7-1. ELP;CTRONIC DIS.

TAN-CE MEASJmBMEN'l' •·

The. ·deyelopmen·~ of. ·[Link] distance mea·s1:1rement (E[)}1)

~as pr,ovided a sign_if .i <:ant _advc1nce · in surveying inst:1n,1me.n ...
~~~ion ~nd techn~g~es. These · elec~roni~ in~~ruments all~~~
.rapi'd . ard .a .c curate d~term1nation \ of · l1n~ar ·, · distances I

~orizo~tal and · vertical _ang~es suita~le eve? _~or . larg;

~xten~ surveys requirlrtg higher . orders of prec1s1on. ·

1. Basic Pri_n ciple. Linear meas~remei:ts .. determined -PY

. tDM instr~ments ~r~ . b~sed on the basic pr1nc1ple that the
time~required for a radio or li_.g·ht wave to travel : from one
end cJ f a 1 i n e to the .other is
,a· f uric t: i on o f the length me a_
sured- (Fig . 7-1) . n
A· ·EDM method .requires a very careful
measuremerrt in determin_fng the inte t val o f time - between
emission al')d reception of ' t ·he transmitted wave . Th~ product
of \ - the ·velocity of the trahsmi'tted wave and . the elapsed
time· defines the length of the l i ne measured .
. .
Re f ie ctor ----...

Trace of
Modu l a ted/[Link]
Light s,am

[Link]-Optical
~ ~ ~~ ---....!•~ E OM Ins tt i.J men t
( wl . Transmitter a Receive r )

Fig . 7- 1. _Typical EVM IEh~.tJr.o-Opticatl ~4t<lJn. eon~[Link] .

2 . Classification . Modtrn innovations and discbve r ies

in science~ · particularly electroz:iics and -physics; ied to
the development of el~ctronic distance measuring instru~ .
mehts which · are now extremely valuabl·e to ·the surveyor . ·
These instrwnents allow very precis~ a nd ac-curate· measure.:.
ments of distance [Link] satisfy a host of applications in
the tield of surveying and eng-ineering . A system o~ .
classifying EDM instruments 1s by wavelength of transmitted
electromagnetic [Link]; · the following are the two • catego-
MC,UVft~NCNr 0,-
1 66 __. - - HORIZ0NrAL DISTANCD
 r ies:

a) Electro -Optic al Instruments. These are the type

of instrum ents wh~ch transm it wavele ngths' ·within or slight.:. .
lY beyond th~ vis ible regi6n at the spectru m. The earlie r
models used mercur y oi tungste n la~ps and only had sh6rt
operati ng -ranges especi all~·at daytim e becaus~ of. excess ive
atmosp h~ric scatte r of th is inc6he re nt light. Also, these
model s were no.t very portab l e ; being bulky, . they require · a
larger po we r source .
The newer models now use modul~ ted laser or · irifrare d
1 igh t which per mi ts measu [Link] ts at longer distan ces even
during daytime . Thes e models are much s mal ler in size and
are highly portab le . Some models weigh less than 1 Kg and
corild be mounted ea~ily, on a t he odolite . ,The .use o f infra~
red 1-i g ht a s a source of radiati bn has g~in~~ wide accep -
ta nce since its intens ity can . be direct ly modula ted . Also ,.
this has . cons:d er~bly [Link] th~ use of · EDM . instru -
ments , and allo11•s .'e xtreme l}' precise measur ement ·, of angles
and distanc es within a single set up.
b) . Hicrov ave Instrum ents. This type of EDM i n stru-
ment transm its microw aves corresp onding to wavele ngths of
abo u t 1 . 0 to 8 . 6 mm. Its measur ing range is compa rativel y
lo n g arid cah operate e~en during .a dri~zle orJfog . A mic-
r _o wave system consis ts'"" of two identic al units whi,ch basi-
cally include s a transm itter and a receiv er. During mea-
s u rement , one unit functio ns in the "maste r_" mode, the
other in the "[Link] " mode. By simple switch ing, any uni t
may be operate d on either mode. I, ,

The accesso rie~ include an antenna e and~ built - in com-

munica tion s~stem i An operato r is ·needed ~teac h end of
the line to be measu red . Si nce a set of· readi~ gs .is take n
at either end wh i le using the instrum ent in its ma~ter
moa ·e , · it· allows two indep e ndent measu~ ements along a li n-e
wh ic h serves as a valu a ble c h ec k .
3. Advant ages and Disadv antages . When EDM instr ument s·
wer e · f irs,t int r oduced these d e vices were quite bulky an d-
h~avy, aside from being v ery expens ive. Measur ing prqce -
dures then were lengthy and math e matica l reduc~ ions to ob-
ta·rn horizo ntal dista nces from obser ved v al ues were diffi ~
cult and time consum ing. Non e of ~hese. i6stru~ ~nts was
[Link] ed t6 be u s e d for simulta neousl y m~sur ing. the length
and directi on of a line .
The develop ment of small light emittin g diodes sometim e
in 1965 greatly - improve d the design of earlie r EDM i nstru-
ments. Li ght-wav e ·. instrum ents were· also furthe r · irr,prove d
when coheren t. la ser light wc1s· incorp orated in'to it. 'lliere
is no· doubt that EDM instr umen ts have revolu tionize d many
surveyi ng proced ures and that the y have ~lso gain e d accep-
tanc e wor ldwid e. Th e followi ng are some of th e sign ifican t
advanta ge s of the newer mod e l s of EDM instrum ents:

~ ) Speed and accurac y in meas uremen t

 JIii
I
!

Fig . 7- 24. KI E [Link] II j

l
~
i
I
I
!
IK<~~~ d I
I
S) _RANG£MA
_ STER II I

. . M) I
•
•O E
:[lmt•: ~ ..

...
Fig. 7-2b . K 6 E u..ic-to~angu Il
______________________________
F41.
________
7- 'lc. . Will 0 120 Vuto,m,t a.,u1 [Link] ,
_.:_

...: R ·11u:A s u RE1>,'C/of r oF

· - ~ •-: - HORIZON~ C,!SrANCE$
 f'-9• 7-Zd. [Link] GTS-t fig. 7- t e. . [Link]-t on Digital
E~01&,ic flutance. ~
[Link]<119 I ~

fig. 7- 26 . Tope.o n ET~ l

[Link] [Link] S-ta..uon.

•
 b) Lightweight ar.d portable
c) Low power requirement ·
d) Easy to oper~te .
e) Ease in measurement pver inaccessible terrain
f) Appl icable to the measurement of short and 1 · ·
0
lengths ng
g) Automatically measures displays and record
slope range, azi~uth, ver-tical angle, horizon/:.
dis ta nee, departure, and latitude ql
h) Slope measurements are internally reduced t
horizontal and vertical components by built .01
computers thereby eliminating the need to
late these values
ca1~~~'.
i) Automatically accumulates, 'a nd averages reading
for slope range, horizontal _a nd vertical angles. 1

•
'
4. Uses . EDM in strume n ts
are now used · for determinin
linear measl.1 rements required in traversing, · engineerinq
constructions, optical t _oolinq, triangul~tion, trilatera~
tion, and Viir ious other tasks where l?recise measurements 01
layout s are n_eeded. They are extremely useful in measu_rinQ
distances over tough and rugged terrain which are difficul t
to access, or where conventional t _a ping methods would be,
impr actical.
5 . Operating Ranges. The operating .ranges of EDM ins-
t ruments vary significantly . They may be classified accor-
ding ly as short, medium., or long range·. When the rneasurinq
capabi 1 i ty does not exceed 2 5 km, the device · may be classi-
fied in to the. short range 1 group . In th is clas~ if ication\
most of th.e ins . . ruments are of the electro-optical type
al though some use infrared 1 ight . Short range · instruments
are usually mounted on theodo 1 i tes. They are sma 11, 1 ight.l
weight, portable, and easy to operate. Such inst1;uments are
~ighly suitable· for conventional surveying measurements and
are now widely used by surveyors , engineers, architects,!
and builders. I
In the medium range group, EDM instruments are· capable.
of measu ring lengths up to ab0ut 75 km. The i nstruments ar e
either the microwave or electro-optical (some using laser
ligh t ) type. These instruments are now frequently used 1n
• I

precise geodetic measurement~ such as those required int~

establishment of control networks . They are also suitable:
for land surveys and in en~ineering construction surveys. l
Long range EDM instruments are employed in the measure·,
ment of lines longer than 75 km. · Instruments in this grour
operat e by transmitting. radio waves. There are also som~
[Link] employ ·..ii crowaves . They are use? pr ii:nar i ly i n hyd!\
graphic surveys, for measurements required 1 n oceanograpn t
~ork, as wel l as in n avigation .

1 -7.~ G&ODIKETER.

';.'h~ geodimeter is an a c~onym for geod etic dist a n ce !';•" :e>

t
 rt i s an e lectro - optica l · device whi-c h was - d eveloped , in ·. 1948
bY Erik Bergstr a nd, _a Swedish . physici s t. I The devicE!
r esu l ~ed from _atte mp~s to improve methc;>ds f or mea su r ing t he
ve·1_0 ~1t y _o f 1 -~ ght . The geodime ter , whi c h _is set u p a t o ne'
stat i on ,_ proJects ,_ a pu lsati11g vis i ble lig ht b ea:m to a
reflec-t;or (at ano t her ;> tat i on) which returns the light to
the instrume nt. , I ts · us e . ,i s based u p pn t he k·nowr{ veloc.\tY of
li~h~. Th e te c h ? o-l o9y de v el o p ed · f or -t hi s ~ys·tem ma kes ·
p os•1ble a c ompa r iso n betwee n t he .t ransmit ted ~nd £eflecte d
[Link] t -suc h that ' the time required fo r - the · 1ight beam · t o
make • i its r e t urn to the instrume nt is d ete-r m i n e d . I n some
_·mode:Ps , ' t he -~ max i mµm range varies from 5 to r
- o k m d u ring.
da y time and u p t o abo~t 2 5 to 30 km ~t . night ime .
: The measurab le range usually depends on at mos pher i c
coridit ions . The precisio n of measurem ent attai na b le ' ,i.s
about 1 /20 0 ~ 000 of the dist~nce . tt i~ impoitan t 'that th e
sta t ions are . interVis ibJe and that a cl~ar l ine of s ight
exists .

7.:..3 . TELLUROtfETRR.
. .

In 1957 , Dr . T.L . Wadley of South Africa, announce d h is

inventior i · of the tellurom eter which was to be the world'~
second EDM · instrume nt. The telluro·m eter utiliz~d hi:g_h
frequenc y · mictbwav e - ~ransmi ssion and was capable of
measurin g distance s up to 80 km day or night. · It consiste d
of two inteicha ngeable 13-kg units, one being set-up on
each end ~f the line to be measured . A. seiies ~£ r adi~
waves is transmit ted by one of. the units toward a receiver
set up• o~er the other end of the line. The impu~ses
gerierat~ d during transmi~ sion are run t~rough the circuitr y
of the - re~eivin g unit and are transmit ted back ~o the
sending unit. Since di~tance s are computed on . the basis of
the velocity of radio waves, · it requires an accurate
-. measurem ent of the total time taken by the impulse t o
·tra~~l from one station t6 another and . back. · The rec6rd ed
time is·indic ated on tlie control panel·of the t-ransmi tt ing
un i t . 1

, It takes about 30 minutes to set up the . tellurom eter

( '

and undertak e a measurem ent. During ~easurem ent it must b e

s ee n to it that ·the line of sight bet~een the two stat ion~
mus t be unobstrJ cted. A distinct advantag e of t hi ~
in~t r ument is that observat ions can b~ made on rai n~d a ys ,
durin g a f o g , or other ·unfavor~ ble w~ather conditi on s . Th e
t e ll ur ome·te r · system ca11 be expected to attai n a [Link] i s i on
o f 1/300, 0 00 unde r favor'abl
_ e co nditio h s .

7 :... 4 . _HEASURI-H G_ TAPES .

Measurin g t a pes ar e ma d e in a v ari ety of le Dgt h s , mate -

rials, a nd · we i ght s • They are als o g ra d ua ted in several
ways . Gradua t ion marks · a n d , numbe rs are either etcned ,
stamped, or printed' on th e t ape . 'l' he f ollo wing are . some . of

AIF.A S UR£111£NT
H OltlZONr,AL
o, _
Dl 6 r ANCG _ _ 71I
...i...i_
 the . co• onl y us·e d type s of aeas ur i ng t apes
\· .:
1 . . ~tee l ,Tap e: . -~ s te·e l ta~e . ( Fig ~ 7- 3),. als
'. s urve y or ' s o r · ~n g _1 .~ee r ' s · tape , · _1. s made . o o _known ~ •.
f a r [Link] n . of stee l .
0._5 · to -1:•l.' c m 1n wid th , · a nd weig hs O. ~ to
1,. 5 ,k g .pe r 30 Ille,
• .ter s.- . · Leng ths of 1 0, 20, 30 , ·so, :and 1 00
mete rs a re , ava il,
·abl e:· :~~e" 3 0~m . t ape ': i s mo st ~ ommp n. Us uall y stee
VQU n~ on . a r~e l , o;r d o n e u p 1.n loo
l _ ·tape s ate \
ps abou t 2 mete r s _ long t Q ,
~ke ~ figu re 8. Ste e l t apes a r e d es igne d · for - mos t conv e n.,
t i ona l · Jileas ul:.eine n ts i n ' sur v e ying and e n g i nee
ring wo r k .

R•volvino Lever ·
Tape Reel

. ii
Lecit~~! Th~ng
Wooden Handle ~-__ ,.

2 . Met alli c Tap e. Me ta\l ic t apes are

wov en tape s. · T}\e y are made of wate r - proo f som etim e~ cal led
line n fab ric · i nt o
whic h are wo'v en long i tud ina lly s mal l bras
s, . copp er , or
bron ~e wi;t: es to . incr eas e its str eng th and
redu ce stJ: etch -
ing ~ Met al-li e _\ape s a r ~ usuc;1~l y 30 or: 50
met ers 1:on g, 10 to
1. 5 .. mm_ wid e, and c:;:ome in · e ncl osed r ee l s.
_pa~ ly to« mea suri ng ·sho rt dis tanc e.s in l
~ps , e~rt bwo rk cros s sect i on i ng,
It is used .
oca ting det ails for
.
[Link] cl -
and for othe r mea sure -
men ts . whe re .a ligh t and flex i bl e t ape is
des irab l.e. Th is ,
type of . tape is uns uita ble for prec ise
11 mea sure men ts ,and
u sho uld not be used arou nd ele ctri cal i nsta llat ion
} · j'. Non -Net al_lic Tap e. Is a type of . tape wov en s.
£~om - se-
l ecte d _ syn thet ic mat eria ls with stro ng
dim ensi ona l sta\ )i~
li ty. The tape is in turt i coa ted with a
redu ce the effe cts of moi stur e, hu_mid_ity,
pl~ stic mat eria i to
and ·abr as•i on.
Non -me tall ic tape s are . safe to ·use vh,
e ~ woi: k\ng a tQ~n d
e l ect rica l - inst a l lati ons or · fpr , any type
of . wprk whe re a
met a ll i c tape wo u l d be unsu i-tabl e . · .,
4 . Inva r · Tap e. A spe cial tape made of
an. a l l oy of
. n \ck ~ l ( 35% } a nd stee l ( 65% ) wit h~- very
~ ow coe f fici e nt of
t herm. al e x pan s ion ( 1/ 3 0 to 1/60 tha t of
.
nam e was . d er ive d f i;; o m the- word "i nvar iabl
. less a ·f fec t e d by ,tem p e r atQ re chan ges t han
a stee l ·tap e ). Its
.
e" · s ince i t 1s
. .
i n a stee i tape .
~

IL72 .'
,;~·- -•· ME AS/HfEI IEIIT OF .
IIOllf!OII TIII. DIU MI&#
·r,nvar, tapes are u s ed o n ly f o r p re c i s e .-meas ure me nt s
the le n in
k an d f o r c h eck i n g
ge ode t ic wor o f oth e r kin ds of
are abo ut ten t 1. me s a. s ·e gth · .
t ape . Th ey . .
r t .
xp · iv~
en s as ord i nar y
ste el tap es. The uae ~ f inva
sin ce ·th e ~ll oy isa ::: tw ill req uir e ve! y c ar e-
fdl han dl ~ng
ts . a nd som e wh at un sta ble .
t~ is a ~in d of t a pe .wh ich ge t
11
pe e~ s i ,Y _ber :t and da ma g~d
. .
·5 . Lov ar Tap e ." A new er
.b eo t me a _s.tur ing tap e con wh ich has
rop e~ tie s arid c"os ts ·s om ew he: e . wee n . . ho . s e of . ven io-
t ·
P . 1 ta p es a nd the inv ar t a pe. .
nal s tee .: -
6 .. Fi ber g1 las s· ta Tap e . Th is ta p e . is ma d e b Y we· av i· ng f1b er -
· in a · · · . tte rn . . The are
g 1a s s • · o n g ~ u ·!n al a?d · tr a n s ver sek pa .
str ong a· n4 fl e xib.l e. . a nd· wi ll no t ~h rin · or· · s t re tch aY ppr e - .
h · A · fib er-
. 1 t h. ~ an ges 1n_ tem p era t ur e a nd hum id i ty .
ci a blY -~ e lec -
15 bes t sui t ed f or use in the vi c ini ty of
g l ~ss t a p ~ , • . ·
tri ca l equ i p me n t . d ·
n fl a t ste e l t ap es we re . pro d uc e,
1. · Vir e s· . .t·Be for e thi . . .
· i · uri n g l e ng t hs .- _Th e y·a re st ill
w1i ;es_ · we re u 1 1ze d ~ in me a s in hyd ro& ra p hic
p r a c t ica l . t o us e 1 n . spe ci ~l c ase s . as
sur veys. 0

ha vin g . sma l l er c r o s s sec -

· i ~ Bu ild er· •s Tape . Are tap e_st .th a n t he e ng i n e ~ r, 5 • tap e .
tio ns . and · ar e lig hte r ,i .n we
igh
s
h t ape s ,are gra du ate d to su,i t com mo nly us e d d'im .ens ion
Suc · ' ·
in bui ld ing ·c on str uct ior i . ·
rus t-p r o of t a p e d esi g ned for
· 9 .. Ph osp hor ~B ron ze Ta ~ · A
ter . ·
use . i n the . v i cin ity · of sa lt wa
"' Ls ·a f l exi bI'e c rac k- r es i s ·-
10 ~ ,Ny lon -co ate d ·St eel . Ta pe. d .
coa tin g of per ma n e ntl y bon d e
tan t . ste.e l . cor e ta p e wit h a to
des ign ~d to ·be r es i sta n t
non - cor idu cti ng nyl o n ~ It is t. ·
co rro sio n and is imm une t o rus

7-5 . TAPING ACCESSORIES . ~. .

ess or f es .us ed i n tap i ng
The fol l ow ing are the dif fer en t acc
wor k .
are als o
- 1. Ran ge Po le . Ran ge _ p ole s (Fi g. 7-'4 a ), . wh ich
fla gs or 1 i ni'n g rod s, are · . use d .. ~s t e mQ or~ r y
kno wn as
on of po int s or th e ,' dir e t:: ti 0n
sig nal s to ind ica te the loc ati r ,
· lin es , ~ and to ma rk ali gnm ent ~. The ~ are eit h er cir cu1 a
of
ss sec tid n a n d · wit h .o n e . end ·
~e x~g ona 1, · or oct ago nal in cro
is 2 . 0 or 3 . 0 me ter s and · i t
p o int ed . .The usu al len gth us,e d les are
may be .• mad e of wo od, me tal , or fib erg las s . Ra nge . po
ate red a n d . wh i t e se c t ion s 30
ina rke d or pai nte d wit h alt ern · for a ppr ox i ma te mea sur e -
d
• ~ 50 c m l .ong •wh ich can be use · . .
men t s . ·· ·
t h i ts sci ss or :-~pe han dle ,
. 2 . Ta ~ Cla mp ing Ham ~ie s . Wi
c lam ps ( F i g . 7- 4b) a r e use d t q a ppl y t e n s io n wi t h a
t ape ca u s ing
a ste e l t a~e ~it hou f
qu ick g r ip o ri a n y .pa r t o f
of t h e t ape ma n.. .1'L s 1 i gh t b~ nd
d am age to t he t~p e o r ha nds ed
l t i f a tap e is h e l d and pu ll
or k ink - on t h e - tap e may res u t a pe
Onc e pro d uc e d , t h e~e kin k s on the
~it ho ut a cla mp. • • ·
ou t .
can not b e eas i l y str a i g h te ned 7~4 c) a r e, som e -
ins ( Fig .
3 .. Ch ain ing P ins . Cha i ni.n g p.
· ilc-4 s1111c~ cNr ·o, 73
l«MtZ Ofl!TA!. D1Sfl4" 1<%S --l!IL 1....: :!..... J1
 • l
I

i'

Id
Ck.(A u.g Pou

~ I " • '# A ,;-•_fs t~

It. I
T~ Tht.U10met.t..t

l
•

j
I
f
ld)

• i Ttl\.6< 011 [Link].

I~l
,-~ [Link] &ob
rY,
, ~' I ,
l I l
tl l ' . 1

\~~,
' r

' ~
la I
Pol.I.
' lgl
llocd tit Stak t O.-t Hub
lhl
l [Link]..t TS.oJ194
ti mes caJled surveyor ' s arrows or taping pins . They are
s tuck i ,n the ?round ·' to ma r k t h e ends of measured ta pe
1e ngthl:\ or partial t ape l engths,. and may · also be u sed in
place of wdod e n hubs or stakes. Most pins are ma'ae of heavy
wire about 30 cm lo~g, ~re pointed at one· end, have a ro~nd
1oop at t h e other e nd, a n~ pa int~d with alternat e red and
white b a n~ s . Se t .s of e leven pins c a rried on a steel ring or
loop are sta nda rd. ·
•
4 . Tens i o n Hand le : This device, which is also referred
to a s a spring sca le, is used. a t one end . of a · tape ·f oi: in -
suring the,, a p-plicatio n o f the corr e ct amount of pull on the _
ta pe during me asur e ment. Th e s p r i ng baiance is attached
be t we en t he ha n d le a nd t he, t ape , a nd a clip is fitted to,
the . end . rin g bf t;tie tape . Te n si on handles ( F ig . 7-4d) are
only use ~ i n p r e c i s i on ta p ing . The y are u sua ll y di spe nsed
wi t h in measur i n g dista n ce s req u ir i n g o r dinary preci ~ ion . .
• · 5 . Tape TherlllOmeter . I n pre ci s i on ta p ing , thermome ter s
ar e u s e d t o .d etermine the te mpe r at ur e o f th e a i r and the
appr o x imate temp·e rature o f t h e tape d u r ing me a sureme nt !
Th o se use d in the field . are ab ou t 10 t o 1 5 c m l ong , and ar~
us~all y gr aduated from -30 degrees ce n tigrad e to +50 d eg -
r e es c ent i grade in 2-degree or 5-degree div i ~ ions . It · i~
f a ste n ~d to the tap~ by me~ns .6£ clips (F i ~.
1
7 - 4e ) a nd . i s
kept i n a p r otect iv~ metal case when n ot i n u s e . .
6 . Plumb . Bob . In taping•, plumb bobs are use d - _ f o r _p·r-o -
j e c ti n g the tape ends to the grou n d when the tape mu s t . be
suspended above the meas u red l ine . Pl umb bobs ( Fig . 7- f f )
use d s'hould weigh at . least 0 . 2 5 kg and must be atta c h ed to
a l . 5~ m long string or c ord which is free o f k no ts . T hey
a r e mtde of bronze with a p o inted end which co u ld b e •un-
screwed for replacem ent. .
1. Wooden Stake or Hub. st' a kes or h u bs (Fig . 7 -4 g ) . a r e
made of 5 cm ~ 5 cm by 30 cm wood to ·· mark points , coi: n ers,.
o r stations on the ground . These ~emporar y markers •a•e r e -
q u ired in staking out a building or structur e, runn ing the
ce n ter l ine of a proposed road , and in staki n g out a n y line .
or g r ade . The top of the hub is usuall~ mar ke d b~'dr iving ·
a n a i l or tack i nto its center .
8 . Leather Thongs. A leather tho n g (Fi~.
..
7-4h ) i s . a t . - ·
_/

t a che d to a ring located near the zero-met er ma rk o f . the

t ape to p ro vide a comforta ble grip on the . tape wh e n mea su -
ring. ~
9 . Hand Level and Clinomet er. The h and le v e l a nd ~lino -
mete r ( F1 g . 7-5 ) is usually~ 1 5-:crn lo n g device which
c o nsis t s o f a · metal sigpting tube wit h a l e v e l b ubble . At
one e nd t he tu b e hai~ . .~ee? s i ght 6pe n i n g f or v iew ing a
sight e d on j e ct . A hori~ont al l i ne of sig h t i s e sta blished
if th e bu b bl e i s c e nt e r ed wh ile si gh ti ng. through the tuf:-.e .
It . i s us e.d to k eep t he t ape e nd s at e qu a l e le va t ion s wh e.n
me asuring ove r r .ugge d t err a in, i n .a p p roximate ly determin ing
diff e r e nc e in e le v at ion of p oints , ana i n -other f ield
operation s whe re i t is r e quir e d to produce a level sigQt .
.
The clinomet er is s imply a hand l e vel adapted for meas~ ri ng
 . is add ed upo n . ·whi c h
ve~ tic: al · ang le$ . ~ ~ . vei: t .i cal cir cle
be rea·d. - It giv es the value of the
slop e , in
ang les, may and rise ~or fa ll) er
~_
·term s <>·f a-rc .· mea sure , per cen t gra de, ,
hor i~o nta l run- .
Fig. 1-5. ,HaNf ·leve. l ·aNf [Link].w .

Leve l · Viol Verti cal Scale

and Vern ier

Bross Tube -

~lam p

take n
Kit . A tape rep air kit sho uld be
10 . rap e R~p air
qn is to be perf orm ed
alo ng whe n an ext ens ive tap ing ope rati to
w eme rgen cy rep airs
at rem ote are as.· The se kits wil l allo
A kit usu ally con tai~ s
be mad e on dam aged or brok en tape s .
flux and are plat ed
slee ve spl ice s · coa ted . with sold er and The spl ice is
tap e.
oye r the two par ts or end s of a brok en
lets by m~a ns of a
ham mer ed dow n and fast ene d with eyet of ·the kit .
pun che r and riv ete r whi ch are also par in surv eyin g are.
· 11.. · Cra yon s ·. . Mar king cray ons used
usu ally lum ber cray ons . The y are ab out 10 cm long and are
hex agi nal in cro ss sec tion . Blu e, yell ow, and red are the
cray ons are not ava il-
pre dom inan tly used col ors . If l umb er sub st'i tute .
abl e, whi te or col ore d cha lk may be used as 9 cor ner s or
poi nts ,
Cra yon s · or cha lk are used for ma r king side -
pav ed_ roa ds,
sta tion s by fnd icat ing cro ss mar ks on
wal k~ -, or wal ls. -

76
ILL~ =--a •
IIE'ASV POICNT OF
ltORl,IO ltrAL t::STANC £S