘geometry and known boundary conditions For simplicity, we consider only incompressible flow, eliminating caleula- tion of p as a variable. In addition, the form of the Navier-Stokes equa- tion derived in Section 9-5 is valid only for Newtonian fluids with constant properties (viscosity, thermal conductivity, etc.). Finally, we assume negli- gible temperature variations, so that T'is not a variable. We are left with four variables or unknowns (pressure plus three components of velocity), and we have four differential equations (Fig. 9-45). Calculation of the Pressure Field for a Known Velocity Field The first set of examples involves calculation of the pressure field for a known velocity field. Since pressure does not appear in the continuity equa- tion, we can theoretically generate a velocity field based solely on con- servation of mass. However, since velocity appears in both the continuity equation and the Navier-Stokes equation, these two equations are coupled. In addition, pressure appears in all three components of the Navier-Stokes equation, and thus the velocity and pressure fields are also coupled. This intimate coupling between velocity and pressure enables us to calculate the pressure field for a known velocity field. EXAMPLE 9-13 Calculating the Pressure Fi in Cartesian Coordinates Consider the steady, two-dimensional, incompressible velocity field of ™ Example 9-9, namely, V = (u, v) = (ax + bi + (—ay + cx]. Calculate the pressure as a function of x and y. SOLUTION For a given velocity field, we are to calculate the pressure field. ‘Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The fluid has con- stant properties, 3 The flow is two-dimensional in the x-plane. 4 Gravity does not act in either the x or y-direction. Analysis First we check whether the given velocity field satisfies the two- dimensional, incompressible continuity equation: areacy me We gig ax & 7 te oD oThus, continuity is indeed satisfied by the given velocity field. If continuity were not satisfied, we would stop our analysis—the given velocity field would not be physically possible, and we could not calculate a pressure field. Next, we consider the y-component of the Navier-Stokes equation: Bue eM ah) oP od 4 (Be oF a ae Yay de) ~ Way 98 ae EY ae IES g e © ‘The jsmomentum equation reduces to ae (be - ay) p(-acx ~ be ~ ay + acx) = ay ‘The ¥momentum equation is satisfied if we can generate a pressure field that satisfies Eq. 2. In similar fashion, the «momentum equation reduces to ap. oy = eas ~ ab) @ The xmomentum equation is satisfied if we can generate a pressure field that satisfies Eq. 3. In order for a steady flow solution to exist, P cannot be a function of time, Furthermore, a physically realistic steady, incompressible flow field requires a pressure field Px, y) that is a smooth function of x and y (there can be no sudden discontinuities in either P or a derivative of P). Mathematically, this requires that the order of differentiation (x then y versus y then x) should not matter (Fig. 9-46). We check whether this is so by cross-differentiating Eqs. 2 and 3, respectively, oP 8 (#)\ gy mg PF 2 () W6 @ axay ax \ay ane ay ax ay \ax Equation 4 shows that P is indeed @ smooth function of x and y. Thus, the given velocity field satisfies the steady, two-dimensional, incompressible Navier-Stokes equation. IF at this point in the analysis, the cross-ifferentiation of pressure were to yield two incompatible relationships (in other words if the equation in Fig, 9-46 were not satisfied) we would conclude that the given velocity field Could not satisty the steady, two-dimensional, incompressible Navier-Stokes equation, and we would abandon our attempt to calculate a steady pressure field To calculate P(x, y), we partially integrate Eq. 2 (with respect to y) Pressure field from y-momentum: ay? Puss) = ober =) + gen ® Note that we add an arbitrary function of the other variable x rather than a constant of integration since this is a partial integration. We then take the partial derivative of Eq. 5 with respect to x to obtain = 9G) = olde ~ ab) ©where we have equated our result to Eq. 3 for consistency. We now integrate Eq. 6 to obtain the function g(x): ax a(x) = o(- 2 - ax) +c, @ where C, is an arbitrary constant of integration. Finally, we substitute Eq. 7 into Eq. 5 to obtain our final expression for P(x, y). The result is eas9) = o( 8 — abe — by) +C, (8) Discussion For practice, and as a check of our algebra, you should differ- entiate Eq. 8 with respect to both y and x, and compare to Eqs. 2 and 3. In addition, try to obtain Eq. 8 by starting with Eq. 3 rather than Eq. 2; you should get the same answer.In Examples 9-15 through 9-19, we apply boundary conditions from Eqs. 9-65 through 9-68 where appropriate. These and other boundary con- ditions are discussed in much greater detail in Chap. 15 where we apply Mo ing plate them to CFD solutions. . m EXAMPLE 9-15 Fully Developed Couette Flow irene s m Consider steady, incompressible, laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid in the ™ narrow gap between two infinite parallel plates (Fig. 9-57). The top plate is FIGURE 9-57 moving at speed V, and the bottom plate is stationary. The distance between Geometry of Example 9-15: viscous these two plates is h, and gravity acts in the negative z-direction (into the flow between two infinite plates; page in Fig. 9-57). There is no applied pressure other than hydrostatic upper plate moving and lower plate stationary.FIGURE 9-58 A fllly developed region of a flow field is a region where the velocity profile does not change with down- stream distance. Fully developed flows are encountered in long, straight channels and pipes. Fully developed Couette flow is shown here—the velocity profile atx is identical to that atx). pressure due to gravity. Ths flow is called Couette flow. Calculate the velocity and pressure fields, and estimate the shear force per unit area acting on the bottom plate. SOLUTION For a given geometry and set of boundary conditions, we are to Calculate the velocity and pressute feds, and then estimate the shear force per unit area aeting onthe bottom plate ‘ssimptons 1 The plates ae inf in xandz.2 The flow is steady L., aot of anything is zero. 3 This is a parallel flow (we assume that the y-component of velocity, er). 4 The fud is incompressiole and Newtonian with con- Sant properties, andthe flow is lamina. 5 Pressure P = constant wth respect tox In other words, there fs no applied pressure gradent pushing te flow in the direction; the flow establishes itself due to viscous stresees caused by the moving upper plate. 6 The velocity field is purely two-dimensional, mean- ing here that w = O and az of ary velocty component is zero. 7 Gravity acts in the negative z-direction (nto the page in Fig, 9-57). We express this math matically as g = ~Bk, org, ~ 6 ~ Oand g, 8 ‘natysis To cbtain te velocity ana pressure felts, we follow the step-by Step procedure outlined in Fig. 9-52, ‘Step 1 Set-up the problem and the geometry. See Fig. 9-57. ‘Step 2_List assumptions and boundary conditions. We have numbered and listed seven assumptions (above). The boundary conditions come from imposing the nc-slip condition: (1) At the bottom plate (y = 0), w= 0. (2) At the top plate (y= A), w= viv = 0, and w= 0. ‘Step 3 Simplify the differential equations. We statt with the incompress- ible continuity equation in Cartesian coordinates, Eq. 9-612, eee oe a a cs phrase fully developed is often used to describe this situation (Fig. 9-58). > S=0 o Result of continuity: = uy) only @ We now simplify the xmomentum equation (Eq, 9-61b) as far as possible. It's good practice to list the reason for crossing out a term, as we do here: [Link] snp] npon meng men? (he BD BowNotice that the material acceleration (left-hand side of Eq. 3) is zer0, implying that fluid particles are not accelerating in this flow field, neither by local (unsteady) acceleration, nor by advective acceleration. Since the ‘advective acceleration terms make the Navier-Stokes equation nonlinear, this greatly simplifies the problem. In fact, all other terms in Eq. 3 have disappeared except for a lone viscous term, which must then itself equal zero. Also notice that we have changed from a partial derivative (a/ay) to a total derivative (dla) in Eq. 3 as a direct result of Eq. 2. We do not show the details here, but you can show in similar fashion that every term except the pressure term in the y-momentum equation (Eq, 9-61c) goes to zero, forcing that lone term to also be zero, P == ® In other words, P is not a function of y. Since Pis also not a function of time (assumption 2) or x (assumption 5), Pis at most a function of z, Result of momentum: P = PQonly ° Finally, by assumption 6 the z-component of the Navier-Stokes equation (Eq, 9-614) simplifies to w. ap. Pig + #-_ © ae 7 78 a7? Where we used Eq, 5 to convert from a partial derivative to a total derivative Step 4 Solve the differential equations. Continuity and momentum have already been “solved,” resulting in Eqs. 2 and 5, respectively. Equation 3 (Gemomentum) is integrated twice to get u=Cy+ ” where C, and C, are constants of integration. Equation 6 (2 momentum) is integrated once, resulting in P= pert Cy @ Step 5 Apply boundary conditions. We begin with Eq. 8. Since we have ‘ot specified boundary conditions for pressure, C, remains an arbitrary constant. (Recall that for incompressible tlow, the absolute pressure can be specified only if Pis known somewhere in the flow.) For example, if we let P= Pyat z=, then C, = P, and Eq, 8 becomes Final solution for pressure field: P=Py- pez @ Alert readers will notice that Eq. 9 represents a simple hydrostatic pressure distribution (pressure decreasing linearly as z increases). We conclude that, at least for this problem, hydrostatic pressure acts independently of the flow. More generally, we make the following statement (see also Fig. 9-59): For incompressible flow fields without free surfaces, hydrostatic pressure does not contribute to the dynamics of the flow field FIGURE 9-59 For incompressible flow fields without In fact, in Chap. 10 we show how hydrostatic pressure can actually be free surfaces, hydrostatic pressure removed from the equations of motion through use of a modified pressure. does not contribute to the dynamics of the flow field.FIGURE 9-60 ‘The linear velocity profile of Example 9-15: Couette flow between parallel plates. FIGURE 9-61 Stresses acting on a differential two- dimensional rectangular fluid element ‘whose bottom face isin contact with the bottom plate of Example 9-15. ‘We next apply boundary conditions (1) and (2) from step 2 to obtain constants C, and C,. Boundary condition (1) and. Boundary condition (2) u=C,xX0+G=0 + G=0 CXht0=V > G Finally, Eq. 7 becomes Fa efor ey fl aa oo The vty el evel 2 sil near ty pl mu bntom eo w= Yat hte les asthe nF 9-0. Step 6 Verify the results. Using Eqs. 9 and 10, you can verity that all the differential equations and boundary conditions are satisfied. Oatthe To calculate the shear force per unit area acting on the bottom plate, we ‘consider a rectangular fluid element whose bottom face is in contact with the bottom plate (Fig 9-61). Mathematically positive viscous stresses are shown. In this case, these stresses are in the proper direction since fluid above the differential element pulls it to the right while the wall below the clement pulls it to the left. From Eq. 9-56, we write out the components of the viscous stress tensor, m2) (4) 70 Ko G8) GE) fo of eed) x2 Since the dimensions of stress ate force per unit area by definition, the force per Unit area acting on the bottom face of the fiuid element is equal to z,, = nV and acts in the negative x-direction, as sketched. The shear force per unit area ‘on the wail is equal and opposite to this (Newton's third law); hence, Flv; Shear force per unit area acting on the wall: rer 12) ‘The direction of this force agrees with our intuition; namely, the fluid tries to pull the bottom wall to the right, due to viscous effects (friction). Discussion The z-component of the linear momentum equation is uncou- piled from the rest of the equations; this explains why we get a hydrostatic pressure distribution in the z Je TO XRFO=V Finally, Eq. 6 becomes Vy, Lap ht 3p ar?) ® Equation 9 indicates that the velocity field consists of the superposition of ‘wo parts: 2 linear velocity profile from u = O at the bottom plate to u = ¥ at the top plate, and a parabolic distribution that depends on the magni- tude of the applied pressure gradient. If the pressure gradient is zero, the parabolic portion of Eq. 9 disappears and the profile is linear, just as in Example 9-15; this is sketched as the dashed red line in Fig. 9-65. If the pressure gradient is negative (pressure decreasing in the x-direction, caus- ing flow to be pushed from left to right), 4F¥ax <0 and the velocity profile looks like the one sketched in Fig. 9-65. A special case is when V= 0 (top plate stationary); the linear portion of Eq. 9 vanishes, and the velocity pro- file is parabolic and symmetric about the center of the channel (y= Av2);, this is sketched as the dotted line in Fig. 9-65. ‘Step 6 You can use Eqs. 8 and 9 to verify that all the differential equa- tions and boundary conditions are satisfied, (b) We use dimensional analysis to generate the dimensionless groups (HI groups). We set up the problem in terms of velocity component w as a function of y, A, V, ss and aPtax. There are six variables (including the depen- dent variable u), and since there are three primary dimensions represented in the problem (mass, length, and time), we expect 6 — 3 = 3 dimensionless groups. When we pick h, V, and j as our repeating variables, we get the fol- Towing result using the method of repeating variables (details are left for you to do on your own—this is @ good review of Chap. 7 material ao Using these three dimensionless groups, we rewrite Eq, 9 as Dimensionless form of vlociy feds ut = y* + LPG — 1) a where the dimensionless parameters are In Fig. 9-66, u* is plotted as a function of y* for several values of P*, using Eq. 11. FIGURE 9-65 ‘The velocity profile of Example 9-16: ‘Couette flow between parallel plates ‘with an applied negative pressure sradient; the dashed red line indicates the profile for a zero pressure gradient, and the dotted line indicates the profile for a negative pressure gradient with the upper plate stationary (V =P Prag 6m: pu | Me Fred veal 7 fh FIGURE 9-68 Geometry of Example 9-17: a viscous film of oil falling by gravity along a vertical wall. EXAMPLE 9-17 Im Flowing Down a Vertical Wall by Gravity Consider steady, incompressible, parallel, laminar flow of a film of oi falling ™ slowly down an infinite vertical wall (Fig. 9-68). The oil film thickness is fh, ‘and gravity acts in the negative z-direction (downward in Fig. 9-68). There is no applied (forced) pressure driving the flow—the cil falls by gravity alone. Calculate the velocity and pressure fields in the oil film and sketch the nor- malized velocity profile. You may neglect changes in the hydrostatic pressure of the surrounding air. SOLUTION. For a given geometry and set of boundary conditions, we are to calculate the velocity and pressure fields and plat the velocity profile. Assumptions 1 The wall is infinite in the yzplane (y is into the page for a right-handed coordinate system). 2 The flow is steady (all partial derivatives with respect to time are zero). 3 The flow is parallel (the xcomponent of velocity, u, is zero everywhere). 4 The fluid is incompressible and Newtonian with constant properties, and the flow is laminar. 5 Pressure P = Pay = cconstant at the free surface. In other words, there is no applied pressure gra- dient pushing the flow; the flow establishes itself due to a balance between gravitational forces and viscous forces. In addition, since there is no gravity force in the horizontal direction, P= Py, everywhere. 6 The velocity field ispurely two-dimensional, which implies that velocity component » = 0 and all partial derivatives with respect to y are zero. 7 Gravity acts in the negative zadirection. We express this mathematically as g = —gf, or g, = g, = O and ane Analysis We obtain the velocity and pressure fields by following the step-by- step procedure for differential fluid flow solutions. (Fig, 9-52). ‘Step 1 Set up the problem and the geometry. See Fig. 9-68. ‘Step 2 _List assumptions and boundary conditions. We have listed seven ‘assumptions. The boundary conditions are: (1) There is no slip at the wall atx w= 0. (2) At the free surface (x = A), there is negligible shear (EQ. 9-68), which for a vertical free surface in this coordinate systern means awiax= Oat x = h, ‘Step 3 Write out and simplify the differential equations. We start with the incompressible continuity equation in Cartesian coordinates, sarin acon o Equation 1 tells us that wis not a function of z; ie. it doesn't matter where we place our origin—the flow is the same at any z-ocation. In other words, the flow is fully developed. Since wis not a function of time (assumption 2), (Eq. 1), or y (assumption 6), we conclude that wi at most a function of x, Result of continuity: w = w(x) only @ \We now simplify each component of the Navier-Stokes equation as far as possible. Since u everyivhere, and gravity does not actin the x- or ‘directions, the x-and y-momentum equations are satisfied exactly (in fect, all terms are zero in both equations). The z-momentum equation reduces to Ae ec cee smumpion2 summpion?— eygdené—coatmany samp sap (se Bw smpion scan ‘The material acceleration (left side of Eq. 3) is zero, implying that fluid particles are not accelerating inthis flow field, neither by local nor advec- tive acceleration. Since the advective acceleration terms make the Navier~ ‘Stokes equation nonlinear, this greatly simplifies the problem. We have ‘changed from a partial derivative (a/ax) to a total derivative (d/de) in Eq. 3 2s a direct result of Eq. 2, reducing the partial differential equation (PDE) to an ordinary differential equation (ODE). ODEs are of course much easier than PDES to solve (Fig. 9-69). ‘Step 4 Solve the differential equations. The continuity and x and .yemomentum equations have already been “solved.” Equation 3 (z-momentum) is integrated twice to get -~Betcrte, oFIGURE 9-70 ‘The normalized velocity profile of Example 9-17: an ol film falling down a vertical wall Step 5 Apply boundary conditions. We apply boundary conditions (1) and (2) from step 2 to obtain constants C, and C,, Boundary condition (1): w= 0 +0 + C,= and Boundary condition (2): Finally, Eq, 4 becomes Velocity field: pax PR Oe — ap © Ore = OE 2h) Since x < rin the film, w is negative eveqwhere, as expected (flow is downward). The pressure field is trivial; namely, P = Pyq everywhere. Step 6 Verify the results. You can verity that all the differential equations and boundary conditions are satisfied We normalize Eq. 5 by inspection: we let x* = wh and w* = wlipgt?). Equation 5 becomes Domuledwlciy pe w+ = Se 2 -| We plot the normalized velocity field in Fig. 9-70. Discussion The velocity profile has a large slope near the wall due to the no-slip condition there (w = 0 at x = 0), but zero slope at the free surface Where the boundary condition is zero shear stress (awlax = O at x = fi. We could have introduced a factor of ~2 in the definition of w* so that w" ‘would equal 1 instead of —+ at the free surface.. Pipe wall FIGURE 9-71 Geometry of Example 9-18: steady laminar flow in along round pipe with an applied pressure gradient @P/éx pushing fluid through the pipe, The pressure gradient is usually produced by a pump and/or gravity = EXAMPLE 9-18 Fully Developed Flow in a Round ‘ Pipe—Poiseuille Flow "Consider steady, incompressible, laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid in an Infinitely long round pipe of diameter D or radius R= D2 (Fig. 9-71). We ignore the effects of gravity. A constant pressure gradient @Pf2x is applied in the x-direction, oP _ P=? Applied pressure gradient: constant o where % and x, are two arbitrary locations along the xaxls, and P, and P, are the pressures at those two locations. Note that we adopt a modified cylindrical coordinate system here with x instead of z for the axial compo- nent, namely, (F, 6, X) and (Up, Up, W). Derive an expression for the velocity field inside the pipe and estimate the viscous shear force per unit surface area acting on the pipe wal.SOLUTION For flow inside @ round pipe we are to calculate the velocity, field, and then estimate the viscous shear stress acting on the pipe wall ‘Assumptions 1 The pipe is infinitely long in the xdirection. 2 The flow is steady (all partial time derivatives are zero). 3 This is a parallel flow (the ‘rcomponent of velocity, u, is zer0). 4 The fluid is incompressible and New- tonian with constant properties, and the flow is laminar (Fig. 9-72). 5 A constant pressure gradient is applied in the x-direction such that pressure ‘changes linearly with respect to x according to Eq, 1. 6 The velocity field is. axisymmetric with no swirl, implying that y, = 0 and all partial derivatives with respect to @ are zero. 7 We ignore the effects of gravity Analysis To obtain the velocity field, we follow the step-by-step procedure outlined in Fig. 9-82. Step 1 Lay out the problem and the geometry. See Fig, 9-71 Step 2 List assumptions and boundary conditions. We have listed seven assumptions. The first boundary condition comes from imposing the no- slip condition at the pipe wall: (1) at r= R, V = 0. The second boundary condition comes from the fact that the centerline of the pipe is an axis of symmetry: (2) at r= 0, au/ar = 0. Step3_ Write out and simplify the differential equations. We start with the incompressible continuity equation in cylindrical coordinates, a modified version of Eq. 9-622, Lag) 1 aw am Yor tata 9 > x ° cS pao CaE a Equation 2 tells us that w is not a function of x In other words, it doesn't matter where we place our orgin—the flow isthe same at any location. ‘This can also be inferred directly from assumption 1, which tells us that there is nothing special about any xlocation since the pipe is infinite in length—the flow is fully developed. Furthermore, since wis not a function of time (assumption 2) or @ (assumption 6), we conclude that uis at most a function ofr Result ofcontinuty: = ue) only @ We now simplify the axial momentum equation (a modified version of Eq, 9-62d) as far as possible: evecpion2. swamp aman cnity =P = ant af « ee rah) = ae @ As in Examples 9-15 through 9-17, the material acceleration (entire left side of the xmomentum equation) is zero, implying that fluid particles areFIGURE 9-73 For incompressible flow solutions in which the advective terms in the Navier-Stokes equation are zero, the ‘equation becomes linear since the advective term is the only nonlinear term in the equation, FIGURE 9-74 Axial velocity profile of Example 9-18: steady laminar flow in a long round pipe with an applied constant-pressure ‘gradient dP/dx pushing fluid through the pipe, ‘not accelerating at all in this flow field, and linearizing the Navier-Stokes ‘equation (Fig. 9-73). We have replaced the partial derivative operators for the u-derivatives with total derivative operators because of Eq. 3. In similar fashion, every term in the r-momentum equation (Eq. 9-626) ‘except the pressure gradient term is zero, forcing that lone term to also be zero, r-momentum: g ® Inter words, Pis nt function of Since Pis aso nat a function of tie (asmumtion 266 (esumption 6, Peen beat oat incon o P= PQ) only (6) Therefor, wo replace the pera erative operat forthe pressure sradint in eq\4 by the tll derivative operetorsince vars ant ith 1 Final all terme of ted component ofthe Nove Stes equation tea. 8-620) goto sr SpA Sofe te ciferentia equations. Contin and tsmamentum have aiready been “se,” resulting in Eqs 3 and 6 respective. The ear Taent ator eee SANA Ser ee Re aie ee eee pd ar De de were 6, i constant of integration, Note thatthe pressure gradient dae 1s contant here. Ding bth sides of Ea 7 by we lerate a second tine test Result of r-momentm: +e o Pap “eae tir tC, ® where C, is a second constant of integration ‘Step 5_ Apply boundary conditions. First, we apply boundary condition (2) to Eq. 7, Boundary condition (2): ‘An alternative way to interpret this boundary condition is that u must remain finite at the centerline of the pipe. This is possible only if constant C; is equal to 0, since In(0) is undefined in Eq. 8. Now we apply boundary ‘condition (1), RP RP Boundary condition 1): w= FTE OF C=O > C= Fe Finally, Eq. 8 becomes 1a Axial velocity: wae ® @ ‘The axial velocity profile is thus in the shape of a paraboloid, as sketched in Fig. 9-74 ‘Step 6 Verify the resuits. You can verify that all the differential equations ‘and boundary conditions are satisfied.We calculate some other properties of fully developed laminar pipe flow as well. For example, the maximum axial velocity obviously occurs at the cen- terline of the pipe (Fig. 9-74). Setting r ~ 0 in Eq. 9 yields Re dP Maximum axial velocity Mae a de a0) The volume flow rate through the pipe is found by integrating Eq. 9 through a cross-section of the pipe, P aR dP (P= Ryde = EP ayy fe gd 8 Since volume flow rate is also equal to the average axial velocity times eross- sectional area, we easily determine the average axial velocity V: UV _ mb's) (Plas) _ Re aP A aR Sy de co Average axial velocity: V. Comparing Eqs. 10 and 12 we see that for fully developed laminar pipe flow, the average axial velocity is equal to exactly half of the maximum axial velocity. To calculate the viscous shear force per unit surface area acting on the pipe wall, we consider a differential fluid element adjacent to the bottom portion of the pipe wall (Fig. 9-75). Pressure stresses and mathematically positive viscous stresses are shown. From Eq. 9-63 (modified for our coord nate system), we write the viscous stress tensor as o 0 Te Tt Te wa tm tm tuJ=] 0 0 0 an tu te tad Yt 4 9 a We use Eq. 9 for u, and set r= at the pipe wall; component z,, of Eq. 13 reduces to au _ RaP hte co Viscous shear stress at the pipe wall: ty For flow from left to right, dPIdx is negative, so the viscous shear stress on the bottom of the fluid element at the wall is in the direction opposite to that indicated in Fig. 9-75. (This agrees with our intuition since the pipe Wall exerts a retarding force on the fluid.) The shear force per unit area on the wail is equal and opposite to this; hence, Bim Viscous shear force per unit area acting on the wall a3) The direction of this force again agrees with our intuition; namely, the fluid tries to pull the bottom wall to the right, due to friction, when dPfdx is negative. Discussion Since duldr = O at the centerline of the pipe, 7,, = 0 there. You are encouraged to try to obtain Eq. 15 by using @ control volume approach instead, taking your control volume as the fluid in the pipe between any two ot Resa FIGURE 9-75 Pressure and viscous shear stresses ‘acting on a differential fluid element ‘whose bottom face isin contact with the pipe wall.