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MAJOR CAUSES OF CRACKS Classification of cracks
Ground movements : settlement & subsidence • Based on various factors:
Over loading – Direction of the cracks
Effect of gases, liquids and solids
– Extent of the cracks
UNIT II: Cracks in Buildings Temperature variations
– Width of the cracks (if tapers)
Vibrations
Moisture content changes
– Width of the cracks
Dr Chitrarekha Kabre – Depth of the cracks
Weakness due to corrosion/deterioration of materials
– Alignment of the cracks
Construction process – Sharpness of the edges
Due to bulging and buckling – Cleanliness
Trees
– General
Damage by Accident
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• SETTLEMENT • SUBSIDENCE Direction of the cracks Non-structural cracks
• Settlement occurs due to • Subsidence occurs due to
downward pressure the removal of earth
• Settlement is usually beneath the foundations. • Vertical • Usually in plaster or other finishes with
easily dealt with via • Subsidence can prove • Horizontal cement sand rendering as base
cosmetic repair, whereas difficult and costly to
• Settlement can cause repair. • Diagonal • Symptoms/Phenomenon
subsidence. Drains are – Hairline cracks
connected to a building, • Straight
and if these shear or – Multi-directional cracks (shrinkage cracks)
crack due to settlement • Toothed
the subsequent leakage – Cracks between panel walls and structural
can cause subsidence by • Variable / irregular elements e.g. brick wall and beams/columns
washing away the subsoil.
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PLASTER CRACKS Repair plaster cracks Structural cracks in walls
Crocodile cracking of plaster • Inspect to reveal the cause of • Symptoms/Phenomenon
defect. • Cracks that penetrate
Weak backing structure • Hack away the defective through finishes into the
plaster right up to wall concrete or bricks
Weak bonding to base surface and brush away all • Long, continuous cracks
Weak rendering undercoat
loose mortar, dirt across width of wall
• Rake the mortar joints clear • Diagonal cracks at corners
Surface Shrinkage plaster cracks and cut the edges square. of window or door
Moisture
• Spray water on the wall area • Detailed investigation must
• Seal the edges of old plaster be carried out to identify
Unsuitable materials by cement slurry the cause(s) which must be
• Wooden float to give smooth removed or rectified before
Impact damage the cracks are repaired.
finishes
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Cracks in
Structural cracks in columns & beams Assessment of cracks
brickwork
• Symptoms/Phenomenon • The width of a crack can vary from a hair line
• Cracks that penetrate to a large fracture. It is an important factor in
through finishes down to
the concrete or bricks determining any remedial measures required.
• Spalling • Cracks are usually divided into three groups:
• Cracks with rust staining fine cracks up to 1.5 mm; medium cracks from
• Detailed investigation 1.5 to 10 mm; and large cracks over 10mm.
must be carried out to
identify the cause(s) • Cracks may fluctuate in width with seasonal
which must be removed change sometimes due movements in clay sub
or rectified before the soils or root system
cracks are repaired.
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Surveyor using a borescope Reinforcement cover meter
• A fibre optic
borescope is useful
tool to inspect
hidden voids and
cavities for problems
such as bridging, wall
tie corrosion and
fungal attack.
Measuring Instruments
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Cracks in Brickwork Crack-vertical Assessment of cracks
• The nature of the brick must be considered. A • Open vertical joints indicate horizontal movement
simple test to determine whether the
brickwork is porous or not is throw a cupful of
water on the brickwork when dry.
• Pointing should be carefully examined.
• Direction and inclination of the cracks
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Crack - vertical Cracks at corners in brick walls Thermal movement in brickwork
• THERMAL EXPANSION CRACKS • This can be due to
(Absence of expansion joint)
• Cause expansion of brick
• Walls are affected by temperature and moisture change. • It may be more
• Materials can suffer from initial shrinkage and/or subsequent predominant at the
expansion and contraction.
• This movement gives rise to the cracks. The crack is often vertical, junction of two long
sometimes the crack follows the line of least resistance and can end walls parallel to each
up stepped.
• This type of crack has a consistent width other connected with
• If the plane of the wall is the same on both sides of the crack, then small panel where
it is a contraction crack, and not structurally related or deficient expansive forces act in
opposite direction
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Vertical cracks below windows Crack-Vertical Creating movement joints
• One or two vertical crack • Repair • Using 400mm long bars, installation is very
appear in masonry. • Left alone, the crack is of no real structural significance,
• When the brick masonry although it may allow water into the cavity in brick built similar to crack stitching. The bar is installed
panel below window is made houses, and subsequence cause deterioration of the wall. across the joint, as with cracks, but is only
of thinner masonry or • Therefore filling the crack with a mastic or selastic
different material when compound is recommended. bonded at one end.
compared to the rest of
masonry.
• For more severe cracking it is advisable to form an • The other end is allowed to move freely by
expansion/movement joint. This would be cut into the wall,
• This may also be caused due filled with a compressible material with a waterproof inserting it into a sleeve which is bonded into
to overstressing of masonry stopper to the outside. the masonry.
on both sides of opening • On some modern buildings these are formed at
compared to portion below construction stage and then hidden behind rainwater
the opening. downpipes.
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Crack- Horizontal Partition failure due to expansion of
Crack-vertical
roof slab : horizontal cracks
• Foundation settlement
• Vertical crack is structurally
related when there is lateral
movement, displacement,
bowing, or if the crack is uneven
from top to bottom.
• If the plane of the wall is
different on both sides of the
crack, then it is a settlement
crack, and is structurally related
or deficient
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CRACKS ABOVE OPENINGS CRACKS ABOVE OPENINGS Cracks near doors
• Cause • Helical bars are simply • In brick partition walls
• Four causes are: and effectively inserted cracks caused by
(a) Removal of windows or doors into the mortar bed vibration resulting from
across cracks in walls to banging of doors.
with inadequate propping,
(b) Inadequate bearings, (<150 mm) reconnect and • The way out would be to
strengthen masonry. fix frame to the slab also
(c) Loads applied directly over the in addition to the hold
opening, • The most common fast.
(d) No lintels. repair for uPVC frames • The verticals of door
• Repair with no lintel to frame will have to be
1. Provide dead shore to support support the weight of taken right upto ceiling
2. New lintels need to be installed the brickwork above. and fixed.
and the cracks repaired.
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Diagonal crack Assessment of cracks Assessment of cracks
• Diagonal cracking is almost always structurally related. • Open horizontal joints indicate vertical • Horizontal and vertical movement indicates
• Diagonal cracking is defined as a crack that tears through
the material, not a step crack that follows the mortar joints. settlement transverse failure
• Predominantly diagonal cracks appear across a corner of
the building affecting both walls.
• The crack is wide at corner and becomes narrow at the
other end.
• Investigate whether foundations rest on expansive clays.
• Check whether the corner has settled either due to local
pocket of low bearing capacity or due to changes brought
about by presence of large fast growing tree near corner
which has desiccated the soil
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Diagonal cracks Crack-diagonal Crack-diagonal
• To determine the source or cause of a • Cause • Cause
• The worst and most serious type of cracking and •
diagonal crack, draw an imaginary line consequently the most difficult to repair.
The pattern is similar to subsidence cracks
perpendicular to the center of the crack, • Subsidence can occur due to a variety of reasons: • The crack will be widest at the base of the wall
• The most common cause of ground heave is expansion of
downward towards the ground. There you 1. Mining activity
2. Leaking underground drainage clay subsoils.
should find the source of the cracking. 3. Tree root activity • If the clay becomes waterlogged it can expand and push the
4. Peak subsoil foundations upwards causing the cracks.
5. Clay subsoil
6. Running sand • The removal of trees can also cause ground heave (trees that
• The cracks raking (widest at the top) and can occur to corners are too close to the property should be taken down in stages,
of the building or from the top to the bottom of the walls. slowly over a number of years to allow gradual ground
• Repair movement)
• This will normally involve some form of underpinning. • Repair
• In extreme cases underpinning and/or deeper foundations will
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be the only solution.
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Defective material & Surface decay of brickwork due to Sulphate attack in parapet wall or
chemical reaction crystallisation of salts retaining wall
• Three contributory factors •
• A type of salt known Portland cement contains tricalcium aluminate in varying amounts.
that cause sulphate attack: • Wet clay bricks in contact with mortar based on Portland cement will
a combination of Portland as magnesium form calcium sulphoaluminate, the crystal of which causes
considerable expansion and disintegration of the mortar joints.
cement, soluble sulphate sulphate may
• The expansion produces horizontal cracks in the mortar joints and
salts and water crystallise beneath leaning or bulging sections of brick which in time will impair the
• The salts form a white the surface of the stability of the wall.
deposit on the surface
known as Efflorescence, brick causing
usually up to four years in surface erosion and
new construction outer skin to split
away.
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Cracks in construction joints Dealing with structural crack Epoxy Resin crack filler
• In RC slab construction joint • Detailed investigation should be carried out first to identify • High tensile helical bars
provided at the centre of span the underlying cause of the cracks.
in terrace slab can give rise to are bonded across the
leakage • The cause of the problem must be properly addressed fractures to tie together
• In terrace slab the construction before sealing up the structural cracks. Otherwise, the
danger of sudden collapse will persist. both parts of the cracked
joint should be provided along
the centre of beams locations • Identifying the cause of structural cracks should best be wall for added strength.
and not along the centre of carried out by a structural engineer who should also advise • Epoxy resin crack filler is
slab on courses of action to remove the problem and the
• Increased provisions for
then injected into the
subsequent repair method. crack to seal and protect
temperature steel at twice to
three times the normal • After identifying and addressing the problem causing the the brickwork from
allowance cracks, the repair of the cracks is usually done by pressure
injection of non-shrinkage grout or epoxy resin or by open- moisture ingress and
• The expansion joint should be
provided at 10 meters centres up and refill/recast with concrete. from moisture damage.
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Crack stitching Dealing with structural crack Dealing with structural crack
• Traditionally wide fissures are • The benefits:
injected or filled with polymer
modified grouts or dual cartridge • -Allows for building movement
epoxy resin systems.
• Crack stitching bars are a
• -High tensile strength with mortar and adhesive
permanent solution for masonry • -Very economical compared with other alternative
repairs and cracked wall methods
reinforcement.
• Stainless steel brick stitching ties • -Completely out of sight once installed
have immense tensile strength
yet are designed to allow the • -Avoids expensive and disruptive demolition and
building to still expand and rebuilding
contract the way it should
• -Minimal disruption to the building and occupants
• -Spreads loads
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Bulging due to inadequate thickness Leaning
Bulging and buckling
& lack of restraint in walls unrestrained flank gable wall
• This may give horizontal cracks along the
horizontal joint. This is very dangerous. This is
caused by spreading outwards of wall. This may
be due to
– Vibration from machinery, traffic
– Overloading of structure either by heavier load on
floors or additional storeys being added which cause
buckling of wall due to low slenderness ratio.
– The original walls being insufficiently thick in relation
to the height
– Lack of restraint between external walls and floor
beams
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Untied roof causing rafters to spread Inspection of bulging and leaning Inspection of bulging and leaning
The thickness and height of the wall • A leaning wall which is out of plumb by up to 25
mm or bulges not more than 12 mm in a storey
The method of restraint (if any) height is not serious on structural grounds alone
The amount of the wall is out of plumb
• If the leaning wall exceeds this amount then an
examination must be carried out, and if necessary
The length, width and position of any fractures, internally and
be repeated at intervals in order to ascertain
externally whether or not it is still moving.
• RULE: the amount of lean in the full height of
General state of repair the wall exceeds one third of the thickness of the
wall at the base , then the wall is dangerous, and
The number of openings and piers in the defective wall remedial measures are no doubt necessary
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