DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Basic Electronics Lab Manual

B.Tech 1st Year (UEC21P10)

National Institute of Technology, Agartala

P.O.: Former Tripura Engineering College
Barjala, Jirania, TRIPURA (W)
Pin: 799046
Sl.No. CONTENTS PAGE
No.
1. PEOs
2. POs
3. Course Overview

4. Course Outcomes
3. General Guidelines & Safety instructions
EXPERIMENTS
1. • Identification, specifications, testing of R, L, C components (Color Codes),
potentiometers, switches (SPDT, DPDT and DIP), coils, Gang condensers,
relays, bread boards, PCBs, identification, specifications and testing of active
devices, diodes, BJTs, Low power JFETs, MOSFETs, power transistors, LEDs,
LCDs, optoelectronic devices, SCR, UJT,DIACs.

• Familiarization of various equipments –DSO, SIGNAL GENERATOR, DIGITAL

MULTIMETER, DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

2. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of PN Junction Diode and Zener Diode and find
out

• Cut-in Voltage for P-N Junction diode.

• Static and dynamic resistances for P-N Junction diode.

• Breakdown voltage for Zener Diode

3. To study Rectifier Circuits with and without filters and calculate:

• Ripple Factor
• Efficiency
• PIV

4. To study
• Positive and negative biased clipper (STUDENTS CAN CARRY OUT EITHER
POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE BIASED CLIPPER)
• Positive clamper circuits.

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5. To study Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
• By varying load resistance by keeping input voltage constant (load
regulation).
• By Varying input voltage by keeping load resistance constant (line regulation

6. To study the input and output characteristics of a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) in
Common Emitter mode and determine transistor parameters.

7. To study the following linear applications of op-amp

• Inverting amplifier
• Non – inverting amplifier

8. To study the following linear applications of op-amp

• Summing Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier

9. To verify the operation of all Logic gates: OR gate, AND gate, NOT gate, NOR gate,
NAND gate and Ex-OR gate

10. Implementation of the Given Boolean Function using Logic Gates

• S= ABC
• C= A.B + A.C + B.C
• M=A’B’I0+A’BI1+A B’I2+ABI3

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 Program Educational Objective(s)

After graduation and few years of graduation, the Electronics & Telecommunication

Engineering graduates would

PEO 1 Core Competency: Graduates will provide engineering solutions with strong base of

science and mathematics, subject domain knowledge for challenging problems in

Electronics and allied disciplines.

PEO 2 Career Building: Graduates will fulfill professional responsibilities effectively by

synergizing theoretical and practical skills.

PEO 3 Technical Proficiency: Graduates will practice analytical, creative, innovative skills

for higher education, research, industrial development.

PEO 4 Managerial Skills: Graduates will perform cohesively in group using moral, ethical

practice, managerial, entrepreneurial skills for welfare of society with global outlook.

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Programme Outcomes (PO’s)

Programme Outcomes describe what students are expected to know or be able to do by the time
of graduation from the programme. The POs for Under Graduate Course in Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering are able to

1. Apply knowledge of mathematics, science and technical fundamentals for solutions of

domain problems
2. Identify, formulate, review the literature, and analyze the complex engineering problems

3. Design and implement the systems‟ components and processes serving the needs of
safety, environment and society

4. Perform experiment, analyze and interpret results

5. Use modern tools and technical skills necessary for electronic system development

6. Understand the impact of electronics in modern era

7. Explore the needs of society for sustainable development and human values

8. Understand professional, ethical and legal responsibilities

9. Work effectively in diverse and multidisciplinary tasks, to accomplish common goal

10. Communicate effectively

11. Engage in continuing educational / professional, entrepreneurship development

12. Apply electronics engineering and management principles / skills, as a member and leader
in a team to solve social and industrial problems

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Course Overview:

This course provides the basic knowledge over the construction and functionality of the basic
electronic devices such as diodes and transistors, Op-Amps and digital ICs. It also provides the
information about the uncontrollable and controllable electronic switches and the flow of current
through these switches in different biasing conditions. This course is intended to describe the
different configurations and modes of controllable switches and how these electronic devices can
be configured to work as rectifiers, clippers, clampers, oscillators, amplifiers, combinational
circuits.

Course Out Comes:

Upon the completion of Basic Electronics practical course, the student will be able to:

1. Analyze the diode and transistor characteristics.

2. Understand the principles of rectifier circuits using diodes and implement them using
hardware.

3. Design the biasing circuits like self biasing, fixed biasing.

4. Design various Linear Integrated Circuits.
5. Understand the concepts of Digital ICs,
6. Understand the concepts of Combinational Circuits.

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GENERAL GUIDELINES AND SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS

1. Sign in the log register as soon as you enter the lab and strictly observe your lab timings.
2. Strictly follow the written and verbal instructions given by the teacher / Lab Instructor. If you
do not understand the instructions, the handouts and the procedures, ask the instructor or
teacher.
3. Never work alone! You should be accompanied by your laboratory partner and / or the
instructors / teaching assistants all the time.
4. It is mandatory to come to lab in a formal dress and wear your ID cards.
5. Do not wear loose-fitting clothing or jewellery in the lab. Rings and necklaces are usual
excellent conductors of electricity.
6. Mobile phones should be switched off in the lab. Keep bags in the bag rack.
7. Keep the labs clean at all times, no food and drinks allowed inside the lab.
8. Intentional misconduct will lead to expulsion from the lab.
9. Do not handle any equipment without reading the safety instructions. Read the handout and
procedures in the Lab Manual before starting the experiments.
10. Do your wiring, setup, and a careful circuit checkout before applying power. Do not make
circuit changes or perform any wiring when power is on.
11. Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits.
12. Do not insert connectors forcefully into the sockets.
13. NEVER try to experiment with the power from the wall plug.
14. Immediately report dangerous or exceptional conditions to the Lab instructor / teacher:
Equipment that is not working as expected, wires or connectors are broken, the equipment that
smells or “smokes”.
15. Never use damaged instruments, wires or connectors. Hand over these parts to the Lab
instructor/Teacher.
16. Be sure of location of fire extinguishers and first aid kits in the department.
17. After completion of Experiment, return the bread board, trainer kits, wires, CRO probes and
other components to lab staff. Do not take any item from the lab without permission.
18. Practical Copies and Rough Copies should be carried to the lab. Readings of current lab
experiment are to be entered in Rough Copy and previous lab experiment should be written in
Practical Copy.Both the Copies should be corrected by the faculty in each lab.
19. Handling of Semiconductor Components: Sensitive electronic circuits and electronic
components have to be handled with great care. The inappropriate handling of electronic
component can damage or destroy the devices. The devices can be destroyed by driving to high
currents through the device, by overheating the device, by mixing up the polarity, or by
electrostatic discharge (ESD).

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 Experiment No.1
AIM:
a) Identification, specifications, testing of R, L, C components (Color Codes),
potentiometers, switches (SPDT, DPDT and DIP), coils, Gang condensers, relays, bread
boards, PCBs, identification, specifications and testing of active devices, diodes, BJTs,
Low power JFETs, MOSFETs, power transistors, LEDs, LCDs, optoelectronic devices, SCR,
UJT,DIACs.

b) Familiarization of various equipments –DSO, SIGNAL GENERATOR, DIGITAL

MULTIMETER, DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

Theory:
(A)
An electronic component is a basic electronic element and may be available in a discrete
form (a discrete device or discrete component) having two or more electrical terminals (or
leads). These are intended to be connected together, usually by soldering to a printed
circuit board, in order to create an electronic circuit(a discrete circuit) with a particular
function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Basic electronic components
may be packaged discretely, as arrays or networks of like components, or integrated inside of
packages such as semiconductor integrated circuits, hybrid integrated circuits, or thick film
devices.

A component may be classified as passive or active. The strict physics definition treats
passive components as ones that cannot supply energy themselves; whereas a battery would
be seen as an active component since it truly acts as a source of energy.
Passive components are ones which cannot introduce net energy into the circuit they are
connected to. They also cannot rely on a source of power except for what is available from
the (AC) circuit they are connected to. As a consequence they are unable to amplify (increase
the power of a signal), although they may well increase a voltage or current such as is done by
a transformer or resonant circuit. Among passive components are familiar two-terminal
components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers.
Active components are devices that have an analog electronic filter with the ability to amplify a
signal or produce a power gain. There are two types of active components: electron tubes and
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semiconductors or solid-state devices. A typical active component would be an oscillator,
transistor or integrated circuit.
An active component works as an alternating-current circuit in a device, which works to increase
the active power, voltage or current. An active component is able to do this because it is powered
by a source of electricity that is separate from the electrical signal.
Passive components can be further divided into lossless and lossy components:
Lossless components do not have a net power flow into or out of the component. This would
include ideal capacitors, inductors, transformers, and the (theoretical) gyrator.
Lossy or dissipative components do not have that property and generally absorb power from
the external circuit over time. The prototypical example is the resistor. In practice all non-ideal
passive components are at least a little lossy, but these are typically modeled in circuit
analysis as consisting of an ideal lossless component with an attached resistor to account for
the loss.
Most passive components with more than two terminals can be described in terms of two-
port parameters satisfying the principle of reciprocity, although there are some rare
exceptions. In contrast, active components (which have more than two terminals) generally
lack that property.
Note that these distinctions only apply to components listed below which would be modeled
as elements within circuit analysis. Practical items which act as transducers or have other
connections to the outside world such as switches cannot be subject to this form of
classification since they defy the view of the electronic circuit as a closed system.

• RESISTOR:
Resistor is an electronic component whose function is to limit the flow of current in an electric
circuit. It is measured in units called ohms. The symbol for ohm is Ω(omega). They are available in
different values, shapes and sizes.
Every material has some resistance. Some materials such as Rubber, Glass and air have very high
opposition to current to flow .These materials are called insulators. Other materials such as
Copper, Silver and Aluminum etc, has very low resistance, they are called Conductors.

Resistor Color Codes

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Color-code bands on a resistor.

Applications:
It is widely used in electronic circuits to limit the current

• CAPACITOR
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used
to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries store energy via
chemical reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two
electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction
consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as
parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
Capacitors are also very commonly used. A lot have their values printed on them, some are
marked with 3-digit codes, and a few are color coded. The same resources listed above for
resistors can also help you identify capacitor values. They are typically marked with an “C” on a
circuit board.

Symbol:

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Applications:
1. In tuned circuits.
2. As bypass capacitors to bypass AC through it.
3. Blocking capacitor to block dc components.

• INDUCTORS
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component which
resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire,
usually wound into a coil. When a current flows through it, energy is stored in a magnetic field in
the coil. When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time- varying magnetic field
induces a voltage in the conductor, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created it.
Inductors, also called coils, can be a bit harder to figure out their values. If they are color coded,
the resources listed for resistors can help; otherwise a good meter that can measure inductance
will be needed. They are typically marked with an “L” on a circuit board.

Applications:
Filter chokes for smoothing and pulsating currents produced by rectifiers.
Audio frequency chokes, to provide high impedance at audio frequencies.

• POTENTIOMETERS:
The variable resistors are usually called Rheostats and the smaller variable resistors commonly
used in electronic circuits are called potentiometers called pot.

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Symbol:

The arrow indicates a movable contact on a continuous resistance element. A potentiometer can
be either linear or non-linear.

Applications:
Pots are used to change the volume of sound and brightness of picture.

• SWITCHES:
A switch is a device which can connect two points in a circuit (or) disconnect two points. If the
switch is acting so has to connect two points. It is said to be in ON position. If the switch is acting
so has to disconnect two points. It is said to be in OFF position.

SPDT: - (Single Pole Double Throw):

If there are two independent circuits to be connected using two throws but still connecting one
poll then it is called single pole double throw.

DPDT: (Double Pole Double Throw):

This switch is capable of connecting the receiver to either Antenna-I or Antenna-II at the same
time and it connects two poles hence the DPDT switch.

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 • GANGED CONDENSERS:
In tuning circuits it is desired to change the value of capacitance readily, this is done by means of
variable capacitors. The most common variable capacitor is the air ganged capacitor. By rotating
the shaft, we can change the distance between movable and fixed sets of plates like that
capacitance value is changed.

Applications:
Used in tuning circuits

• RELAYS:
Switches closes its contacts by the mechanical activation of its lever, the relay do this by an
electromagnetic coil pulling its contacts current and wound over a core of soft magnet. The
moving armature of core causes the contact closure.

Relays can have several poles and several contacts.

Types of Relays are
I. Reed Relays
II. Solid State Relays
III. Over load relays etc.

Applications:
In telephone networks

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 • BREAD BOARDS:
This is the platform (or chasis) on which any circuit can be ringed up to provide inter connections
between electronics components and devices.

The advantage of bread board is, the components can be connected (or) disconnected easily. It
has holes both horizontally and vertically as shown in the figure.
The horizontal holes at the top and bottom are having internal shorts where as in the remaining
part vertical holes are shorted internally.

• PCB (PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD ):

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic
components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper sheets
laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. Components (e.g. capacitors, resistors or active
devices) are generally soldered on the PCB.

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 • DIODE:

A popular semiconductor device called a diode is made by combining P & N type semiconductor
materials. The doped regions meet to form a P-N junction. Diodes are unidirectional devices that
allow current to flow through them in one direction only.
The schematic symbol for a semiconductor diode is shown in fig-1. The P-side of the diode is
called the anode (A), while the N-side of the diode is called the cathode (K).

Figure: symbol of P-N diode.

Testing of diode:
Using a DMM to check a diode: Most digital multimeters provide a special range for testing the
diodes. This range is called the diode range. This is the only range setting on the DMM that can
provide the proper amount of forward bias for the diode being tested. It is important to note that
when the digital multimeter forward biases the diode being tested, the digital display will indicate
the forward voltage dropped across the diode rather that the forward resistance, RF.

Identification:

APPLICATIONS:
I. Rectifiers, Clippers and Clampers.
II. Signal detector.
III. Digital logic gates.

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 • BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT):

A transistor has three doped regions there are two types of transistors one is NPN and other is
PNP. Notice that for both types, the base is narrow region sandwiched between the larger
collector and moderate emitter regions.
In NPN transistors, the majority current carriers are free electrons in the emitter and collector,
while the majority current carriers are holes in the base. The opposite is true in the PNP transistor
where the majority current carriers are holes in the emitter and collector, and the majority
current carriers are free electrons in the base.
1. Emitter 2. Base 3. Collector

Schematic symbols for transistors (a) NPN transistor (b) PNP transistor.

In order for a transistor to function properly as an amplifier, the emitter-base junction must be
forward biased and the collector base junctions must be reverse biased.

Checking a transistor with an ohmmeter:

To check the base-emitter junction of an NPN transistor, first connect the ohmmeter and then
reverse the ohmmeter leads. The resistance indicated by the ohmmeter should be low since
the base emitter junction is forward biased. The resistance indicated by the ohmmeter should
read high because the base emitter junction is reverse biased. For a good pn junction made of
silicon the ration RR/RF should be equal to or greater than 1000:1.
To check the collector-base junction, repeat the process described for the base-emitter junction.

Shorted and open junctions:

A low resistance across the junction in both directions implies that the emitter-base or collector-
base junctions are shorted. If the ohmmeter indicates a high resistance in both directions, then
the junctions are open. In both cases the transistor is defective and must be replace.

Checking a transistor with a Digital Multimeter (DMM):

Insert the transistor in the provided slots, position the knob of DMM in hFE mode and check the
hFE value.

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Applications:
I. Amplifiers.
II. Oscillators.
III. Switches.

• FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FETS):

The field effect transistor (FET) is a three terminal device similar to the bipolar junction transistor.
The FET, however, is a unipolar device, which depends on only one type of charge carriers; either
electrons or holes. There are basically two types of FETs. The junction field effect transistor,
abbreviated JFET, and the metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor, abbreviated MOSFET.
A junction field effect Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device in which current
conduction is by one type of carriers i.e., electrons or holes.
There are two basic types of FET‟s
Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
Metal oxide field effect transistor (MOSFET)
Schematic symbol of JFET

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Specifications:
A.C. drain resistance (rd): Drain resistance has a large value, ranging from 10kΩto 1MΩ
Transconductance (gm): It is expressed in mA/V
Amplification factor (µ): It is product of A.C drain resistance and transconductance.

Pinch off voltage:

Pinch off voltage is the drain to source voltage after which the drain to source current becomes
almost constant and JFET enters into saturation region and is defined only when gate to
source voltage is zero.
Testing:
In case of FET, drain to source should be a fixed resistance in either direction. Gate to drain or
gate to source should be an open circuit or a very high resistance.

Applications:
Used in tuners of radio and TV receivers Amplifiers and Voltage variable resistor.

• MOSFETs:

The metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor has a gate, source and drain just like JFET.
Like a JFET, the drain current in a MOSFET is controlled by the gate-source voltage VGS. There are
two basic types of MOSFETs. The enhancement type and depletion type. The enhancement type
MOSFET is usually referred to as an E-MOSFET and the depletion type MOSFET is referred to as a
D-MOSFET.
The key difference between JFETs and MOSFETs is that the gate terminal in a MOSFET is insulated
from the channel. Because of this, MOSFETs are sometimes referred to as insulated gate FETs or
IGFETs. Because of the insulated gate, the input impedance of a MOSFET is many times higher t
that of a JFET.

Types of MOSFET’S:
(a) n-channel D- MOSFET (b) P-channel D-MOSFET (c)n-channel E-MOSFET (d) p-channel E-
MOSFET

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 • LIGHT EMITTING DIODES LEDS:

As opposed to other diodes that give off heat when conducting, LEDs emit light. In the latter, the
recombination of charge carriers across the PN junction releases optical energy when the
electrons fall from the conduction to the valence band. The heat emission is negligible in light
emitting materials like gallium arsenic phosphide and gallium phosphoide.
LEDs must, of course, be covered in a transparent or translucent material. The wavelength of the
radiation for a given colour is given by the relation = 1.23/Eg. Where Eg is the energy gap
between conduction and valence bands. Its value is 1.45 ev for GaAs, 3 ev for GaAsP and 2.25 ev
for Gap. The colours obtained from these materials are red, yellow and green respectively.

Figure: symbol of LED.

Testing:

The diode is simply put across a multimeter to see if the reading is different when the polarity is
reversed. The LED will glow and show a resistance between 30 ohms and 50 ohms when forward
biased.

• LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD):

As the name implies, liquid crystals are materials which have the properties of both liquids and
solids crystals. Instead of a melting point, they have a temperature range called a mesosphase
with in which the molecules are mobile as in a liquid although remaining grouped as in a solid.
Identification:

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 • SCR
The basic structure and circuit symbol of SCR is shown below. It is a four layer three terminal
device in which the end P-layer acts as anode the end N-layer acts as cathode and P-layer nearer
to cathode acts as a gate. As leakage current in silicon is very small compared to Germanium SCRs
are made of silicon and not Germanium.
Identification:

Testing:
The SCR should be switched on and voltage measured between anode and cathode, which should
be approximately volt and the voltage between gate and cathode should be 0.7 volt.
An ohmmeter can also be used to test SCR the gate –cathode of a thyristor has a similar
characteristic to a diode with the gate positive with respect to the cathode, a low resistance
(typically below 100Ω) should be indicated on the other hand with the gate negative with respect
to the cathode a high resistance (greater than 100kΩ) will be indicated. A high resistance is
indicated in either direction for the anode to cathode connection

Applications:

These are used in power control applications such as lamp dimmers motor speed control,
temperature control and invertors. They are also employed for over voltage protection in DC
power supplies.

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 • UJT

UJT is a three terminal semiconductor switching device. As it has only one PN junction and three
leads it is commonly called as uni- junction transistors.
The basic structure of UJT is as shown below.
Picture

Testing:
In case of UJT, emitter to base, (cont1) and emitter to base2 (confg2) should be exhibit a typical
diode characteristics except that the diode resistance in forward and reverse cases is different for
the two configurations.
The resistance across base1 to base2 should be fixed resistance in either direction.

Applications:
UJT can be used as relaxation oscillator and phase control circuit.

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 • DIAC
The DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be turned on in both
forward and reverse polarities. The DIAC gains its name from the contraction of the words Diode
Alternating Current. The DIAC is widely used to assist even triggering of a TRIAC when used in AC
switches.

Application of DIAC
I. It can be used mainly in the triac triggering circuit. The diac is connected in the gate
terminal of the triac. When the voltage across the gate decreases below a predetermined
value, the gate voltage will be zero and hence the triac will be turned off. The main
applications are-
II. It can be used in the lamp dimmer circuit.
III. It is used in the heat control circuit.
IV. It is used in the speed control of a universal motor.

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(B)

• Study of DSO

DSO (Digital Storage Oscilloscope) is an instrument which is used to observe signal waveforms.
Signals are displayed in time domain i.e. variation in amplitude of the signal with respect to time
is plotted on the DSO screen.X-axis represents time and Y-axis represents amplitude. It is used to
measure amplitude, frequency and phase of the waveforms. It is also used to observe shape of
the waveform. DSO is useful for troubleshooting purpose. It helps us to find out gain of amplifier,
test oscillator circuits. We can measure amplitude and frequency of the waveforms at the
different test points in our circuit. Thus, it helps us for fault finding procedure. In dual channel
DSO X-Y mode is available which is used to create Lissajous patterns DSO display voltage and
frequency directly on the LCD and does not require any calculations. It can also store waveform
for further analysis.

Diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant shape

Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts.

Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an oscilloscope trace it is
usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle. It is measured in seconds (s),
but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (μs) are often used. 1ms
= 0.001s and 1μs = 0.000001s.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend
to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz =
1000000Hz.

Frequency = 1/ Time period

Time period = 1/ Frequency

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 • Study of FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function generator is electronic test equipment used to generate different types of waveforms
over a wide range of frequencies.

Function generators are capable of producing a variety of repetitive waveforms, generally from
the list below
• Sine wave: A function generator will normally have the capability to produce a standard
sine wave output. This is the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with a
standard sinusoidal shape.

• Square wave: A square wave is normally relatively easy for a function generator to
produce. It consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels.

• Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator. It
is effectively the same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different to
1:1.

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 • Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly moves
between a high and low point.

• Saw tooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the
waveform faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a saw tooth.

These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot Function generators are used in the
development, test and repair of electronic equipment.

Function Generator Controls

Knobs Control Name Functions

Number
1 Power Push button switches to power ON the instrument.
2 LCD Display 20 x 4 Character bright back lit Liquid Crystal Display.
3 Frequency Used for selection of frequency range step by step.
Used for selection of Particular waveform. A total number
of 6 different waveforms :
4 Function ❖ Sine
❖ Square
❖ Triangle
❖ Ramp
❖ Pulse
5 Modulation Used for selection of Frequency Modulation.
6 Attenuation Used for Selection of 20dB or 40dB attenuation
7 Menu Used for selection of Function Generator/Frequency
counter
mode.
8 Duty Cycle When pulse output function is selected, this controls the
pulse
duty cycle from 15% to 85%.
9 Frequency In conjunction with frequency range, selected by frequency
key
on front Panel.
10 Amplitude In conjunction with attenuators (6), this varies the level of
Variable output.
This control provides DC offset. Approximately ±5VDC is
11 DC Offset superimposed on the output. Keep the control off if DC
offset is not required.
12 Output Output of 10 MHz function generator i.e. 20Vpp (Open
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 (BNC Circuit)
External Counter Input BNC connector for measuring the frequency of
13 (BNC external signal when External Counter mode is selected
Connector) by
Menu key on the LCD display.
14 Modulation Maximum modulation Input i.e. 2Vpp.
Input

This is how to use a function generator to test a circuit’s behavior:

I. Power on the generator and select the desired output signal: square wave, sine wave or
triangle wave.
II. Connect the output leads to an oscilloscope to visualize the output signal and set its
parameters using the amplitude and frequency controls.
III. Attach the output leads of the function generator to the input of the circuit you wish to
test.
IV. Attach the output of your circuit to a meter or oscilloscope to visualize the resulting
change in signal.

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 • STUDY OF DIGITAL MULTIMETER

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter or Volt-Ohm-milliammeter ), is an

electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter would include basic features such as the ability to measure voltage, current, and resistance.
Analog multimeters use a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the
different measurements that can be made. Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) display the measured
value in numerals, and may also display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured.
Digital multimeters are now far more common but analog multimeters are still preferable in some cases,
for example when monitoring a rapidly varying value.

A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work, or a bench
instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot
electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as electronic equipment,
motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

29 | P a g e
 • Study of DC REGULATED VARIABLE POWER SUPPLY

A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The term is most commonly
applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical energy to another, though it may
also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical
energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value;
the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage
supplied by the power supply's energy source.
A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device that is
hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC power supplies that are part
of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.
Commonly specified power supply attributes include:
The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.
How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.

DC Power Supply Specification

a) Adjustable 0~30V/0~2A
b) The design is limit the voltage overload
c) The power supply input 220V, 230V, 240V AC
d) Output voltage: 0-30V DC
e) Work temperature: -10oC-40oC

Main Function
a) Output constant current adjustable.
b) Output constant voltage adjustable.
c) LCD voltage and current display.
d) Constant voltage and current operation in individual.
e) Over current protection.

DISCUSSION:

1. What are the uses of CRO?

2. What is a function generator?
3. How the frequency of a function generator is controlled?
4. What is a regulated power supply?
5. What are the basic components of a regulated power supply?
6. What is the need of voltage regulators?
7. what is breadboard?
8. What is the difference between active and passive components?

CONCLUSION:

30 | P a g e
 Experiment No.2

Aim: To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of PN Junction Diode and Zener Diode and find out

a) Cut-in Voltage for P-N Junction diode.

b) Static and dynamic resistances for P-N Junction diode.

c) Breakdown voltage for Zener Diode

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus/Components Specification Quantity

1. DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY 0-30V,0-2A 1
2. DIODE Si DIODE,ZENER
DIODE
3. RESISTOR 1
4. MULTIMETER DIGITAL 2
5. BREADBOARD 1
6. CONNECTING WIRES
Theory:
The semi conductor diode is created by simply joining an n-type and a p-type material together nothing
more just the joining of one material with a majority carrier of electrons to one with a majority carrier of
holes. The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow.

Forward Bias Condition: If +ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (P-side) and –ve
terminal of the input supply is connected to cathode (N- side), then diode is said to be forward biased.
Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be approximated as short-
circuited switch.

Reverse Bias Condition: If –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve
terminal of the input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased.
In this condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier
at the junction. Both the holes on p-side and electrons on n-side tend to move away from the junction
thereby increasing the depleted region. However the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus a small
current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode. This small current is due to
thermally generated carriers. Assuming current flowing through the diode to be negligible, the diode can
be approximated as an open circuited switch.

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The Diode Current Equation is given below:

Cut-in Voltage: The forward voltage, at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly,
is called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage. Here cut-in voltage comes in the picture. A Silicon diode has
higher forward voltage potential (0.7V) than Germanium diode (0.3V).

Static Resistance: Static resistance is the resistance that you get with a normal circuit (applying ohms
law).Apply a voltage across the diode, measure the current value and then divide apply voltage with
current obtained to get static resistance.
Static resistance(R) =V/I;
This value would be positive (which means if there is an increase in voltage, there would be increase in
current also.)

Dynamic resistance: Dynamic resistance is the difference of the voltages and currents that matter here.
It is the ratio of dv and di.
Dynamic resistance(R) = dv/di;
This value can also be negative in the case where there is rise in voltage following a fall in current value.

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Zener Diode Breakdown Voltage: Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped Si or Ge p-n junction
diode which is operated in the breakdown reason. Zener diode is like ordinary p-n junction diode except
that they are fabricated by varying the doping so that sharp and specific breakdown voltage is obtained.
When a Zener is forward biased its characteristics are similar of ordinary diode but in reverse biased its
characteristics is differ.

As the reverse voltage applied to a p-n junction is increased, a value is reached at which the current
increases greatly from its normal cut-off value. This voltage is called a Zener voltage or breakdown
voltage. It is observed from the figure that below knee voltage the breakdown voltage remain practically
constant.
A diode in breakdown maintains an almost constant voltage across itself over a wide current range. Thus
the Zener diode is most suitable for voltage regulation.

33 | P a g e
PROCEDURE:
PN Junction Diode

1. Forward Biased condition

2. Connect the PN Junction diode (as shown in diagram 1a) in forward bias i.e. Anode is connected
to positive of the power supply and cathode is connected to negative of the power supply.
3. Use a Regulated power supply of range (0-30)V and a series resistance
4. By varying the input voltage in steps of 0.1V, note down corresponding Ammeter readings. (IF)
and voltmeter reading.
5. Plot the graph between forward voltage (VF) and forward current (IF) and note down the cut-in
voltage

Reverse Biased condition

1. Connect the PN Junction diode (as shown in diagram 1b) in Reverse bias i.e.; anode is connected
to negative of the power supply and cathode is connected to positive of the power supply.
2. Use a Regulated power supply of range (0-30)V and a series resistance
3. By varying the input voltage vary voltage (VR) in steps of 1V and note down corresponding
Ammeter readings.(IR)
4. Plot the graph between Reverse voltage (VR) and Reverse current (IR).

34 | P a g e
Zener Diode

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram 2(a&b)

2. Vary input voltage and note down Zener Voltage and Zener Current in forward bias.
3. Vary input voltage and note down Zener Voltage and Zener Current in forward bias.
4. Plot a graph between Zener Voltage and Zener Current for both forward and reverse bias
condition and note down the breakdown voltage.

1(a).Circuit Diagram of PN Junction Diode (Forward Bias)

1(b).Circuit Diagram of PN Junction Diode (Reverse Bias)

35 | P a g e
2(a).

2(b)

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Observation Table (For Forward Bias PN Junction Diode)

Sl.No. Supply voltage(V) Diode Voltage(Vf) Diode Current(If)

1.
....
10.

Observation Table (For Reverse Bias PN Junction Diode)

Sl.No. Supply voltage(V) Diode Voltage(Vr) Diode Current(Ir)

1.
....
10.

Observation Table (For Forward Bias Zener Diode)

Sl.No. Supply voltage(V) Diode Voltage(Vzf) Diode Current(Izf)

1.
....
10.

Observation Table (For Reverse Bias Zener Diode)

Sl.No. Supply voltage(V) Diode Voltage(Vzr) Diode Current(Izr)

1.
....
10.

Calculation:
1. Cut –in voltage =
2 (a). Forward Bias
Static Resistance = Vf/ If =
Dynamic resistance =Δ Vf / Δ If =
2 (b).Reverse Bias
Static Resistance = Vr/ Ir =
Dynamic resistance =Δ Vr / Δ Ir =
3. Zener Breakdown Voltage =

37 | P a g e
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Ensure that the polarities of the power supply and the meters as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keep the input voltage knob of the regulated power supply in minimum position both when switching
ON or switching OFF the power supply.
3. No loose contacts at the junctions.

DISCUSSION:
1. When diode acts like ideal switch?
2. What is the cut in voltage? Give typical values for Ge and Si.
3. What is reverse saturation current?
4. What is Dynamic and static resistance?
5. What is V-I characteristics equation?
6. Define potential barrier.
7. Define doping.
8. What is the effect of temperature on Ico?
9. Define a Q point.
10. Explain how the diode can acts as a capacitor.
11. Difference between Zener and Avalanche breakdown.
12. What is the difference between Zener and ordinary diode?
13. Draw equivalent circuit for Zener diode.
14. What is Breakdown voltage?
15. What are the applications of Zener diode?

CONCLUSION:

38 | P a g e
 Experiment No.3

Aim: To study Rectifier Circuits with and without filters and calculate:
a) Ripple Factor
b) Efficiency
c) PIV

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus/Components Specification Quantity

1. OSCILLOSCOPE DIGITAL STORAGE 1
2. SIGNAL GENERATOR/STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER
3. PN JUNCTION DIODE 2/4
4. RESISTOR
5. CAPACITOR
6. MULTIMETER DIGITAL
7. BREADBOARD 1
8. CONNECTING WIRES

Theory:

The process of converting an alternating current into direct current is known as Rectification. The
unidirectional conduction property of semiconductor diodes (junction diodes) is used for rectification.

Rectifiers are of two types: (a) Half wave rectifier and (b) Full wave rectifier

In a half-wave rectifier circuit during the positive half-cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased and
conducts. Current flows through the load and a voltage is developed across it. During the negative half-cycle,
it is reverse bias and does not conduct. Therefore, in the negative half cycle of the supply, no current flows in
the load resistor as no voltage appears across it. Thus the dc voltage across the load is sinusoidal for the first
half cycle only and a pure a.c. input signal is converted into a unidirectional pulsating output signal.

A full wave rectifier makes use of a two diodes to carry out this conversion. It is named so as the conversion
occurs for complete input signal cycle. The full-wave rectifier consists of a center-tap transformer, which
results in equal voltages above and below the center-tap. During the positive half cycle, a positive voltage
appears at the anode of D1 while a negative voltage appears at the anode of D2. Due to this diode D1 is
forward biased it results in a current Id1 through the load R. During the negative half cycle, a positive voltage
appears at the anode of D2 and hence it is forward biased. Resulting in a current Id2 through the load at the
same instant a negative voltage appears at the anode of D1 thus reverse biasing it and hence it doesn’t
conduct.

Another type of circuit that produces the same output as a full-wave rectifier is that of the Bridge Rectifier.
This type of single phase rectifier uses 4 individual rectifying diodes connected in a "bridged" configuration
to produce the desired output but does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its
size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the
load to the other side as shown in figure. The 4 diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with

39 | P a g e
only two diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply,
diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows
through the load as shown below .During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in
series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch of as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load
is the same direction as before.

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is also
unidirectional during both the half cycles. Thus, the average dc output voltage across the load resistor
assuming no losses is

Ripple factor (FULL WAVE RECTIFIER): The ripple factor is a measure of purity of the d.c. output of a rectifier
and is defined as

Rectification Efficiency (FULL WAVE RECTIFIER):

Rectification efficiency, η, is given by

where rd is the forward resistance of diode. Under the assumption of no diode loss (rd<<), the rectification
efficiency in case of a full-wave rectifier is approximately 81.1%,

40 | P a g e
PIV (peak inverse voltage) (FULL WAVE RECTIFIER)
During the first half cycle of the AC power supply, i.e. when the top of the transformer secondary winding is
positive, the diode D1 conducts and offers almost zero resistance. So the whole the voltage Vm max of the
upper half winding is developed across the load (RL). Now the voltage across the non-conducting diode D2 is
the sum of the voltage across the lower half of the transformer secondary and the voltage across the load
(RL).

Thus, PIV of diode, D2 = Vm + Vm

PIV of diode, D2 = 2 Vm
Similarly, PIV of diode D1 = 2 Vm

With Filter: The output of a rectifier gives a pulsating D.C. signal because of presence of some a.c.
components whose frequency is equal to that of the a.c. supply frequency. Very often when rectifying an
alternating voltage we wish to produce a "steady" direct voltage free from any voltage variations or ripple.
Filter circuits are used to smoothen the output. Various filter circuits are available such as shunt capacitor,
series inductor, choke input LC filter and π-filter etc. Here we will use a simple shunt capacitor filter circuit.
Since a capacitor is open to D.C. and offers low impedance path to a.c. current, putting a capacitor across the
output will make the D.C. component to pass through the load resulting in small ripple voltage.

The working of the capacitor can be understood in the following manner. When the rectifier output voltage
is increasing, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage Vm. Just past the positive peak the rectifier output
voltage tries to fall. As the source voltage decreases below Vm, the capacitor will try to send the current back
to diode making it reverse biased. Thus the diode separates/disconnects the source from the load and hence
the capacitor will discharge through the load until the source voltage becomes more than the capacitor
voltage.

41 | P a g e
The diode again starts conducting and the capacitor is again charged to the peak value V m and the process
continues. Although in the output waveform the discharging of capacitor is shown as a straight line for
simplicity, the decay is actually the normal exponential decay of any capacitor discharging through a load
resistor. The extent to which the capacitor voltage drops depends on the capacitance and the amount of
current drawn by the load; these two factors effectively form the RC time constant for voltage decay. A
proper combination of large capacitance and small load resistance can give out a steady output.

The full-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a
smooth dc output voltage. Apart from rectification efficiency, the main advantages of a full-wave bridge
rectifier is that it has a smaller ac ripple value for a given load and a smaller smoothing capacitor than an
equivalent half-wave rectifier. The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of the dc supply
voltage by the diodes can be virtually eliminated by adding other improved filters such as a pi-filter

PROCEDURE:
1. Configure the full-wave rectifier circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. Note down all the values of
the components being used.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to the a.c. Mains and secondary to the input of the
circuit.
3. Measure the input a.c. voltage (Vac) and current (Iac) and the output a.c. (Vac) and D.C. (Vdc) voltages
using multimeter for at least 3 values of load resistor (Be careful to choose proper settings of
multimeter for ac and dc measurement).
4. Feed the input and output to the oscilloscope (we will use oscilloscope here only to trace the output
waveform) and save the data for each measurement. BE CAREFUL NOT TO MEASURE THE INPUT AND
OUTPUT VOLTAGES SIMULTANEOUSLY.
5. Multiply the Vac at the input by √2 to get the peak value and calculate Vdc Using the formula Vdc =
2Vmax/ π. Compare this value with the measured Vdc at the output.
6. Calculate the ripple factor and efficiency.
7. Connect the capacitor across the output for each load resistor. Measure the output a.c. and d.c.
voltages once again and calculate the ripple factor.

Trace the input and output waveforms in oscilloscope and notice the change.

42 | P a g e
Circuit Diagram:

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Circuit (without capacitor)

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Circuit (without capacitor)

43 | P a g e
Observations:

Input Voltage: Vac = …..Volt

Table (I): Full-wave rectifier w/o filter

Sl. No Load RL Input Output Voltage Ripple Factor Efficiency η

(kΩ) Current Iac r (Vdc2/RL)/VacIac
Vac Vdc 2Vmax/ π
(mA)
(Volt) (Volt) (Volt) (%)

1
2
3

Table (II): Full-wave rectifier with filter (C = …..μF)

Sl. No Load Output Voltage Ripple Factor

RL (kΩ) r
Vac (Volt) Vdc (Volt)
1
2
3

44 | P a g e
Expected input and output waveforms with and without filter

Precautions:

1. No loose contacts at the junctions.

2. Meters of correct range must be used for precision.

Discussion:
1. Draw the o/p wave form without filter? Draw the O/P? What is wave form with filter?
2. What is meant by ripple factor? For a good filter whether ripple factor should be high or low? What
happens to the ripple factor if we insert the filter?
3. What is meant by regulation? Why regulation is poor in the case of inductor filter?
4. What is meant by time constant?
5. What happens to the o/p wave form if we increase the capacitor value? What happens if we increase
the capacitor value?
6. What are the applications of rectifiers?
7. Define transformer utilization factor.
Conclusion
45 | P a g e
 Experiment No.4

Aim: To study
a) Positive and negative biased clipper (STUDENTS CAN CARRY OUT EITHER POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE
BIASED CLIPPER)
b) Positive clamper circuits.

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus/Components Specification Quantity

1. DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY 0-30V,0-2A 1
2. FUNCTION GENERATOR 1
3. DIODE Si DIODE 1
4. RESISTOR 1
5. CAPACITOR 1
6. MULTIMETER DIGITAL 2
7. BREADBOARD 1
8. CONNECTING WIRES

Theory:
Clipper: The clippers have the ability to remove signal voltages above or below a specified level & hence
change the wave shape of the I/P signal. Most of the clippers employ diodes & are known as diode
clippers. Different type of clippers are-

Positive & Negative clipper: A circuit that removes +ve half-cycle of the signal is called +ve clipper.
Sometimes, it is required to remove the –ve half cycle of the I/P signal, the only thing to be done is to
reverse the polarity of the diode connected across load, such a clipper is known as a –ve clipper.
Biased clipper: A clipper used to remove a small portion of +ve or –ve half cycle of the signal
Voltage is called a biased clipper. A diode is employed in series with a battery of different volts
depending upon the requirement.

Clamper: A clamping circuit adds d.c component to the signal in such a way that it pushes the signal
either on the +ve side or on the –ve side. When the circuit pushes the signal on the +ve side then –ve
peak of the signal falls on the zero level, this circuit is called a +ve clamper. When the circuit pushes the
signal on the –ve side, this is –ve clamper.

PROCEDURE:
a) POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE BIASED CLIPPER

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

2. For the positive clipper the diode is connected along with reference voltage as shown by applying the
input and the output is observed on the DSO.

46 | P a g e
 3. For the negative clipper the directions of diode and the reference voltage are reversed and by giving the
input, the output is observed on the DSO.
4. A sinusoidal input 10V (p-p) 1KHZ is given to positive clipper, negative clipper and corresponding output is
observed.

b) POSITIVE CLAMPER CIRCUITS.

1. The circuits are connected as per the circuit diagram.

2. The input signal Vi of (10V p-p) frequency (1 KHz) is applied to each of the circuits.

3. The corresponding output waveforms are noted from the DSO.

4. The input and output waveform are plotted on the graph sheets

Circuit Diagram of NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE BIASED CLIPPER

47 | P a g e
Circuit Diagram of POSITIVE CLAMPER

Observation Table:
(i)

Name Of the Clipper

Negative Clipper Positive Clipper

Wave Form I/P O/P I/P O/P

Amplitude (p-p) in volts

Time Period(ms)

48 | P a g e
 (ii)

Name Of the Clamper

Positive Clamper

Wave Form I/P O/P

Amplitude (p-p)

Time Period(ms)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connection should be proper & tight.

2. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to damage the
diode.
3. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
4. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.
5. Parallax error should be avoided.

6. Handle the equipments with care.

DISCUSSION:
1. What is meant by non linear wave shaping?
2. What is clipper? What are the different types of clippers?
3. What are the different applications of clipper?
4. What is two level clipper
5. Explain the operation of positive and negative clipper?
6. What do mean by clamper?
7. What are the different types of clamping circuits?
8. What are the different applications of clampers?
9. Why clamper is called DC inserter?
10. Explain the operation of positive clamper and negative clamper?

CONCLUSION:

49 | P a g e
 Experiment No.5
Aim: To study Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
By varying load resistance by keeping input voltage constant (load regulation).
By Varying input voltage by keeping load resistance constant (line regulation).

Apparatus Required:
Sl.No. Apparatus/Components Specification Quantity
1. DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY 0-30V,0-2A 1
2. ZENER DIODE 1
3. RESISTOR 1
4. MULTIMETER DIGITAL 2
5. BREADBOARD 1
6. CONNECTING WIRES

Theory:
Zener diode is a P-N junction diode specially designed to operate in the reverse biased mode. The basic
principle of Zener diode is the Zener breakdown. When a diode is heavily doped, it’s depletion region will be
narrow. When a high reverse voltage is applied across the junction, there will be very strong electric field at
the junction. And the electron hole pair generation takes place. Thus heavy current flows. This is known as
Zener break down.
So a Zener diode, in a forward biased condition acts as a normal diode. In reverse biased mode, after the
break down of junction current through diode increases sharply. But the voltage across it remains constant.
This principle is used in voltage regulator using Zener diodes.
A Zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in series with the input voltage
Vs and Zener diode is connected in parallel with the load RL in reverse biased condition. The output voltage is
always selected with a breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.
The input source current, IS = IZ + IL………….. (1)
The drop across the series resistance, Rs = Vin – Vz …….. (2)
And current flowing through it, Is = (Vin – VZ) / RS ………….. (3)
From equation (1) and (2), we get, (Vin - Vz)/Rs = Iz +IL ………… (4)
Regulation with the varying load (load regulation): It is defined as change in load voltage with respect to
variations in load current. To calculate this regulation, input voltage is constant and output voltage varies
due to change in the load resistance value. Consider output voltage is increased due to increasing in the load
current. The left side of the equation (4) is constant as input voltage Vin, I S and RS is constant. Then as load
current changes, the Zener current Iz will also change but in opposite way such that the sum of Iz and IL will
remain constant. Thus, the load current increases, the Zener current decreases and sum remain constant.
Form reverse bias characteristics even Iz changes, Vz remains same hence, and output voltage remains fairly
constant.
Regulation with a varying input voltage (line regulation): It is defined as the change in regulated voltage with
respect to variation in line voltage. It is denoted by ‘LR’. In this, input voltage varies but load resistance
remains constant hence, the load current remains constant. As the input voltage increases, form equation
(3) IS also varies accordingly. Therefore, Zener current IZ will increase. The extra voltage is dropped across the
Rs. Since, increased Iz will still have a constant Vz and Vz is equal to Vout. The output voltage will remain
constant. If there is decrease in Vin, Iz decreases as load current remains constant and voltage drop across Rs
is reduced. But even though Iz may change, Vz remains constant hence, output voltage remains constant.

50 | P a g e
PROCEDURE:

A) Load Regulation:
1. For finding load regulation, make connections as shown in figure below.
2. Keep input voltage constant say 10V, vary load resistance value.
3. Note down no load voltage ‘VNL’ for maximum load resistance value and full load voltage ‘VFL’ for minimum
load resistance value.
4. Calculate load regulation using, % load regulation = (VNL-VFL)/ VFL x100
B) Line Regulation:
1. Make the connections as shown in figure below.
2. Keep load resistance fixed value; vary DC input voltage
3. Note down output voltage as a load voltage with high line voltage ‘VHL’ and as a load voltage with low line
voltage ‘VLL’.
4. Using formula, % Line Regulation = (VHL-VLL)/ VNOM x100, where VNOM = the nominal load voltage under the
typical operating conditions. For ex. VNOM = 9.5 ± 4.5 V

51 | P a g e
PRECAUTIONS:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to damage the
diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.
52 | P a g e
DISCUSSION:
1. Give applications of Zener diode?
2. What is voltage regulation of Zener diode?
3. What is Zener current?
4. Give the equation from which series resistance of Zener diode regulator determined?
5. Give advantages of Zener diode regulator over other regulators?
6. In passivated structure of a Zener diode by which layer edges of the junction are covered?

CONCLUSION:

53 | P a g e
 Experiment No.6

AIM: To study the input and output characteristics of a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) in Common
Emitter mode and determine transistor parameters.

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus/Components Specification Quantity

1. DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY 0-30V,0-2A 1
2. BJT 1
3. RESISTOR
4. MULTIMETER DIGITAL
5. BREADBOARD 1
6. CONNECTING WIRES

Theory: The transistor is a two junction, three terminal semiconductor device which has three regions
namely the emitter region, the base region, and the collector region. There are two types of transistors. An
npn transistor has an n type emitter, a p type base and an n type collector while a pnp transistor has a p type
emitter, an n type base and a p type collector. The emitter is heavily doped, base region is thin and lightly
doped and collector is moderately doped and is the largest. The current conduction in transistors takes place
due to both charge carriers- that is electrons and holes and hence they are named Bipolar Junction
Transistors (BJT).

Two of the most important applications for the transistor are (1) as an amplifier in analog electronic systems,
and (2) as a switch in digital systems.
Basic Concepts: The operation of the BJT is based on the principles of the PN junction. In the NPN BJT,
electrons are injected from the forward-biased emitter into the thin base region where, as minority carriers,
they diffuse toward the reverse-biased collector. Some of these electrons recombine with holes in the base
region, thus producing a small base current, IB. The remaining electrons reach the collector where they
provide the main source of carriers for the collector current, IC. Thus, if there are no electrons injected from
the emitter, there will be (almost) no collector current and, therefore, the emitter current controls the
collector current. Combining currents, the total emitter current is given as I E = IB + IC. For normal PNP
operation, the polarity of both voltage sources must be reversed.

54 | P a g e
BJTs are used to amplify current, using a small base current to control a large current between the collector
and the emitter. This amplification is so important that one of the most noted parameters of gain, β (or hFE),
which is the ratio of collector current to base current.

When the BJT is used with the base and emitter terminals as the input and the collector and emitter
terminals as the output, the current gain as well as the voltage gain is large. It is for this reason that this
common-emitter (CE) configuration is the most useful connection for the BJT in electronic systems.

Operation regions and characteristics curves:

Depending upon the biasing of the two junctions, emitter-base (EB) junction and collector- base(CB) the
transistor is said to be in one of the four modes of operation. as described below:

Operating B-E B-C Features

region Junction Junction
Cut-off Reverse Reverse IB ≈ IC≈IE≈0 Off state – no current (VBE<0.7V)
Saturation Forward Forward Conducting structure VBE=0.7V VCE ≈ 0.2V
Active Forward Reverse Amplifier Gain: 100-1000 (IC=βIB) VBE=0.7V VCE >0.2V
Reverse- active Reverse Forward Limited use Gain< 1 (IB >IC)

NOTE: VBE will vary from 0.6 to 0.7 V

The most important characteristics of transistor in any configuration are input and output characteristics.

Input Characteristics: ‐
It is the curve between input current IB and input voltage VBE constant collector emitter voltage VCE. The
input characteristic resembles a forward biased diode curve. After cut in voltage the IB increases rapidly with
small increase in VBE. It means that dynamic input resistance is small in CE configuration. It is the ratio of
change in VBE to the resulting change in base current at constant collector emitter voltage. It is given by ΔVBE
/ ΔIB

The value of ri can be anything from a few hundreds to a few thousand ohms

Output Characteristics: ‐
This characteristic shows relation between collector current IC and collector voltage for various values of
base current. The change in collector emitter voltage causes small change in the collector current for the
constant base current, which defines the dynamic resistance and is given as ΔVCE / ΔIC at constant IB. The

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output characteristic of common emitter configuration consists of three regions: Active, Saturation and
Cut‐off.

The high magnitude of the output resistance (of the order of 100 kW) is due to the reverse- biased state of
this diode.

Transfer Characteristics: The transfer characteristics are plotted between the input and output currents (I B
versus IC). Both IB and IC increase proportionately.

Current amplification factor (β)

This is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in base current at a constant
collector-emitter voltage (VCE) when the transistor is in active state.

This is also known as small signal current gain and its value is very large. The ratio of I C and IB we get what is
called βdc of the transistor. Hence,

Since IC increases with IB almost linearly, the values of both βdc and βac are nearly equal.

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Active region: In this region base‐emitter junction is forward biased and base‐collector junction is reversed
biased. The curves are approximately horizontal in this region.

Saturation region: In this region both the junctions are forward biased.

Cut‐off: In this region, both the junctions are reverse biased. When the base current is made equal to zero,
the collector current is reverse leakage current ICEO. The region below IB = 0 is the called the cut-off region.

PROCEDURE:

1. Configure CE circuit using the NPN transistor as per the circuit diagram. Use RB = 100kΩ and RC = 1 kΩ.
2. For input characteristics, first fix the voltage VCE by adjusting VCC to the minimum possible position.
Now vary the voltage VBE slowly (say, in steps of 0.05V) by varying VBB. Measure VBE using a
multimeter. If VCE varies during measurement bring it back to the set value. To determine IB, measure
VRB across the resistor RB and use the relation IB = VRB/RB.
3. Repeat the above step for another value of VCE say, 2V.
4. For output characteristics, first fix IB = 0, i.e. VRB = 0. By adjusting VCC, vary the collector voltage VCE in
steps of say 1V and measure VCE and the corresponding IC using multimeters. If needed vary VCE in
negative direction as described for CB configuration and measure both V CE and IC, till you get 0
current.
5. Repeat the above step for at least 5 different values of IB by adjusting VBB. You may need to adjust VBB
continuously during measurement in order to maintain a constant IB.
6. Plot the input and output characteristics by using the readings taken above and determine the input
and output dynamic resistance.

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 7. Plot the transfer characteristics between IC and IB as described for CB configuration for a suitable
voltage of VCE on the output characteristics. Determine βac from the slope of this graph.

Circuit Diagram:

NPN transistor in CE configuration

Observations:
Input Characteristics

Sl. No. VCE = V VCE = V

VBE (V) VRB (V) IB (μA) VBE (V) VRB (V) IB (μA)
1
2
..
..
10

Output Characteristics

Sl. IB1 = 0 IB2 = IB3 = IB4 = IB5 =

No. VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) IC (mA)

1
2
..
..
10

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Transfer Characteristics VCE = ………..V

Sl. No. IB (μA) IC (mA)

1
2
3
4
5

Calculations from graph:

1. Small-Signal Current Gain: β = ∆IC/∆IB with the VCE at a constant voltage.
2. Dynamic input resistance: It is given by ΔVBE / ΔIB at constant VCE
3. Dynamic output resistance: It is given as ΔVCE / ΔIC at constant IB
4. Precautions:

Precautions:

1. No loose contacts at the junctions.

2. Meters of correct range must be used for precision.

Discussion:

1. Why CE configuration is most widely used?

2. Draw the equivalent Circuit of C.E
3. What is the Current Gain, voltage gain, i/p and o/p impedance in CE?.
4. Relation between ‘α’ and ‘β’ and ‘γ’
5. Give the condition to operate the given Transistor in active, saturation & Cut-off Regions.
6. What is Emitter Efficiency?

7. What is base width modulation?

8. What is the function of base region of a transistor? Why is this region made thin and lightly doped ?

Conclusion:

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 Experiment No.7

AIM: To study the following linear applications of op-amp

a) Inverting amplifier
b) Non – inverting amplifier

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus/Components Specification Quantity

1. DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY 0-30V,0-2A 1
2. OP – AMP IC 741

3. FUNCTION GENERATOR

4. Oscilloscope DIGITAL STORAGE

5. RESISTOR
6. MULTIMETER DIGITAL
7. BREADBOARD 1
8. CONNECTING WIRES

Theory:
An operational amplifier ("op amp") is a direct-coupled, differential-input, high- gain voltage amplifier,
usually packaged in the form of a small integrated circuit. The term "operational" dates back to the early
days of analog computers when these devices were employed in circuits that performed mathematical
operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, and the solution of differential equations. Today's op
amps are used in a much wider variety of circuits and operate at considerably lower voltages and powers;
however, the name remains.

The linear circuit which forms the heart of the operational amplifier is a fairly complicated device consisting
of many (30 or more) active and passive devices integrated into silicon. The beauty of operational amplifiers,
however, is that to first order the input-output characteristics are very simple; the circuit designer using the
op amp need not be overly concerned with the inner workings of the thing and can treat it like a "black box"
with certain specified and very desirable properties. As such, the modern operational amplifier is a very
useful and versatile building block for thousands of circuits in applications as diverse as audio, video,
communications, process control, instrumentation, and biomedicine.

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Pin Diagram of IC 741 Op-Amp
The pin configuration of the IC 741 operational amplifier is shown below. It comprises of eight pins where the
function of each pin is discussed below.
Pin-1 is Offset null.
Pin-2 is Inverting (-) i/p terminal.
Pin-3 is a non-inverting (+) i/p terminal.
Pin-4 is -Ve voltage supply (VCC)
Pin-5 is offset null.
Pin-6 is the o/p voltage.
Pin-7 is +ve voltage supply (+VCC)
Pin-8 is not connected.

The IC 741 operational amplifier is used in two methods such as an inverting (-) and a non-inverting (+)

Inverting Amplifier:

This is the most widely used of all the Op-amp circuits. The output V0 is fed back to the inverting input through
the Rf – Rin network as shown in figure where Rf is the feedback resistor. The input signal Vi is applied to the
inverting input terminal through Rin and non- inverting input terminal of Op-amp is grounded.The output V0 is
given by
V0 = Vi (-Rf / Rin)
Where, the gain of amplifier is - Rf / Rin

The negative sign indicates a phase-shift of 180 degrees between Vi and V0. The effective input impedance is
Ri. An inverting amplifier uses negative feedback to invert and amplify a voltage. The Rin,Rf resistor network
allows some of the output signal to be returned to the input. Since the output is 180° out of phase, this
amount is effectively subtracted from the input, thereby reducing the input into the operational amplifier. This
reduces the overall gain of the amplifier and is dubbed negative feedback

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Circuit Diagram:

MODEL GRAPH:

Non – inverting amplifier:

The circuit diagram of non – inverting amplifer is shown in figure. Here, the signal is applied to the non –
inverting input terminal and feedback is given to inverting terminal. The circuit amplifiers the input signal
without inverting it. The output Vout is given by

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The voltage gain is given by

Compared to the inverting amplifier, the input resistance of the non-inverting is extremely large.

Circuit Diagram:

MODEL GRAPH

Procedure:
Inverting & Non – inverting amplifier

1. Make connections as given in fig 1 & fig 2 for inverting and non inverting amplifiers respectively.
2. Give sine wave input of Vi volts using AFO with the frequency of 1 KHZ.
3. The output voltage V0 observed on a CRO. A dual channel CRO to be used to see V i & Vo.

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 4. Vary Rf and measure the corresponding V0 and observe the phase of V0 with respect to V0.
5. Tabulate the readings and verify with theoretical values.

Observations:
FOR INVERTING AMPLIFIER:
Vi =---------------
Rin =---------------

Sl.No Rf Observed V0 Calculated V0= V0 = Vi (-Rf / Rin)

FOR NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER:

Vi =---------------
Rin =---------------

Sl.No Rf Observed V0 Calculated V0 =V0 = Vi (-Rf / Rin)

Precaution:
1. Make null adjustment before applying the input signal.
2. Maintain proper Vcc levels.

Discussion:
1. Define an integrated circuit and classify them.
2. What is an op-amp and what are its types?
3. How to define the symbol of op-amp?
4. What are the various terminals of op-amp 741 IC?
5. What is the operating voltage range of IC 741?

Conclusion:

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 Experiment No.8

AIM: To study the following linear applications of op-amp

a) Summing Amplifier
b) Differential Amplifier

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus/Components Specification Quantity

1. DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY 0-30V,0-2A 1
2. OP – AMP IC 741

3. FUNCTION GENERATOR

4. OSCILLOSCOPE DIGITAL STORAGE

5. RESISTOR
6. MULTIMETER DIGITAL
7. BREADBOARD 1
8. CONNECTING WIRES

Theory:
Summing Amplifier:

This is one of the liner applications of the Op-Amp. A circuit whose output is the sum of several input signals is
called a summer. Shown in fig.1 is an inverting summer. The output is

When Rf = R1 =R2, then

V0 = - (V1+V2)
That is, the output is an inverted sum of the inputs.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Differential amplifier:

A basic differential amplifier can be used as a subtractor. If all the resistor are equal in value as given in figure,
then the output voltage can be derived by using superposition principle
V0ut = (V2-V1)

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figures to construct summer and subtractor circuit respectively.
2. Vary the voltages in RPS and observe the output voltages.
3. Check the result with the theoretical values.

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Observations:

SUMMING AMPLIFIER

Sl.no V1 V2 Observed output Theoretical output

Vout –( V1+ V2)

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Sl.no V1 V2 Observed output Theoretical output

Vout (V2-V1)

Precaution:
1. Make null adjustment before applying the input signal.
2. Maintain proper Vcc levels.

Discussion:
1. What are an adder and subtractor?
2. Write the formulae for sum of three inputs for an op-amp.
3. What are the various DC characteristics of op-amp?
4. What are the various AC characteristics of op-amp?

Conclusion:

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 Experiment No.9

AIM: To verify the operation of all Logic gates: OR gate, AND gate, NOT gate, NOR gate,
NAND gate and Ex-OR gate

Apparatus Required:
Sl.No. Apparatus/Components Specification Quantity
1. DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY 0-30V,0-2A 1
2. DIGITAL ICS IC 7408,IC 7404,IC
7432,IC7400,IC 7402,IC
7486
3. LED
4. BREADBOARD 1
5. CONNECTING WIRES

Theory: A Digital Logic Gate is an electronic device that makes logical decisions based on the different
combinations of digital signals present on its inputs. Digital logic gates may have more than one input but
generally only have one digital output.

The Digital Logic Gate is the basic building block from which all digital electronic circuits and microprocessor
based systems are constructed from. Basic digital logic gates perform logical operations of AND, OR and NOT
on binary numbers.
Digital Logic States

In digital logic design only two voltage levels or states are allowed and these states are generally referred to as
Logic “1” and Logic “0”, High and Low, or True and False. These two states are represented in Boolean algebra
and standard truth tables by the binary digits of “1” and “0” respectively.
A good example of a digital state is a simple light switch as it is either “ON” or “OFF” but not both at the same
time. The relationship between these various digital states as being:

Boolean Algebra Boolean Logic Voltage State

Logic “1” True (T) High (H)
Logic “0” False (F) Low (L)

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The Logic “OR” Gate
A Logic OR Gate or Inclusive-OR gate is a type of digital logic gate that has an output which is normally at logic
level “0” and only goes “HIGH” to a logic level “1” when one or more of its inputs are at logic level “1”. The
output, Q of a “Logic OR Gate” only returns “LOW” again when ALL of its inputs are at a logic level “0”. In other
words for a logic OR gate, any “HIGH” input will give a “HIGH”, logic level “1” output.

The logic or Boolean expression given for a Digital Logic OR Gate is that for Logical Addition which is denoted
by a plus sign, ( + ) giving us the Boolean expression of: A+B = Q.

“If either A or B is true, then Q is true”

2-input Logic OR Gate

Symbol Truth Table LED status
B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 1

2-input OR Gate 1 0 1
1 1 1
Boolean Expression Q = A+B Read as A OR B gives Q

7432 Quad 2-input Logic OR Gate

The Logic “AND” Gate

A Logic AND Gate is a type of digital logic gate that has an output which is normally at logic level “0” and only
goes “HIGH” to a logic level “1” when ALL of its inputs are at logic level “1”. The output state of a “Logic AND
Gate” only returns “LOW” again when ANY of its inputs are at a logic level “0”.

The logic or Boolean expression given for a Digital Logic AND Gate is that for Logical Multiplication which is
denoted by a single dot or full stop symbol, ( . ) giving us the Boolean expression of: A.B = Q.
“If both A and B are true, then Q is true”

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2-input Logic AND Gate

LED
Symbol Truth Table
status
B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
2-input AND Gate 1 0 0
1 1 1
Boolean Expression Q = A.B Read as A AND B gives Q

2-input AND Gate

The Logic “NOT” Gate

The digital Logic NOT Gate is the most basic of all the logical gates and is sometimes referred to as an Inverting
Buffer or simply a Digital Inverter. It is a single input device which has an output level that is normally at logic
level “1” and goes “LOW” to a logic level “0” when its single input is at logic level “1”, in other words it
“inverts” (complements) its input signal. The output from a NOT gate only returns “HIGH” again when its input
is at logic level “0” giving us the Boolean expression of: A = Q’.

“If A is NOT true, then Q is true”

The Logic NOT Gate Truth Table

Symbol Truth Table LED status
A Q
0 1

Inverter or NOT Gate 1 0

Boolean Expression Q = not A or A Read as inverse of A gives Q

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Gate or Inverter

The Logic NOR Gate

The Logic NOR Gate or Inclusive-NOR gate is a combination of the digital logic OR gate with that of an inverter
or NOT gate connected together in series. The NOR (Not – OR) gate has an output that is normally at logic level
“1” and only goes “LOW” to logic level “0” when ANY of its inputs are at logic level “1”.

“If both A and B are NOT true, then Q is true”

Symbol Truth Table LED status
B A Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
2-input NOR Gate
1 1 0
Boolean Expression Q = (A+B)’ Read as A OR B gives NOT Q

2-input NOR Gate

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The Logic NAND Gate Definition
The Logic NAND Gate is a combination of the digital logic AND gate with that of an inverter or NOT gate
connected together in series. The NAND (Not – AND) gate has an output that is normally at logic level “1” and
only goes “LOW” to logic level “0” when ALL of its inputs are at logic level “1”.

Logic NAND Gate Equivalence

“If both A and B are NOT true, then Q is true”

2-input Logic NAND Gate

LED
Symbol Truth Table
status
B A Q
0 0 1
0 1 1
2-input NAND Gate 1 0 1
1 1 0
Read as A AND B gives NOT
Boolean Expression Q = (A.B)’
Q

7400 Quad 2-input Logic NAND Gate

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The Logic Exclusive-OR Gate
There are two other types of digital logic gates which although they are not a basic gate in their own right as
they are constructed by combining together other logic gates, their output Boolean function is important
enough to be considered as complete logic gates. These two “hybrid” logic gates are called the Exclusive-OR
(Ex-OR) Gate and its complement the Exclusive-NOR (Ex-NOR) Gate.

For a 2-input OR gate, if A = “1”, OR B = “1”, OR BOTH A + B = “1” then the output from the digital gate must
also be at a logic level “1” and because of this, this type of logic gate is known as an Inclusive-OR function. The
gate gets its name from the fact that it includes the case of Q = “1” when both A and B = “1”.

If however, an logic output “1” is obtained when ONLY A = “1” or when ONLY B = “1” but NOT both together
at the same time, giving the binary inputs of “01” or “10”, then the output will be “1”. This type of gate is
known as an Exclusive-OR function or more commonly an Ex-Or function for short. This is because its boolean
expression excludes the “OR BOTH” case of Q = “1” when both A and B = “1”.
Q = (A  B) = A.B + A.B
The Exclusive-OR Gate function, or Ex-OR for short, is achieved by combining standard logic gates together to
form more complex gate functions that are used extensively in building arithmetic logic circuits, computational
logic comparators and error detection circuits.
2-input Ex-OR Gate
Symbol Truth Table LED status
B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
2-input Ex-OR Gate
1 1 0
Boolean Expression Q = A  B A OR B but NOT BOTH gives Q

7486 Quad 2-input Exclusive-OR Gate

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Digital Logic Gate Truth Table Summary
The following logic gates truth table compares the logical functions of the 2-input logic gates detailed above.

Truth Table Outputs For Each Gate

Inputs
A B AND NAND OR NOR EX-OR EX-NOR
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

Procedure:
1. Plug the IC chip into the breadboard.
2. Connect the supply voltage.
3. Set the inputs to the logic gates according to the all possible combinations.
4. Once all connections have been done, turn on the power switch of the Supply.

5. Monitor the output for the proper indication. If the light is off, write “off” in the LED column which
means that output is zero. If the light is ON, write “on” in the LED column which means that output is
one.
6. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the remaining rows of the truth tables.

Precaution:
1. The continuity of the connecting terminals should be checked before going

2. It should be care that the values of the ICs of the circuit do not exceed their ratings (maximum value).

3. Before the circuit connection the working condition of all the components should be checked.

Discussion:
1) What are logic gates?
2) What is the difference between Positive Logic and Negative Logic?
3) Draw EX-OR gate using NAND and NOR gate.
4) Why NOR gate and NAND gate called "Universal logic gate"?
5) Implement following expressions by NOR gate only.
1. (A + B). (B + C)
2. (A + C). (B)

Conclusion:

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 Experiment No.10
AIM: Implementation of the Given Boolean Function using Logic Gates
a) S= ABC
b) C= A.B + A.C + B.C
c) M=A’B’I0+A’BI1+A B’I2+ABI3
N.B.= (a)&(b) are termed as Half Adder circuits and (c) is termed as 4:1 Multiplexer Circuit
Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus/Components Specification Quantity

1. DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY 0-30V,0-2A 1
2. DIGITAL ICS IC 7408,IC 7432,IC 7486,
IC 7404
3. LED
4. BREADBOARD 1
5. CONNECTING WIRES

Theory:

A Boolean function is an expression formed with binary variables, the 2 two binary operators OR and AND, and
unary operator NOT, parentheses, and an equal sign. For a given value of the variables, the function can be
either 0 or 1.
Ex: F1 = xyz’. The function is equal to 1 if x = 1 and y = 1 z’ = 1; otherwise F1 = 0.

LOGIC DIAGRAM (to be drawn by the students):

Procedure:

1. Collect the components necessary to accomplish this experiment.

2. Plug the IC chip into the breadboard.
3. Connect the supply voltage and ground lines to the chips. PIN7 = Ground and PIN14 = +5V.
4. Make the connections according to circuit diagram.
5. Connect the inputs of the gate to the Power Supply.
6. Connect the output of the gate to the output of the LEDs.
7. Once all connections have been done, turn on the power switch of the supply.
8. Operate the switches and fill in the truth table (Write "1" if LED is ON and "0" if LED is OFF ).Apply the
various combination of inputs according to the truth table and observe the condition of Output LEDs.

Observations: (FOR SL.NO.1&2)

INPUTS A B C S= ABC C= A.B + A.C + B.C

1 0 0 0
0 0 1
…. ….
8 1 1 1

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Observations: (FOR SL.NO.3)

DATA INPUTS OUTPUT

A B M
0 0 I0
0 1 I1
1 0 I2
1 1 I3

Precaution:
1. The continuity of the connecting terminals should be checked before going

2. It should be care that the values of the ICs of the circuit do not exceed their ratings (maximum value).

3. Before the circuit connection the working condition of all the components should be checked.

Discussion:
1. In Boolean algebra, the OR operation is performed by which properties?
2. The expression for Absorption law is given by _________
3. According to Boolean law: A + 1 =?
4. The involution of A is equal to _________
5. A (A + B) =?
6. De Morgan’s theorem states that _________
7. (A + B)(A’ * B’) = ?
8. Complement of the expression A’B + CD’ is _________
9. Simplify Y = AB’ + (A’ + B) C.
10. The Boolean function A + BC is a reduced form of ____________

Conclusion:

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