The University of
Duhok
Chapter 2: Method of coordinates
determination
Lecture 5
Ground Control Network
By: Dr. Farsat Heeto
October, 2017
Ground Control Net
Traversing Nets (Triangulation+ Trilateration) = Ttrangulateration
Geodetic Surveying
The objective of the geodetic surveying is to determine very
precisely the relative or absolute position on the surface of the
earth of a system of widely separated points.
The relative positions are determined in term of the length and
azimuth of the lines joining them.
The absolute positions are determined in term of latitude,
longitude, and elevation above mean sea level
Ground Control Net cont. The University of
Duhok
The horizontal control in geodetic survey is established by triangulation
or by precise traverse.
In triangulation, the system consists of a number of inter-connected
triangles in which the length of one line, called base line, and angles of
the triangles are measured very precisely.
Knowing the length of one side and the three angles, the length of the
other two sides of each triangle can be calculated.
The apexes of the triangles are known as the triangulation stations
and the whole figure is called the triangulation system or
triangulation figure
Geodetic Triangulation The University of
Duhok
The objectives of geodetic triangulation are:
Providing the most accurate system of horizontal control point on
which the less precise triangle may be based, which in turn may from
a framework to which cadastral, topographical, hydro-graphical,
engineering and other surveys may be referred.
Assisting in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by
making observations for latitude, longitude and gravity.
Triangulation and Trilateration
The method of surveying called Triangulation is based on the
trigonometric proposition that if one side and two angles of a
triangle are known, the remaining sides can be computed.
A Trilateration system also
consists of a series of joined or
overlapping triangles. However,
for Trilateration the lengths of all the sides of the triangle are
measured and few directions or angles are measured to establish
azimuth.
Objectives of triangulation surveys
The triangulation surveys are carried out
1. to establish accurate control for plane and geodetic surveys of
large areas, by terrestrial methods.
2. to establish accurate control for photogrammetric surveys of
large areas.
3. to assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by
making observations for latitude, longitude and gravity.
4. to determine accurate locations of points in engineering works
such as :
1. Fixing center line and abutments of long bridges over large rivers.
2. Fixing center line, terminal points, and shafts for long tunnels.
3. Transferring the control points across wide sea channels, large water
bodies.
4. Detection of crustal movements, etc.
5. Finding the direction of the movement of clouds.
Classification of Triangulation System
The degree of accuracy desired, triangulation surveys are classified as first-
order or primary, second-order or secondary, and third-order or tertiary.
Grade of Triangulation
First-order triangulation is used to determine the shape and size of
the earth or to cover a vast area like a whole country with control points
to which a second-order triangulation system can be connected.
A second-order triangulation system consists of a network within
a first-order triangulation. It is used to cover areas of the order of a
region, small country, or province.
A third-order triangulation is a framework fixed within and
connected to a second-order triangulation system. It serves the
purpose of furnishing the immediate control for detailed
engineering and location surveys.
Triangulation cont.
The University of
Duhok
Classification of Triangulation system
The basic of the classification of triangulation figures is the accuracy with which
the length and azimuths of a line of the triangulation are determined.
Triangulation systems of different accuracies depend on the extent and the purpose
of the survey.
The accepted grades of triangulation are:
First order or primary triangulation
Second order or secondary triangulation
Third order or tertiary triangulation
The first order triangulation is of
The highest order and is employed either to determine the figure of the earth
or to furnish the most precise control points to which secondary
triangulation may be connected.
Covers the large area (usually the entire of the country).
Every precaution is taken in making linear and angular measurements and in
performing the reductions.
The University of
Grade of Triangulation Duhok
The secondary triangulation consists of
A number of points fixed within the framework of primary triangulation.
The stations are fixed at close intervals so that the sizes of the triangles formed
are smaller than the primary triangulation. The instruments and methods used
are not of the same utmost refinement.
The third-order triangulation consists of
A number of points within the framework of secondary triangulation; and forms
the immediate control for detailed engineering and other surveys.
The sizes of the triangle are small and instrument with moderate precision may
be used.
Specifications The University of
Duhok
First, Second and Third order Triangulation
Specification details 1st order 2nd order 3rd order
1 Average triangle closure; less than 1 second 3 seconds 6 seconds
2 Maximum triangle closure; not more than 3 second 8 second 12 second
3 Length of base line 5 to 15 km 1.5 to 5 km 0.5 to 3 km
4 Length of the sides of triangles 30 to 150 km 8 to 65 km 1.5 to 10 km
5 Actual error of base 1:300,000 1:150,000 1:75,000
6 Probable error of base 1 : 1000,000 1 in 500,000 1 in 250,000
7 Discrepancy between two measurements of a 10 mm 20 mm 25 mm
section.
8 Probable error of computed distance (1 in 60,000 1 in 20,000 1 in 5,000 to
to 1 in to 1 in 1 in 20,000
250,000) 50,000
9 Probable error in astronomic azimuth 0.5 seconds 2 seconds 5 seconds
Triangulation Figures and Layouts
Basic triangulation figures can be:
Polygon with
Triangle Braced quadrilateral central station
The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a number of ways. Some of
the commonly used arrangements, also called layouts, are as follows
Single chain of triangles Double chain of triangles
Triangulation Figures and Layouts cont.
Braced quadrilaterals and Centred triangles and polygons
Braced quadrilaterals Centred triangles and polygons
Layout of Primary Triangulation for Large Countries:
The following two types of frameworks of primary triangulation are provided
for a large country to cover the entire area.
1. Grid iron system , has been adopted in India and other countries like Austria, Spain,
France,etc.
2. Central system, has been adopted in United Kingdom and various other countries
Primary triangulation example
Example: Grid iron system
. Central system
filled by the
secondary and tertiary
triangulation systems
150 to 250 km
Primary triangulation extending in all directions
from the initial triangulation figure ABC, which is series of chains of triangles, which usually runs
generally laid at the center of the country. roughly along meridians (north south) and along
perpendiculars to the meridians (east-west),
throughout the country.
Criteria for Selection of the Layout of Triangles
The following points should be considered while deciding and selecting a suitable
layout of triangles.
1. Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.
2. Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate squares.
3. Centered polygons should be regular.
4. The arrangement should be such that at least one route and preferably two routes
form well conditioned triangles.
5. No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small, whichever end of
the series is used for computation.
6. Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45°, and in the case of
quadrilaterals, no angle should be less than 30°. In the case of centered polygons,
no angle should be less than 40°.
7. The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths. Very long lines and very
short lines should be avoided.
8. As far as possible, complex figures should not involve more than 12 conditions.
It may be noted that if a very small angle of a triangle does not fall opposite the known
side it does not affect the accuracy of triangulation.
Triangulation figures or system The University of
Duhok
A triangulation figure is a group or system of triangles such that any
figure has one side, and only one, common to the preceding and
following figures.
The common figures or system are:
Single chain of triangles.
is used where a narrow strip of terrain is to be covered
not so accurate for primary work
less number of condition
only one route solution
Double chain of triangles
It is used to cover greater area
Double chain of triangles
The University of
Duhok
Central point figures
It gives very satisfactory results in flat country
The centered figures may be quadrilateral, pentagons or hexagons with central stations.
The system provides the desired checks on the computations. However, the progress of
work is slow due to more settings of the instrument
Quadrilaterals.
Forms the best figure, four corners stations and observed diagonal.
Best suited for hilly country. Since the computed lengths of the sides can be carried
through the system by different combinations of sides and angles.
Most accurate system.
The Strength of Figure The University of
Duhok
The strength of figure is a factor to be considered in establishing a triangulation
system to maintain the computations within a desired degree of precision.
It plays also an important role in deciding the layout of a triangulation system.
The expression given for evaluation of the strength of figure, is for the square of
the probable error (L ²) that would occur in the sixth place of the logarithm of any
side, if the computations are carried from a known side through a single chain of
triangles after the net has been adjusted for the side and angle conditions.
4 2
𝐿2 = 𝑑 𝑅 …………………………..(1)
3
where d is the probable error of an observed direction in seconds of arc, and R is a
term which represents the shape of figure. It is given by
𝐷−𝐶
𝑅= 𝛿𝐴2 + 𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐵 + 𝛿𝐵2 ………………………..(2)
𝐷
D = the number of directions observed excluding the known side of the figure,
(Number of new direction observed * 2)-2, except base line
08/11/2017
Strength of Figure cont. The University of
Duhok
δA,δB ,δC = the difference per second in the sixth place of logarithm of the sine of
the distance angles A, B and C, respectively. (Distance angle is the angle in a triangle
opposite to a side),
C - is the number of geometric conditions which is given by
𝐶 = 𝑛′ − 𝑆 ′ + 1 + 𝑛 + 3 − 2𝑆 ……………………(3)
Where:
n: Total number of lines in figures
S: Total number of station in figure Side condition
n′:Total number of lines observed in both direction
S′: Number of occupied station by instrument Angle condition
The part (n' – S' + 1) is called “Angle Condition“ , and the part (n – 2S + 3) is the
“Side Condition“ .
The quantity Σ(δA² + δAδB + δB²) in eq. (3) is a tabulated value. If the computed
value of (R) is less, the strength of figure is more and vice versa
Strength of Figure cont.
The strength of figure is a function of :
1. Geometric strength of the triangles that make up the network (equilateral).
2. Number of stations occupied for angle or direction measurements. (No one
end lines).
3. Number of angle and side conditions used in adjusting the network. (should be
large in proportion to the number of observations).
Geometrical Redundancies
Triangulation gives impressive redundancy when compared with trilateration.
For example, in a simple triangle with all angles measured, one redundant
measurement yields one condition equation or one degree of freedom. Given
the same triangle in trilateration, unless three distances are measured from each
end, there are no redundant measurements.
Quadrilateral Pentagon Hexagon
Number of lines 6 10 15
Number of triangles 4 10 20
Number of triangle used in the computations 3 6 10
Number of check triangles 1 4 10
Number of geometrical conditions in 1 3 6
trilateration
Number of geometrical conditions in 4 9 16
triangulation
Strength of Figures cont. The University of
Duhok
Strength of figure
Figure D C= (n´-S´+1) + DC Geometry of
R
(n+3-2S) D figure
Single Triangle 3*2-2 = 4 C= (3-3+1) + (3+3- 0.75
2*3) = 1
Completed 6*2-2= 10 C= (6-4+1) + (6+3- 0.6
Quadrilateral 2*4) = 4
Three sided central 6*2-2= 10 C= (6-4+1) + (6+3- 0.6
point figure 2*4) = 4
Four sided central 8*2-2= 14 0.64
point figure C= (8-5+1) + (8+3-
2*5) = 5
Four sided central 9*2-2= 16 0.56
point figure with C= (9-5+1) + (9+3-
diagonal observed 2*5) = 7
Five sided central 10*2-2= 18 0.66
point figure C= (10-6+1) + (10
+3-2*6) = 6
Examples
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Example: Compute the value of (R) and (C) for the figures (a), (b),
(c), (d) and (e) as shown below, and most of the lines have been
observed in both directions:
S=8; n= 15; n´=15 ; S´=8
D = 15*2-2=28
C = (n´-S´+1) + (n+3-2S)
C= (15-8+1) + (15+3-2*8) = 10 Figure (a)
R= (D – C)/D = (28-10)/28 = 0.64
Examples cont.
S=7; n= 11; n´=9 ; S´=6
D = (11*2) -2 - 2=18
C = (n´-S´+1) + (n+3-2S)
C= (9-6+1) + (11+3-2*7) = 4
R= (D-C)/D = (18-4)/18 = 0.778 Figure (b)
S=7; n= 13; n´=10 ; S´=7
D = (13*2) -3-2=21
C = (n´-S´+1) + (n+3-2S)
C= (10-7+1) + (13+3-2*7) = 6
R= D-C/D = 21-6/21 = 0.714 Figure (c)
Example cont. The University of
Duhok
S=7; n= 13; n´=11 ; S´=7
C = (n´-S´+1) + (n+3-2S)
C= (11-7+1) + (13+3-2*7) = 7
R= (D-C)/D = (22-7)/22 = 0.68
S=10 n =19 , n´=19 ; S´=10 Figure (d)
D = 19*2-2=36
C = (n´-nʺ+1) + (n+3-2S)
C= (19-10+1) + (19+3-2*10) = 12
R= D-C/D = 36-12/36 = 0.667
n= total number of lines;
n´= no. of lines observed in both direction;
S´= no. of occupied stations Figure (e)
S= total number of station
Example
𝐷−𝐶
Example: compute the value of for the triangulation nets shown in the
𝐶
figure a-d. The direction observed are shown by arrows
Error in side
Strength of figure (R) is one of a component consisting of
the limits of the law of propagation errors, which are
represented by the following formula.
𝜎𝑠2 = 𝜎𝑏2 + 𝑅 𝜎𝛼
𝜎𝑠2 : error in the computed side
𝜎𝑏2 : the amount of error in base line
𝑅:strength of figure enter to the law of propagation errors
𝜎𝛼 : Accuracy of measured angles
Error in side cont.
The logarithmic formula to convert the previous equation into a numerical
equation.
2 2 4 2 𝑖=𝑛 2 2
𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠 = 𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 × 3 𝜎𝛼 𝑖=1 𝛿𝐴1 + 𝛿𝐴1 𝛿𝐵1 + 𝛿𝐵1
𝛿𝐴 = log 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 + 1″ − log 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴
𝛿𝐵 = log 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 + 1″ − log 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
2
𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 =0
The logarithm form uses for propagation error
2 4 2 𝑛 2 2
𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠 = 3 𝜎𝛼 𝑖=1 𝛿𝐴1 + 𝛿𝐴1 𝛿𝐵1 + 𝛿𝐵1
2 𝐷−𝐶 2
𝜎 = 𝜎𝛼
𝐷
4 𝐷−𝐶
2
𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠 = 3 𝜎𝛼2 × 𝐷 × 𝑛𝑖=1 𝛿𝐴12
+ 𝛿𝐴1 𝛿𝐵1 2
+ 𝛿𝐵1
The above equation used only for braced quadrilateral
Error in side cont.
Error in side.
Rewrite the propagation error
𝛿𝑠2 = 𝛿𝑏2 + 𝑅 𝛿𝛼
Error in side= error in base line + sum of strength of figures
* error in angle.
Note: error in base line very small can be neglected, 𝛿𝑏 = 0
𝛿𝑠2 = 𝑅 𝛿𝛼
Accuracy depend on the strength of figures
𝜕𝑓 2 2 𝜕𝑓 2 2
𝛿𝑠 = 𝜎𝛼 + 𝜎𝛽
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛽
Computation
Condition side
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴1 B3
𝑐 = 𝑏. A1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴2 b B1 A3
𝑑 = 𝑐. →𝑑 =𝑏× × c e
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴3 d
𝑒 = 𝑑.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵3 A2 B2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴3
𝑒=𝑏× × ×
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵3
𝛿 𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑒′
𝛿𝑒 𝑒−𝑒′
= should not be more than 1/25000 for 1st order
𝑒′ 𝑒′
𝛿𝑒 𝛿 log 𝑒
Error in side = ;𝑀 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔, 𝑀 = 434294.482
𝑒′ 𝑀.106
𝐷−𝐶
𝛿 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 𝛿 2 𝛼. 𝛿12 +𝛿1 𝛿2 +𝛿 2
𝐷
𝛿𝑒 𝛿 log 𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑒′ 0.434300
Strength of figures
For calculate strength of figure for a series of triangle, e.g for chain of
triangle
4
𝑄 = 𝛿𝐴2 + 𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐵 + 𝛿𝐵2 ; 𝑅 ′ = 𝛿𝐴2 + 𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐵 + 𝛿𝐵2
3
𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠 = 𝛿𝛼 𝑄
4
𝑄 = 𝑅′
3
For calculate strength of figure For a chain of quadrilateral
4 𝐷−𝐶
𝑄= 𝛿𝐴2 + 𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐵 + 𝛿𝐵2
3 𝐷
For quadrilateral shape only the equation will be
𝑄 = 0.8 ∗ 𝑅′
If the series of shape with central point figure
𝑄 = 0.9 ∗ 𝑅′
Example
Compute the strength and relative error of last side in triangulation chain when
the mean error of direction 𝜎𝛼 = ∓0.5″
Triangle R′ 4 1 3 7
𝑄 = 𝑅′ 5
3 2 4 6 8
1 5.0 6.6
2 7.0 9.9
3 7.8 10.4 𝜎 2 log 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜎𝛼2 × 𝑄 = 𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑛 = 𝜎𝛼 𝑄
4 4.0 5.3
𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑛 = 0.5″ 52.4
5 4.0 5.3 𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑛 = ∓3.6
6 4.2 5.6 in a unit of six decimal place of logarithm
7 4.0 5.3 𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑛 3.6 1
𝑅. 𝐸 = = ∓ =
𝑀. 106 0.434300 × 106 120 000
8 3.8 4.0 3.6
3.6 = 1
∑Q=52.4
434300 120 000
3.6
Example
Example: If the probable error of direction measurement is
1.20", compute the maximum value of R for the desired maximum
probable error of (i) 1 in 20,000 and (ii) 1 in 10,000.
4
𝐿2 = 𝑑 2 𝑅 ; d= 1.20″
3
1
𝐿 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 6𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 log 1 ±
20 000
= the 6th place in log ( (1± 0.00005)
log (1 + 0.00005) = 0.0000217
The 6th decimal place in the log value = 21; L =± 21
3𝐿2 3 212
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = × 1.22
= 230
4𝑑 2 4
By the same way for 1: 10 000
3 432
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × 1.22 = 963
4
Accuracy of Triangulation
Errors are inevitable and, therefore, in spite of all precautions the errors get
accumulated. The following formula for root mean square error may be used.
The following formula for root mean square error may be used.
𝐸2
𝑅𝑀𝑆𝐸 =
3𝑛
Where
RMES = the root mean square error of unadjusted horizontal angles in seconds of arc
as obtained from the triangular errors,
ΣE = the sum of the squares of all the triangular errors in the triangulation series, and
n =the total number of triangles in the series
It may be noted that:
(i) All the triangles have been included in the computations,
(ii) All the four triangles of a braced quadrilateral have been included in the
computations.
(iii) If the average triangular error of the series is 8", probable error in latitudes and
departures after a distance of 100 km, is approximately 8 m.
Accuracy of triangulation cont.
If the triangulation network contains n triangle the error in
the entire network will be
𝑉2
𝑀𝐼𝐼 = ∓ ; MII is accumulative and random error
3𝑛
The amount of accumulative error in the whole network
𝐶 = 𝑀𝐼𝐼2 − 𝑀𝐼2
The median error in the whole net
𝑉𝑉
𝑀𝐼𝐼𝐼 = ∓ ; where r number of condition
𝑟
MI <MII <MIII
