TECHNICAL PAPER

Independently controlled Carbon and Nitrogen Potential:

A new approach to Carbonitriding processes
PAPER: Independently controlled Carbon and Nitrogen Potential: a new approach to Carbonitriding processes

Independently controlled Carbon and Nitrogen Potential: A new approach to

Carbonitriding processes
Karl-Michael Winter
PROCESS-ELECTRONIC GmbH, A member of United Process Controls, Heiningen, Germany
[Link]@[Link]

Abstract faster the ammonia will dissociate. The lower the temperature,
the smaller the reactive surface and the higher the total process
Late research projects show that retained austenite, if gas flow at a given ammonia percentage on the inlet, the less
stabilized by nitrogen, has a positive influence on the fatigue ammonia will dissociate and the higher will be the nitriding
strength of work pieces. The combined diffusion profile of effect.
carbon and nitrogen applied in a carbonitriding process plays
the major role, besides the process temperature. Yet today, The carbon pick-up is as well affected, as with most of the
only the carbon potential is somehow controlled and even this ammonia decomposing, an addition of ammonia to a
is not easy to achieve. carburizing atmosphere has the effect of a dilution with
nitrogen and hydrogen further affecting the measurement of
This paper will present a new system able to measure and the carbon potential. In addition the presence of nitrogen in the
control both, the carbon potential and the nitrogen potential steel also influences the carbon activity and therefore the
independently. The knowledge of the activities of nitrogen and carbon pick-up.
carbon in iron and the effect of alloying elements on such
activities as well as the solubilities offers an easy to use Carburizing and nitriding reactions
method to apply the potentials on real steels.
Gaseous carbonitriding is performed in an endothermic
Introduction atmosphere consisting of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and
nitrogen and smaller percentages of uncracked hydrocarbons,
Gaseous carbonitriding is a termochemical treatment similar to carbon dioxide and water vapor with an addition of ammonia.
gas carburizing. The difference consists of an addition of Bischoff /3/ presented a graph displaying the concurrently
ammonia to the process gas which adds nitrogen to the active carburizing and nitriding reactions in this mixture (fig.
carburized case. The additional nitriding effect is analog to a 1). It can be seen that besides the normal carburizing reactions
nitriding process, where the nascent nitrogen is produced by and the nitriding reaction out of the ammonia dissociation
thermal dissociation of the ammonia on the catalytic surface of there is also an additional carbonitriding reaction out of
the work pieces. The nitrogen then diffuses simultaneously cyanide that is created by a reaction of carbon monoxide and
with carbon into the steel. ammonia.

Nitrogen being present in the interstitial profile of carbon has

the advantage of an increased hardenability and wear
resistance as well as a higher temperature stability of the heat
treated parts /1/. As nitrogen stabilizes the retained austenite it
also has a positive effect on form stability and fatigue strength
of gears /2/. In addition the increased hardenability enables to
oil quench machined parts made from unalloyed steels in order
to produce strong and wear resistant parts economically.

As the ammonia will eventually completely dissociate into

hydrogen and nitrogen at carburizing temperatures and as on
the other hand the nitrogen pick-up is driven by the content of
still undissociated ammonia, the fundamental problem in a
controlled carbonitriding process is that it cannot be
performed properly by applying a certain percentage of
ammonia in the inlet gas. Fig. 1: Carburizing and nitriding reactions /3/

The higher the carbonitriding temperature and the higher the

combined catalytic surface of load and furnace walls, the

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PAPER: Independently controlled Carbon and Nitrogen Potential: a new approach to Carbonitriding processes

Bischoff /3/ as well calculated the varying gas percentages in a 2 CO → [C] + CO2
carbonitriding atmosphere in equilibrium as a function of with
temperature (fig. 2).
lg(aCatm) = lg(p²CO/pCO2) + 8861/T – 9.107 /4/

Note, that in atmospheres with high residual methane

percentages the total carbon activity of the process gas will be
affected by the methane reaction and has to be determined by
solving the equation

JC = kch4*(aCch4–aCfe) + kBoud*(aCBoud–aCfe) + khet*(aChet–aCfe)

The factors kch4, kBoud and khet are the carbon transfer
coefficients for the three carburizing reactions. These effects
have been described in detail by Collin et all /5/.

Interacting activities of carbon and nitrogen

Once carbon and nitrogen is dissolved in the iron lattice they

Fig. 2: equilibrium gas percentages in a carrier gas with 20% will both influence each others activities.
CO, 40% H2 and 40% N2 with an NH3 addition of 5% /3/
aCfe = f (aCatm, aNfe)
It can be seen that with increasing temperature the partial
pressure of ammonia decreases whereas the partial pressure of and
cyanide increases. If we assume the partial pressures being
equal at approximately 1650°C (900°C) we would expect a aNfe = f (aNatm, aCfe)
not negligible nitriding effect out of the cyanide reaction.
Using interaction parameters given in table 1 we can calculate
HCN → [C] + [N] + H2 the equilibrium carbon and nitrogen weight percentages in a
carbonitriding atmosphere.
A calculation of the nitrogen activities of NH3 and HCN at a
temperature of 1650°F (900°C) shows that they would give
approximately the same nitriding effect. In reality, as in a (Re-)Definition of carbon and nitrogen potentials
carburizing furnace there is a comparably rapid gas exchange
the dissociation of the ammonia and therefore as well the If we define the carbon potential in a carbonitriding
calculated equilibrium amount of cyanide will never be atmosphere as the equilibrium surface carbon weight
reached. Typical fractions of residual ammonia measured in percentage in iron found in addition to nitrogen and if we
such atmospheres will range between 500 and 5000 ppm, well further define the nitrogen potential as the equilibrium
above the calculated ammonia percentages of less than 100 nitrogen weight percentage in iron found in addition to carbon
ppm. Therefore the cyanide reaction will not be taken into we can use a regular iron shim to determine the total
account in the further document. percentage of nitrogen and carbon using a shim weigh. The
carbon percentage can then be determined by the combustion
If we further assume that the carburizing will mostly be driven method, the nitrogen percentage would be the difference of
by the heterogeneous water gas reaction both measurements.

CO + H2 → [C] + H2O As nitrogen acts as an alloying element for carbon, the relation
between the atmosphere carbon potential and the surface
we can simplify the set of carbonitriding formulas to carbon content can be written as:

lg(aCatm) = lg(pCO*pH2/pH2O) + 7130/T – 7.494 /4/ CP = cCequ = 10-0.081 * %N * CPatm /6/

and and the relation between the atmosphere nitrogen potential and
the surface nitrogen content can be written as:
lg(aNatm) = lg(pNH3/p1.5H2) – 2943/T + 6.196 /4/
NP = cNequ = 10-0.187 * %C * NPatm /6/
All partial pressures are given in bar, temperatures in Kelvin.
The atmosphere potentials CPatm and NPatm can be determined
Alternatively, if we assume CO, CO2, H2 and H2O staying in by:
water gas equilibrium, it is possible to use the carbon activity
out of the Boudouard reaction lg(aCatm) = 2300/T –2.21 +0.15*CPatm + lg(CPatm) /7/

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PAPER: Independently controlled Carbon and Nitrogen Potential: a new approach to Carbonitriding processes

lg(NPatm) = lg(pNH3/p1.5H2) – 2210/T +3.91 /8/ It can be derived how the presence of nitrogen expands the
(converted to bar and wt %) existence range of austenite to lower temperatures. The
diagram calculates the maximum solubility of nitrogen
Example: towards epsilon nitride using the geometric exclusion model
given by Slycke and Ericsson /4/. The maximum solubility of
In a carbonitriding process at 1562°F (850°C) using Endogas carbon towards graphite is taken from standard Fe-C phase
with 20 % CO and 40 % H2 with a 5% addition of ammonia diagrams. In absence of nitrogen it can be calculated by setting
and aiming for 0.7 wt% carbon and 0.3 wt% nitrogen in an the carbon activity to 1.
iron surface the atmosphere potentials come to:
lg(aCatm=1) = 2300/T –2.21 +0.15* cCgraphite + lg(cCgraphite)
CPatm = 0.7/0.95 = 0.74
cCgraphite is also representing the soot limit in the atmosphere.
and
As this boundary will be affected by the presence of nitrogen
NPatm = 0.3/0.74 = 0.41 it might approximately be adjusted by:

This converts to a nitriding potential of cCmax = cCgraphite * 10-0.103* %N

KN = pNH3/p1.5H2 = 4.65*10-3 [bar-1/2] The maximum solubility of nitrogen towards epsilon between
1562°F (850°C) and 1652°F (900°C) can be calculated as:
and results into the according partial pressures:
cNeps = 10464.28/T - 0.050394 - 0.02
-3
pNH3 = 1.32 * 10 bar = 1323 ppm
and further adjusted to the presence of carbon by:
and
cNmax = cNeps * 10-0.14* %C
pH2 = 0.432 bar
Influence of alloying elements
If we would be aiming for a lower carbon content of 0.6 wt%
the NH3 in the exhaust can be reduced to 1267 ppm. Both, the activity of carbon and nitrogen will also be affected
by the alloying elements being present in regular steel. For
Solubility and phase transformations control purposes this effect will be taken into account by
applying alloying factors for both, carbon and nitrogen. The
The binary systems for carbon in iron and nitrogen in iron will alloying factors are following the definition:
not reveal the maximum solubility lines of a combined carbon
and nitrogen content. The well-known Fe-C or Fe-N phase kj = cSteel / cFe
diagrams typically display carbon and nitrogen in either
weight or atomic percentages. Figure 3 combines the two with
binary systems to a phase diagram using the total nitrogen and
carbon contents given in volume percentages, such taking into lg(cFe/cSteel ) = sum of (ci * eji)
account that both species will occupy the same interstitial
places in the iron lattice. for j = {C, N} and i = {C, N, … }, ci in wt%. The according
values for eji can be taken from table 1.
Fe-C / Fe-N Phase Diagram
The equilibrium carbon content in alloyed steel exposed to an
1600
atmosphere carbon potential will come to:
1400
cC-Steel = kC * CPatm
Temperature [°C]

1200

1000 with
800
lg(kC) = - (0.010*B% + 0.081*N% - 0.014*Al% …)
600

400 The equilibrium nitrogen content in alloyed steel exposed to

- 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 an atmosphere nitrogen potential will come to:
N / C [Vol%]
cN-Steel = kC * NPatm
Fig. 3: Combined binary systems Fe-C and Fe-N with C and N
given in volume percentages, temperature in centigrade. with
lg(kN) = -(0.187*C% + 0.124*Si% …)

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PAPER: Independently controlled Carbon and Nitrogen Potential: a new approach to Carbonitriding processes

Measuring the atmosphere potentials

Table 1: Interaction parameters of alloying elements on the
activity coefficients for Carbon and Nitrogen in gamma iron at According to DIN 17 022 Part 3 /7/ the carbon potential of a
1652°F (900°C), average values taken from literature /6/. carburizing atmosphere can be calculated out of the mV signal
J eCj eNj of an OXYGEN PROBE (following the heterogeneous water
B 0.070 (unknown) gas reaction) by:
C - 0.187
N 0.081 - E=0.0992*T*(lg pCO –1.995 –0.15 CP –lg CP) –816.1 [mV]
Al -0.014 (unknown)
Si 0.055 0.124 As the partial pressure of carbon monoxide is typically used as
P 0.130 0.050 a constant number given by the carrier gas, in a carbonitriding
S 0.140 0.017 atmosphere either the dilution caused by the ammonia addition
Ti -0.194 (unknown) has to be taken into account or the actual partial pressure of
V -0.210 -0.523 CO has to be measured using an analyzing instrument. Under
Cr -0.043 -0.158 regular conditions at atmospheric pressure, where all of the
Mn -0.016 -0.041 ammonia will be nearly dissociated it is sufficient to use:
Co 0.012 0.020
Ni 0.014 0.022 pCOatm = vol% COcarrier / (100 + 2*NH3-add)
Cu -0.006 (unknown)
Nb -0.137 -0.358 One method to determine the nitrogen potential is to measure
Mo -0.015 -0.080 the partial pressure of ammonia using an analyzer calibrated to
W -0.023 -0.037 a range of 0 – 10000 ppm. The hydrogen partial pressure may
then be measured with a second analyzer or estimated as
The boundaries towards graphite and cementite formation can
be estimated by: pH2-atm = (vol% H2-carrier + 1.5*NH3-add)/ (100 + 2*NH3-add)

cCmax-Steel = kg * cCgraphite – MC/MB * cBoron A second possibility is the direct measurement of carbon and
nitrogen in equilibrium in iron using a wire-sensor /10/. This
with type of sensor exposes a thin iron wire (see figure 4) to the
carbonitriding atmosphere. As both, carbon and nitrogen will
lg(kg) = sum (ci * eCi) - cN * 0.103 be interstitially dissolved in the iron lattice, the electrical
resistance of the wire changes (see figure 5).
and i not in {B, N, P, S}, as these elements are interstitials like
carbon. Boron is able to replace up to 80% of carbon in
cementite, therefore the boron is treated like carbon, taking the
different weights into account (MC = 12.011, MB = 10.81).

The boundary towards Fe2-3[N+C] epsilon can be estimated

by:

cNmax-Steel = ke * cNeps

with

lg(ke) = sum (ci * eNi) – cC * 0.14

and i not in {C, B, P, S}.

Exceeding this boundary will force the formation of meta

stable nitride, causing pores in the parts surface layer /9/ by
the possible back reaction:
Fig. 4: Active element of the wire sensor
Fe2-3N → Fe + N2
Chatterjee-Fischer /11/ is giving the relation for nitrogen
induced increase of resistivity versus carbon induced as:

ΔRC = 0.7 * ΔRN

In order to achieve the 0.7 wt% C plus 0.3 wt% N in the

example above, the wire would have to be controlled to a

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PAPER: Independently controlled Carbon and Nitrogen Potential: a new approach to Carbonitriding processes

[N+C] content of 0.94 wt% virtual carbon. The carbon Based on the assumption of the heterogeneous water gas
potential controlled with the oxygen probe has to be adjusted reaction being the dominant carburizing reaction, the carbon
to 0.74 %C and the atmospheric nitrogen potential would be at uptake can be determined by the partial pressures of carbon
0.41 %N. monoxide and hydrogen in the process atmosphere shown in
figure 7. The curve can be approximated by:

βC = 0.00018*pCO*pH2 – (pCO*pH2/65.78)² [cm/s]

Fig. 5: Induced resistance change in an iron wire due to

carbon and nitrogen uptake /11/
Fig. 7: Carbon transfer coefficient beta as a function of the
Figure 6 shows the computed signals of an oxygen probe and a volume percentages of carbon monoxide and hydrogen at
wire sensor exposed to a carburizing atmosphere. The moment atmospheric pressure and 1652°F (900°C) /12/
ammonia is added to the process gas the wire’s combined
carbon and nitrogen potential increases while the carbon While CO will be diluted whereas H2 will increase by the
potential measured with the oxygen probe and adjusted for the dissociated ammonia, the transfer coefficient will be affected
dilution stays level. very little. An ammonia addition of 10 % decreases the beta
coefficient only by 4.5 %.

In a carbonitriding process the nitrogen activity given by the

ammonia dissociation is greater than the activity given by the
partial pressure of nitrogen. Consequently the equilibrium
nitrogen content for pNH3/p1.5H2 is as well much higher.
Therefore there has to be a local equilibrium of a dissociation
and a formation of ammonia on the parts surface. As the
nitrogen uptake is limited by the denitriding reaction it can be
determined by the partial pressure of hydrogen:

βN = 0.09*e-64247/RT*pH2 [cm/s] /13/

The carbon and nitrogen flux into the surface can be expressed
as:

Fig. 6: Nitriding and de-nitriding of wire sensor and iron JC = βC * (cCequ – cC-surface) [wt%*cm/s]
shims at 1562°F (850°C). The red line indicates the controlled
carbon potential (oxygen probe); the blue line displays the and
increase in virtual carbon [N+C] in the wire. The green line
shows the ammonia percentage in the gas inlet /3/ JN = βN * (cNequ – cN-surface) [wt%*cm/s]

Iron shims (Folie 1 and 2) verified the nitrogen content, the Carbon and nitrogen diffusion
carbon content was lower as expected.
The carbon diffusivity in γ-iron is a function of temperature
and dissolved carbon.

Carbon and nitrogen uptake DC = e-(18900/T+0.38) * e(4300/T-2.63)*(%C^1.5) [cm²/s] /14/

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PAPER: Independently controlled Carbon and Nitrogen Potential: a new approach to Carbonitriding processes

As both agents are occupying the same interstitial places one calculates the carbon and nitrogen diffusion during the process
can assume that the diffusivity of carbon and nitrogen will be based on the actual carbon and nitrogen transfer coefficients
dependent on the actual amount of nitrogen and carbon /4/ and the diffusion coefficients at temperature and carbon and
already dissolved and causing the lattice to open. As a nitrogen content throughout the calculated profiles.
simplification, nitrogen will be treated as “virtual carbon”,
applying a factor taking the different dimensions into account. Temperature control offers RAMP HEAT, HEAT, HOLD,
RAMP COOL, the atmosphere control offers RAMP CP/NP,
DC = e-(18900/T+0.38) * e(4300/T-2.63)*((%C+0.62*%N)^1.5) [cm²/s] HOLD CP/NP, and several special functions, SOOT LIMIT,
AUTO BOOST, Fe2-3N LIMIT and SURFACE CONTENT
Based on a relation given by Slycke /4/ the nitrogen diffusion N/C.
coefficient of nitrogen between 1562°F (850°C) and 1652°F
(950°C) can be adjusted to: In order to achieve short process times, the proposed
atmosphere control starts with a boost stage maintaining high
DN = 0.45*e-(18900/T+0.38) * e0.62* (4300/T-2.63)*((%C+0.62*%N)^1.5) [cm²/s] potentials. During the AUTO BOOST the controller limits the
atmosphere carbon potential to a set percentage of the soot
Figure 8 displays the result of a simulation with HT-Tools limit (see above).
using the above equations. Carbon and Nitrogen profiles are
calculated. Based on the carbon and nitrogen content the CPatm <= AUTO FACTOR * cCmax
software calculates the expected hardness curve after
quenching and regular tempering. The moment the calculated surface carbon content in alloyed
steels reaches the maximum solubility towards graphite,
adjusted to the actual surface nitrogen content, the atmosphere
carbon potential will automatically be reduced (see figure 9).

Fig. 8: C- and N- profiles in a steel bar made from AISI 8620

aiming for a case depth of 40 thousands and a surface carbon
content of 0.72 %C and a surface nitrogen content of 0.30 %N
Fig. 9: Chart recorder displaying the controlled atmosphere
Controlling the potentials potentials for carbon (brown) and nitrogen (light green), the
temperature (blue) and the calculated surface contents for
In our tests we have been using a PROTHERM 500 carbon (orange) and nitrogen (dark green).
programmable controller, able to control temperature and
atmosphere. The desired nitrogen content in the surface was given as a
setpoint of 0.5 wt% N in the steel. The ammonia addition is
Like a normal carbon potential controller, the system uses automatically adjusted to achieve the necessary NPatm.
propane or methane as enrichment gas and air for reducing the
carbon potential. The nitrogen potential is controlled by The end condition for an auto boost stage can be either time or
increasing or decreasing the ammonia flow. a set percentage of the desired carburizing depth.

The controller is able to either calculate the dilution, if the In the diffusion stage the controller will set the atmosphere
flows are known, or it can use the signals of connected potentials automatically according the DESIRED SURFACE
CONTENTS of CARBON and NITROGEN. This stage will typically
analyzers to adjust carbon monoxide and hydrogen. For
determining the nitrogen potential, the controller can be end once the desired carburizing depth is reached.
connected to a wire sensor or to an ammonia analyzer.
It is also possible to use the atmosphere potentials CPatm and
The recipe holds the composition of the steel to be treated NPatm as setpoints, in which case no automatic limitations to
calculates the alloying factors for carbon and nitrogen and soot, cementite or epsilon will be performed. This represents a
more classical process variant.

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PAPER: Independently controlled Carbon and Nitrogen Potential: a new approach to Carbonitriding processes

Using the interaction parameters to adjust the atmosphere

Test Results potentials to the varying steel compositions enables a
controlled carbonitriding treatment to desired surface contents
Tests done at the IWT and several customers show a good of carbon and nitrogen which might open a new field of
correlation between predicted and measured carbon and investigations on working properties of parts.
nitrogen contents in samples (see figures 10 and 11).
The inbuilt safety functions to avoid cementite and epsilon
formation enables the use of higher potentials during boost
18 CrNiMo 7/6
stages, aiming for shorter process times while at the same time
1.0 0.80 being safe not to create a porous layer.
C
0.9 C-Profil
0.70

0.8
N
N-Profil The online diffusion calculation for carbon and nitrogen
0.60 enables a treatment to the specification such as case depth and
0.7

0.50
surface carbon and nitrogen content.
0.6

Nitrogen (wt%)
Carbon (wt%)

0.5 0.40
Acknowledgments
0.4
0.30

0.3
0.20
The author would like to thank the team of the IWT in Bremen
0.2 for giving our company the opportunity of testing and
0.1
0.10 modifying our control equipment to their needs and letting us
0.0 0.00
participate in their research.
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Distance (mm)
References
Fig. 10: Measured (C, N) and calculated (C-Profile, N-
Profile) carbon and nitrogen contents in an 18 CrNiMo 7/6 [1] Meinhard, E., Carbonitrieren – warum und wie?, TZ für
test piece, carbonitrided at1544°F ( 840°C) for 280 minutes. Metallbearbeitung 1982/10, pp. 23–32.
[2] Hoffmann, F., Clausen, B., Steinbacher M.,
20 Mn Cr 5 Carbonitrieren verspricht Verbesserung der Eigenschaften
von Zahnrädern, MM Das IndustrieMagazin 30/2008, pp.
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N FU64G NFU84G
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[4] Slycke, J., Ericsson, T., A study of reactions occurring
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[5] Collin, R., Gunnarson, S., Thulin, D., Ein mathematisches
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Fig. 11: Measured and calculated carbon and nitrogen [6] Literature survey: average interaction parameters for
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(930°C) for 240 minutes. Neumann (found in: Schröter, W., Spengler, A., Über den
Einfluß von Legierungselementen beim Einsatzhärten,
Conclusions HTM J. Heat Treatm. Mat. 57 (2002) 5, pp. 342-348),
AWT (found in: AWT-FA 5 AK 4, Die Prozessregelung
Incorporating the results of late research projects into a beim Gasaufkohlen und Einsatzhärten, Expert Verlag
process controller enables a new attempt to performing 1997, pp. 12-13) and Kunze, J. (found in: Physikalisch-
carbonitriding processes. chemische Grundlagen der Wärmebehandlung und
Randschichttechnik, Lehrblätter zur Vorlesung , 2000),
The ability to measure and control both, the carbon and average interaction parameters for nitrogen activity based
nitrogen potential in the atmosphere takes the uncertainty of on Zheng (found in: Zheng, X., Nitrogen solubility in
the ammonia dissociation, caused by changing surface iron-base alloys and powder metallurgy of high nitrogen
conditions out of the equation. Besides obvious advantages in stainless steels, Diss. ETH No. 9488, 1991) and Kunze, J.
the process control and the ability to reproduce batch after (see above)
batch, this will also be valid if furnaces are used for [7] DIN 17 022 Part 3 p. 21, DIN-Taschenbuch 218, Beuth
carburizing and carbonitriding processes where the NP control Verlag, 1998
can shorten formation times. [8] Fromm, E., Gebhardt, E., Gase und Kohlenstoff in
Metallen, Springer-Verlag 1976, pp. 581-608

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PAPER: Independently controlled Carbon and Nitrogen Potential: a new approach to Carbonitriding processes

[9] Mittemeijer, E. J., Slycke, J. T., Chemical potentials and

activities of nitrogen and carbon imposed by gaseous
nitriding and carburizing atmposheres, Surface
Engineering 1996 Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 152-162
[10] Wünning, J., C-Pegel und C-Strommesseung mit dem
rechnergesteuerten Widerstandssensor, HTM J. Heat
Treatm. Mat. 43 (1988) 5, pp. 266-270
[11] Chatterjee-Fischer, R, Schaaber, O., Einge Betrachtungen
zum Karbonitrieren im Gas, HTM J. Heat Treatm. Mat.
26 (1969) 2, pp. 108-110
[12] AWT-FA 5 AK 4, Die Prozessregelung beim
Gasaufkohlen und Einsatzhärten, Expert Verlag 1997, p.
31
[13] Grabke, H. J., Reaktionen von NH3, N2, H2 an der
Oberfläche von Fe, I. Zur Kinetik der Nitrierung von
Eisen mit NH3/H2-Gemischen und der Denitrierung. II.
Zur Kinetik der Nitrierung von Fe mit N2 und der
Desorption von N2, Berichte Bunsenges. Phys. Chem.,
72 (1968), No. 4, pp. 533-548
[14] Leyens, G., Woelk, G., Wünning, J., Berechnung der
Aufkohlung nach dem Sättigungs-Ausgleich-Verfahren,
Archiv f.d. Eisenhüttenwesen 47 (1976) 6, pp. 385-390

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