[THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNER AND LEARNING

Educ 201 PRINCIPLES]

The Child and Adolescent

Learner and Learning Principles

MILENE ANN D. GERTOS

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Educ 201 PRINCIPLES]

Disclaimer:

The content of this learning module is meant to supplement and not to replace books. Further,
informations found here are compiled by the authors and the original author and websites are
being recognized. This is strictly for classroom use only and should not be used for other purposes.

Course Overview:

Course No. 201

Course Code Educ-201
Descriptive Title The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning
Principles
Credit Units 3 units
School Year/Term Academic Year 2020-21
Mode of Delivery Modulized Learning
Name of Instructor/Professor Milene Ann D. Gertos
Course Description This course focuses on child and adolescent
development with emphasis on current research
and theory on biological, linguistic, cognitive,
social and emotional dimensions of development.
Further, this includes factors that affect the
progress of development and shall include
appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for
each developmental level.
Course Outcomes 1. Demonstrated a deep and principled
understanding of compare and contrast;
organize and synthesize different
research and theories related to the four
broad dimensions of child and adolescent
development. (BTI 1.2.1)
2. Observed and reflected on the
applicability of the theories to children
and adolescents in their locality (BTI
2.5.1)
3. Expressed some insights regarding how
teaching and learning process should
take into consideration the various forms
of knowledge regarding child and
adolescent development. (BTI 4.5.1)
4. Understood the importance of gender
equality in the learning place. (BTI 3.1.1)
SLSU Vision A high quality corporate science and technology
university

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SLSU Mission SLSU will:

 produce S and T leaders and competitive
professionals;
 generate breakthrough research in S and
T –based disciplines;
 transform and improve the quality of life
in the communities in the service areas;
 be self-sufficient and financially viable.

SYLLABUS:

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TABLE OF CONTENTS:

Title Page----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------0
Disclaimer---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
Course Overview-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1-2
Syllabus-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2-7
Table of Contents-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
Module Guide--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9-11
Pre-Test-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11-12
Learning Plan------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13-59
Introduction
Lesson Title
Intended Learning Outcomes
Key to Remember/vocabulary list
Overview
Discussion
 Activity
 Analysis
 Abstraction
 Application
Resources/References

Module 1:  The Nature of Child and Adolescent Development

Lesson 1- Reasons for studying child and adolescent development------------------------------------13-18
Lesson 2- Concept of growth and development and Factors affecting growth and development18-24
Lesson 3- Aspects of development: cognitive, social, emotional, personality, moral---------------24-29

Module 2- The Child and Adolescent Learner

Lesson 1 - Definition of childhood and adolescence------------------------------------------------------29-34
Lesson 2 - Physical and motor development in young children and Child’s brain development-34-38

Module 3: Physical and Physiological Stages of Development

Lesson 1- Define the terms: physical and physiological-------------------------------------------------38-43
Lesson 2- Factors affecting physical and physiological development---------------------------------43-47
Lesson 3- Developmental stages: 6-10---------------------------------------------------------------------47-54
Lesson 4- Development stages: 10-19-----------------------------------------------------------------------54-59

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Introduction:
This Midterm Module in “The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles” covers 3
modules. Module 1 covers 3 lessons, module 2 covers 2 lessons and module 3 covers 4 lessons.
For your reference in terms of the titles of the 3 modules and the lesson titles that each module
contains, refer below:

Module 1:  The Nature of Child and Adolescent Development

Lesson 1- Reasons for studying child and adolescent development
Lesson 2- Concept of growth and development and Factors affecting growth and development
Lesson 3- Aspects of development: cognitive, social, emotional, personality, moral

Module 2- The Child and Adolescent Learner

Lesson 1 - Definition of childhood and adolescence
Lesson 2 - Physical and motor development in young children and Child’s brain development

Module 3: Physical and Physiological Stages of Development

Lesson 1- Define the terms: physical and physiological
Lesson 2- Factors affecting physical and physiological development
Lesson 3- Developmental stages: 6-10
Lesson 4- Development stages: 10-19

MODULE GUIDE
Welcome students to the subject “The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles”
for this academic year 2020-2021! This module is design for 2nd year students as a training for
you to completely understand how children and adolescent learners perceive the process of
learning and how they behave in the classroom, this will make you fully equipped when you will
deal with these matters as you will become teachers one of these days. Through this, you will be
equipped with the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary and should be develop since you
will be engaging with the different types of learners. Before going through with the activities,
you are advised to answer the pre-test to measure your prior knowledge. After answering the
series of activities in the module you are going to answer the post-test to measure how much
you learn from the topics covered in the whole module found on the last part. On the other
hand, this module uses 4A’s approach which will be your guide towards answering the tasks
given. The 4 A’s are the following: a. Activity- this will serve as your motivation to get into the
lesson, to be excited on what lessons to be discussed on the later part; b. Analysis- serve as a
spring board before getting into the lesson proper. A series of questions will be given which
leads you to guess the topic; c. Abstraction- also known as mini-lecturette which contains a
short but comprehensive discussion of the topic; d. Application-provides series of learning
activities for you to answer. Please answer heartily all the learning tasks/activities stipulated in
every part of the module. Enjoy answering while learning at the same time.

1. To further understand the Midterm Module, read the Introduction.

2. To be guided on how to navigate and study as well as learn from this Midterm module,
carefully read and understand the Module Guide.
3. To be assessed on how far have you understood the Midterm module prior to learning,
answer the Pre-Test.
4. You are also directed to follow the requirements on answering the Midterm module,
follow as directed below:

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 Requirements on Answering:
1. Write your tasks/reflections/activities in an A4 bond paper.
2. On the upper left of the bond paper, write your full name with signature and
under it is your course and your section.
Ex. NATHAN EDUARD GERTOS
BTLED 2-A
3. On the center, write the module number and title.
Ex. Module #1- Definition of childhood and adolescence
4. On the upper right, write the date you have started answering the module.
5. Bottom center, write the page number (applicable to 2 or more pages only)

5. You are also directed to follow the methods of sending your answers which is found
below:

Methods on sending your answers (Online)

 Take a clear picture of your output per page. (for clearer results, used “CamScanner” app
available on Google Play/ App Store)
 If you have many pages, please organize on sending your outputs. (page 2 should be sent
after page 1)
 Send through moodle learning management system.
 Deadline: 1st week of October, 2020
Methods on sending your answers (Offline)
 Compile all your outputs accordingly and place it in a sealed long brown envelope.
 Write your full name, course and section, and instructor’s name at the back of the
envelope.
Ex. NATHAN EDUARD GERTOS
BTLED 2-A
MILENE ANN D. GERTOS
 Send your outputs thru LBC or JRS Express address to: Milene Ann D. Gertos,
Department of Teacher Education, SLSU Sogod, Sogod, Southern Leyte.
 Deadline: 1st week of October

6. To be assessed on how far have you understood Midterm and Final Term Module after
learning, answer the Post-Test found on the end part of the Final Term module.
7. To further improve your learning of the overall lessons, you can visit the websites of the
lessons, links are found in the resources/ references part at the end of each lesson.
8. For the reflection-makings, refer to this rubrics below:

Exceptional (5) Proficient (3) No Credit (1)

Focus Clearly state the Implies but does not Does not state or imply
purpose of the activity clearly state the purpose the purpose of the
Never diverges from the of the activity activity.
topic Never diverges from the Diverges from the topic
topic

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 Content Demonstrate a Demonstrate a reflective Lacks development and
thorough self-analysis analysis including a self reflection
including a summary of summary of the activity Does not includes
the activity supported supported by details summary of the activity
by specific and Draws conclusions and or has insufficient
illustrative details. makes a conclusion to details
Draws conclusions and future plans.
makes connection to
future plans

Organization Presents the reflection Presents the reflection Presents the reflection
in a compelling, highly in a well-organized in a poorly organized
organized manner. manner. manner.
Includes the following Include the following Elements are missing
elements: elements: that impact
Attention-getting Introduction with thesis understanding:
introduction, which statement No Introduction
includes thesis Transitions No transition
statement Conclusions No Conclusion
Effective transition
Reflective conclusion

Conventions Uses articulate and Uses appropriate Uses slang and

appropriate language, language, word choice, unsophisticated word
sophisticated word sentence structure. choice.
choice. And sentence 2-3 errors in: 4 or more errors in:
structure. Grammar Grammar
0-1 errors in: Punctuation Punctuation
Gammar Mechanics Mechanics
Punctuation
Mechanics
DepEd 2007

Pre-Test:
General Instruction: Read each item carefully. Do not look on the content while answering this
test because this is intended for you to answer prior to learning, this is to assess on how have
you perceived “The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles” before exploring and
learning from this module.

A. Instruction: Below are classroom scenarios, read each carefully and then give your own way
of handling or managing the situation, given that you are the Teacher inside the classroom. This
is to evaluate your readiness in terms of dealing with your learners’ behavior and attitude one
of these days when you will become a teacher too and have your own classroom.

1. There is a fight between your 2 students and the class is divided into 2 groups
depending on who’s in the side of the student they consider as their friend. Knowing
that this is not a good situation inside the pace of learning, how will you reconcile them?
2. One of your students has broken your flower vase even if it was neatly and orderly
placed in your teacher’s table. Also it has a sentimental value because it was a gift you
received from your favorite teacher when she congratulated you on passing your board
licensure examination. How will you deal with the concern student?

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 3. One of your students is often absent in class and if he is present he is always late. How
will you deal with him considering that some of his classmates were already imitating
his behavior since they thought you were allowing such behavior? How will you deal
with the concern student and the rest of the class?
4. Your student is applying for a scholarship grant yet she was not able to get the
scholarship she thought would help her get through her education since she has poor
parents. How will you help her and encourage her to study hard?
5. You caught your students talking with each other even if you were already conducting
class discussions. How will you deal with them while refraining to embarrass them in
front of their classmates?
6. You caught your students cheating during an examination you conducted. How will you
deal with them without interrupting their other classmates who were diligently
answering the test?
7. Your students were irresponsible, they do not arrange their chairs, and they do not
clean the room before they leave. How would you inform them of their responsibility
without offending them and making them feel that they are made into utility personnel?
8. A parent went into your classroom asking of her child’s behavior inside the class and
you had also complained of the same student as a very naughty and an uncooperative
student in class. How will you deal with the child knowing he has a fear that you might
say something to his parents that will eventually make them mad at him?
9. You notice that the students in your 1st honor and 2nd honor rank in the honor roll were
having an unhealthy competition, ignoring each other and competing with each other as
if they were in a sort of a fight on who will get into the top. How will you encourage
healthy competition and enjoyable school time to all your learners most specifically the
2 students of your concern?
10. One of your students has this overconfidence, believing he is smart and so he corrects
every classmate he thought is wrong according to his own basis and standard. How will
you handle a student who keeps on correcting your lessons and asking you unnecessary
questions during discussion time?

B. Observe around you and take your observations into the List of the following concepts
below:
1. Reasons for studying “The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles”
2. Children age 6-10 Behaviors
3. Children age 6-10 Attitudes
4. Adolescent age 10-19 Behaviors
5. Adolescent age 10-19 Attitudes

C. Answer the following questions below:

1. What do you think is the significance of studying the subject “The Child and Adolescent
Learner and Learning Principles”?
2. As a future teacher, how will this subject (mentioned on the previous number) help you
in doing your future career effectively?
3. As a future teacher, how will you make a good use of the knowledge that you will learn
from this subject?
4. If you are to decide, would you take or not take the subject? If you will take it, please
provide the reason for deciding so, the same goes with the “not take it” answer.
5. How will you deal with your learners someday? Knowing today’s learners as
uninterested and naughty, students of the generations to come might get worse. How
will you deal with such learners someday?

Module 1:  The Nature of Child and Adolescent Development

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Lesson 1
Reasons for Studying Child and Adolescent Development
Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
a) Determine the Reasons for Studying Child and Adolescent
Development
b) Demonstrate knowledge on the importance of Reasons
for Studying Child and Adolescent Development
c) Practice effective study method for the subject “The Child
and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles”
Key to Remember/vocabulary list:

 Early childhood development (ECD) encompasses physical, socio emotional, cognitive

and motor development between 0-8 years of age.
 Emotional awareness is the ability to recognise and make sense of not just your
own emotions, but also those of others. High levels of emotional awareness means you
can learn from your feelings quickly. For example, if you feel sad, you can reflect on why
this is so, and make decisions that then help you.
 Childhood is the time for children to be in school and at play, to grow strong and
confident with the love and encouragement of their family and an extended community
of caring adults. It refers to the state and condition of a child's life, to the quality of
those years.
 Developmental milestones are behaviors or physical skills seen in infants
and children as they grow and develop. Rolling over, crawling, walking, and talking are
all considered milestones. The milestones are different for each age range. There is a
normal range in which a child may reach each milestone.
 Therapy is the process or talking to a trained counselor about your emotional and
mental problems and your relationships in order to understand and improve the way
you feel and behave. Therapy or a therapy is a treatment for a particular illness or
condition.
Overview:
In this lesson you will be able to determine the Reasons for Studying Child and Adolescent
Development, as well as its importance and the benefits it will bring to you as a Learner today
and a future Educator someday.
I. Activity: List down 20 Reasons why Teachers need to study “The Child and Adolescent
Learner and Learning Principles”. The reasons could be your own idea or you can also
browse on Google for additional data or you could also ask reliable persons-such as
teachers who are close to you.

II. Analysis: Answer the following questions below; you can answer with your own idea
only.
1. What do you think is the main reason why teachers need to study the
subject “The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles”?
2. As a future teacher, how would you effectively study the subject “The
Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles”?
3. Considering the new normal modes of Learning, how can you practice
what have you learn from this lesson? Give at least 5 ways on how will
you put your learning into actions even at the pace of your own home?

III. Abstraction:

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If you’ve ever spent time with young children, you already know they are amazing learners.
Those little people scamper around, chattering and learning at what seems to be a hundred
miles per hour. Young children absorb information and learn in many all at once. For example,
while a toddler is learning important physical skills and coordination—they’re also developing
speech, studying social cues and learning emotional expression. It’s like rubbing your tummy
and patting your head at the same time with three or four other important elements thrown in!
If you’re a parent, you’ve probably heard quite a bit about some of these developmental
milestones already. Doctors, teachers and all sorts of professionals who interact with kids keep
an eye out for important changes as children grow. But even if you’ve studied up on early
childhood development, keeping track of important milestones can seem overwhelming. To
make things easier, we asked experts in early childhood to share some of the most important
things to know about early childhood development. Keep reading to get an idea of what
childhood development is like, as well as the important milestones along the way!
Why is early childhood development important?
You can probably guess why children need to develop and grow as they go along. Obviously they
can’t stay infants forever, no matter how cute they are. But professionals who work with
children are much better equipped to help them learn if they understand how they grow.
“By being aware of development, teachers can understand what types of environments children
need,” says Dr. Dawn-Elise Snipes, PhD, LMHC, LPC-MHSP, EIP and host of Counselor.
Fostering the right environment can help children develop self-esteem as well as explain some
of their behaviors, Snipes explains. “Understanding early childhood development helps teachers
more effectively manage their classroom, but more importantly, it helps children develop a
strong sense of confidence and determination.”
When you have a strong foundation for what is going on in those little minds—you’ll have a
much better idea of what they need to flourish. There is also a benefit to catching any
development trouble early on.
“Early childhood education professionals need to know how to use screening tools when they
suspect a delay may be present, and how to support parents in seeking help,” says Dr. Ari Yares,
PhD, NCSP and psychologist.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) says that significant delays in
development can be indicators of a medical or psychological condition. Catching potential
underlying causes early can allow parents and caregivers to get support for their child and
better understand how to adjust to their needs. According to the CDC, certain therapies and
interventions will be much more effective early in a child’s life, when their brain is most
adaptable. This makes early education an ideal stage for keeping an eye on what those little
ones are learning.
Important areas of early childhood development

Early childhood development is a little easier to understand when you break it into categories of
learning. The CDC separates early learning into four main areas:
 Social and emotional
 Language/communication
 Movement/physical development
 Cognitive (learning, thinking, problem-solving)
In healthy children, these areas are all important in growth and development. When you
consider a learning environment, these growth areas intersect. For example, social and
emotional awareness often rises through language and communication in the preschool years.
Or toddlers might problem-solve and make cognitive discoveries through movement and
physical growth.
But when you understand development as a whole, you see that educating children goes way
beyond letters and numbers. “We often focus on creating a language-rich environment using
colors, numbers and shapes, but leave out building a child’s emotional vocabulary,” says Yares.

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Leaving an important element—like emotional expression—out of the picture can make
learning more difficult for young students. “ECE professionals need to understand the full gamut
of early childhood development, since emotional expression is often tied to behavioral
difficulties we see in young children,” Yares says.
While there are definitely milestones to look for as children get older (e.g., beginning to make
sentences or learning to walk), experts in childhood development warn against measuring all
children against a checklist.
“Understand that development does not happen in a neat, linear fashion like textbooks or charts
describe,” Yares says. “It is uneven and varies from child to child, even within the same family.”
Yares advises early childhood professionals to understand important time frames and
milestones, while learning about how development works at a more holistic level.
Development milestones in early childhood
The CDC lists common developmental milestones in young children along with the age range
where these changes typically occur. If you have a rough idea of what to expect from children as
they reach these milestones, you will be better equipped to work with children and keep an eye
out for healthy growth.

At 2–4 months old, children:*

 Try to look at parents; begin to smile
 Copy some movements and facial expressions
 Turns head toward sounds
 Tracks movement with their eyes
 Starts to babble
 Holds head up, can push up while lying on tummy
At 6–9 months old, children:*
 Recognize faces
 Sit without support
 Have favorite toys
 Can pick up objects between thumb and index finger
 Pull themselves to stand while holding on to objects
At one-year old, children:*
Are often shy or nervous with strangers
 Use simple gestures; say “mama” and “dada”
 Follow simple directions like, “Pick up that toy.”
 Find hidden items easily
 May stand or take a few steps without support
At 18-months old, children:*
 Initiate play by handing things to others
 Point at what they want
 Say several single words
 Know how ordinary objects (telephone, spoon) are used
 Eat with spoons and drink with cups
At two-years old, children:*
 Show excitement around other kids
 Repeat words or sentences often overheard
 Begin to sort shapes and colors
 Begin to run, climb, throw and stand on tiptoe
At three-years old, children:*
 Exhibit a wide range of emotions
 Show concern for others
 Follow instructions with two or three steps
 Play make-believe

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  Dress and undress themselves
At four-years old, children:*
 Enjoy trying new things and talking about interests
 Know some basic grammar rules
 Start to understand time and the idea of counting
 Pour, cut and mash their food with supervision
At five-years old, children:*
 Like to sing, dance and playact
 Speak clearly in full sentences
 Can print some letters or numbers
 Can use the toilet on their own
Applying early childhood development to the care environment
Whether you are teaching young ones, keeping them safe and busy in a care center, or even
raising one of your own, understanding childhood development can make a great impact on
how you relate with little ones.
“ECE professionals are uniquely positioned to help children develop an emotional vocabulary
through activities like reading and by describing behavior and feelings happening in the
classroom,” Yares says. “This is directly linked to the support that young children need in
expressing their wants and needs and dealing with the emotional reactions.”
“Children at a preschool age tend to think very egocentrically and in all-or-nothing terms,”
Snipes says. “It is vital to communicate in concrete terms so children do not feel responsible for
something that may not be their fault.” When teachers understand how children develop, they’ll
know to separate the child from the behavior to prevent children from internalizing harmful
messages.
Looking at how children grow and what they need at different phases of development will also
help teachers see a bigger picture of education. Snipes emphasizes that needs like sleep and
nutrition have a huge impact on a child’s ability to learn and manage their emotions. When
teachers partner with parents and caregivers, these aspects of early childhood development will
be helpful to provide the best support possible for every child.

Why learn about child development?

A solid understanding of milestones and developmental pathways across each domain of
children’s development can benefit child care providers in several ways.
The National Association for the Education of Young Children, in their Position Statement
principles that should guide early childhood professional practice, explain,
“Knowledge of how children within a given age span typically develop and learn provides a
general framework to guide teachers in preparing the learning environment, considering
curriculum, designing learning experiences, and teaching and interacting with children. Also
important for educators to know are the sequences in which children gain specific concepts,
skills, and abilities, building on prior development and learning…. Familiarity with known
learning sequences should inform curriculum development and teaching practice.” –
Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children Birth to Age
8, NAEYC Position Statement (2009)
Dig a bit deeper, and there are five benefits that child care professionals gain when they take the
time and effort to learn about the typical growth and development of children.
 Benefit 1: Knowledge of child development and learning provides the best foundation
for planning for a group of children.
Knowledge of child development is the first of three types of knowledge child care
providers need in their work with children. The other two are: knowledge of individual
children; and knowledge of family, community, and culture from which the child comes.
Knowing what is typical at a certain age is the best place to start when experiences and
environments are planned for that age of children. Plans based on typical child

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 development and learning meet the needs of the majority of children, but the provider
then makes changes to accommodate individual children who may be ahead or behind.
 Benefit 2: Knowledge of child development and learning provides the best starting point
for planning for a new child.
It’s also the best place to start when a provider enrolls a new child about whom little is
known. Until the provider can observe and assess the child herself, it’s helpful to start by
assuming the child will benefit from experiences and environments planned for typically
developing children of his or her age.
 Benefit 3: Knowledge of child development and learning helps to plan next steps for
supporting children’s progress.
 Knowledge of the sequence of knowledge or skill development in any given area helps
providers set achievable, appropriate learning goals for children. It also helps providers
plan activities and experiences that challenge children just enough to progress without
frustrating them with a challenge that is too far beyond their abilities.
For example, the provider observes that a baby is getting up on his hands and knees and
rocking. If she knows the progression of skills, the provider knows that the next skill the
baby will try is crawling. This means the provider can encourage the baby in a variety of
ways to move forward when the baby is on all fours.
 Benefit 4: Knowledge of child development and learning enables providers to create
curriculum and environment that aligns to state standards/guidelines for early
childhood programs.
Many child care programs must base their curriculum and practice on state standards or
guidelines for early childhood learning and development. Regardless of the specific
standards developed by a state or organization, all are based on the same “body of
knowledge”—the research foundation—of how young children grow and learn.
Standards can be an excellent source of developmental progressions and milestones for
all areas of child development. When providers are required to “align to the state
standards,” it simply means that the experiences, activities and environment that they
plan are based on what is known about typical child development. To find your state’s
Early Learning standards/guidelines, visit the Office of Child Care Technical Assistance
Network.
 Benefit 5: Knowledge of child development and learning helps providers feel confident
that their professional practice has a solid basis that aligns with the larger child care
professional community.
The foundation of high quality care giving and teaching is knowledge about how most
children grow and learn that has been gathered by many trained observers (i.e.,
researchers) who have observed many children.
Child care providers who continually expand their own knowledge of child development
and learning, and apply that knowledge when they plan and make decisions in their
program, can feel confident about their practice. They also have a solid foundation when
they explain their decisions and practices to parents and colleagues; a foundation that
goes beyond personal opinion or feelings.

IV. Application: Create a graphic organizer of your daily plan on how to effectively study the
subject “The Child Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles”. Your Plan will start
from October 5, 2020 up to the end of the semester. Take note that this is only a plan, so
you will submit this on the agreed date of submission even if it’s not yet February, 2021.

Resources:
 Flaven. (2018). Early Childhood Development: Understanding the Milestone.
Retrieved from: [Link]
childhood-development/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CUnderstanding%20early

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 %20childhood%20development%20helps,sense%20of%20confidence%20and
%20determination.%E2%80%9D
 PennStateExtension. (2015). Why Learn About Child Development. Retrieved from:
[Link]
child-development

Lesson 2
Concept of growth and development and Factors affecting growth and development
Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
a) Determine the Concept of growth and development and
Factors affecting growth and development among Children
and Adolescent
b) Demonstrate knowledge on the importance of the Concept of
growth and development and Factors affecting growth and
development among Children and Adolescent
c) Utilize the Concept of growth and development and Factors
affecting growth and development among Children and
Adolescent in Teaching and Learning Process

Key to Remember/vocabulary list:

 Growth implies development, from the time of emergence or birth to the time of

maturity and for many species, beyond maturity to eventual senescence or
death. Growth also implies increase in size resulting from cell multiplication and cell
expansion, as well as maturation of tissues.
 Socioeconomics (also known as social economics) is the social science that studies
how economic activity affects and is shaped by social processes. ... It also refers to the
ways that social and economic factors influence the environment.
 Nutrition is about eating a healthy and balanced diet. Food and drink provide the energy
and nutrients you need to be healthy. Understanding these nutrition terms may make it
easier for you to make better food choices.
 Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood. It includes
some big changes—to the body, and to the way a young person relates to the world.
 Biological is connected by direct genetic relationship
 Puberty is the time in life when a boy or girl becomes sexually mature. It is a process
that usually happens between ages 10 and 14 for girls and ages 12 and 16 for boys. It
causes physical changes, and affects boys and girls differently. In girls: The first sign
of puberty is usually breast development.
 Self-esteem is an individual's subjective evaluation of their own worth. 
 Deindividuation, phenomenon in which people engage in seemingly impulsive, deviant,
and sometimes violent acts in situations in which they believe they cannot be personally
identified 

Overview:
In this lesson you will be able to determine the Concept of growth and development and Factors
affecting growth and development, as well as its importance and the benefits it will bring to you
as a Learner today and a future Educator someday.

I. Activity: Observe your younger sibling; if you do not have one, try to consider observing
children from your neighborhood or from your relatives. List down growth and
development in terms of physical and cognitive aspect that they are manifesting. Reflect
their age also. Follow the sample below:
Ages of Child Observed Cognitive Development Physical Development

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 1.

II. Analysis: Answer the following questions, these are related to the data you had provided
in the Activity.
1. What age range had you observed the fastest growth and development in
children?
2. How can you foster learning towards children in enhancing their cognitive
development?
3. What can you conclude about the physical development of children base on
the data you had provided on the Activity?
III. Abstraction:
The process of human growth and development is described by various set of principles. These
principles explain typical development as a predictable and orderly process. Therefore we can
easily foretell how most children will develop even though there are differences in children’s
qualities, behavior, activity levels, and timing of developmental milestones. To understand
human growth and development, we need to understand nature and nurture, and the
relationship between the two.
Factors Which Influence Human Growth and Development
The following are a list of factors which influence human growth and development:
 Heredity: Heredity and genes certainly play an important role in the transmission of
physical and social characteristics from parents to off-springs. Different characteristics
of growth and development like intelligence, aptitudes, body structure, height, weight,
color of hair and eyes are highly influenced by heredity.
 Sex: Sex is a very important factor which influences human growth and development.
There is lot of difference in growth and development between girls and boys. Physical
growth of girls in teens is faster than boys. Overall the body structure and growth of
girls are different from boys.
 Socioeconomic: Socioeconomic factors definitely have some affect. It has been seen that
the children from different socioeconomic levels vary in average body size at all ages.
The upper level families being always more advanced. The most important reasons
behind this are better nutrition, better facilities, regular meals, sleep, and exercise.
Family size also influences growth rate as in big families with limited income sometimes
have children that do not get the proper nutrition and hence the growth is affected.
 Nutritional: Growth is directly related with nutrition. The human body requires an
adequate supply of calories for its normal growth and this need of requirements vary
with the phase of development. As per studies, malnutrition is referred as a large-scale
problem in many developing countries. They are more likely to be underweight, much
shorter than average, and of low height for age, known as stunting.
If the children are malnourished, this slows their growth process. There are nine
different amino acids which are necessary for growth and absence of any one will give
rise to stunted growth. Other factors like zinc, Iodine, calcium, phosphorus and vitamins
are also essential for proper growth and deficiency of anyone can affect the normal
growth and development of the body.
 Hormones: There are a large number of endocrine glands present inside our body. These
glands secrete one or more hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones
are capable of raising or lowering the activity level of the body or some organs of the
body. Hormones are considered to be a growth supporting substance. These hormones
play an important role in regulating the process of growth and development.
 Pollution: According to studies, air pollution not only affects the respiratory organs but
also have harmful effects on human growth.
Indoor pollution or the pollution from housing conditions can result in ill health which
can negatively impact human growth and development. For example, lead exposure
from deteriorated lead-based paint in older housing can be very harmful. Lead is very

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 harmful for children as it simply gets immersed into the growing bodies of children and
obstructs with the normal development of brain and other organs and systems.
 Race: Racial factors also influence height, weight, color, features, and body constitution
of a human being. The body growth and development differences show a relationship
with varied cultural groups. For example a child of black race will be black, their height,
their hair and eye color, facial structure are all governed by the same race.
Adolescence is derived from the Latin word “adolescere”, which means “to grow into
adulthood”. It is defined as the period of rapid changes both biologically and psychologically.
Biologically, the adoles-cence period is marked by the onset of puberty, that is the development
of bodily changes. Psychologically, it is the changes in the individual's emotion, motivation,
behavior, and the individual's relation with others. Social scientists differentiate this into three
adolescence periods, namely early adolescence that covers the period from age 11 through age
14, middle adolescence from about age 15 through age 18, and late adolescence from about age
18 through the age 21. This division corresponds to the way in which the society groups young
people in educational institution; they are the approximate ages of middle, junior high, high
school, and college.
During this period, adolescences are experiencing an identity crisis, where the individuals are
trying to come to terms with themselves and their environment. Adolescences will question
themselves with the “who am I?” question. In addition, adolescence is also a period of the
development of behavioral and emotional autonomy.

Adolescence Developmental Changes

As mentioned before that in adolescences’ life span they are experiencing some developmental
changes. They are biological, cognitive, social, and psychological development.

Biological Development
Biologically, adolescences are experiencing puberty which is defined as the biological changes of
adolescence. Biological developments change boys and girls from physical immaturity to
biological maturity. These changes on adolescences have critical impact on their development
as they are not only result in sexual changes, but also in psychological and emotional changes.
According to Geldard and Geldard, Puberty in adolescences happens at different ages and
different rates. Consequently, ‘there may be issues for adolescences who may feel embarrassed,
self-conscious, awkward and out of step with peers who are developing at a different rate.
Therefore, it is not surprising that much adolescence become very anxious about their
appearance. Furthermore, Steinberg stated ‘physical and sexual maturation profoundly affect
the way in which adolescents view themselves and the way in which they are viewed and
treated by others. Yet the social environment exerts a tremendous impact on the meaning of
puberty and its psychological and social consequences’.

Cognitive Development
Concerning with the cognitive development of adolescence, at this period according to Gerald
and Gerald Adolescences are experiencing some changes in their thinking process. First, they
develop a capacity for abstract thinking. Second, they discover how to think about relationship
issues. Third, they discern new ways of processing information. Fourth, they learn to think
creatively and critically. In addition, adolescences are egocentric that they see themselves as a
unique person.

Psychological Development
The psychological changes appear in the areas of emotional and moral development. During
adolescent period, individual is at faces a very wide range and variety of emotions. These
include both positive and negative emotions. Happiness is as joy, exuberance exhilaration etc.
and sadness is as depression, unhappiness, anxiety, fear, lorry etc. In addition, of anger,
rebellion and protest also emerge. Interestingly, patriotism, and sacrifice for the nation also
develop. Each of these emotions is felt very intensely. In fact, the strength and intensity of

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adolescent emotion is one of their prominent characteristics. They tend to express everything
in a very exaggerated form. In the moral sphere too, adolescences undergo very prominent
changes. They now develop a firm sense of ethics or an understanding of what is right and
wrong. This is based not only on what their parents and elders have taught them, but on they
own experience as well. They also begin to question certain social and moral codes prevalent in
society and accepts only those which they are convinced about. Their eagerness to be a nice-boy
or nice girl and please others ceases to be important now. It gets replaced by their questioning
mind and conviction about what they are doing. They begin to understand the importance of
law in maintaining order in society. Further, adolescences begin to evolve a set of personal
values which become the guiding principles of their life.

Social Development
The social development of adolescences can be seen in ways where they separate themselves
from their parents and move towards their peer groups. Therefore, peer group becomes the
social agent for adolescences to search for personal identity. As stated by Geldard and Geldard
that the process of socialization occurs at the same time as the search for identity. In addition,
concerning with this adolescent's conformity to their peer group will increase. In early
adolescence, they tend to form close relationship with friends of the same sex, but this tendency
then changes when they move to mid and late adolescence that they tend to build up
relationship with their opposite sex.

Adolescent Self-Esteem
The literature reveals that positive self-esteem serves as a buffer against stress and is typically
associated with a wide range of productive coping strategies. In addition, it is clearly linked with
motivation and positive emotional states. In contrast, individuals with low self-esteem are more
at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders such as anxiety, depression, and lack of
motivation or energy. Behavioral manifestations can frequently be seen in suicidal tendencies,
delinquency, conduct problems, and eating disorders. In addition, Kaplan reported that there is
a strong relationship between having negative self-attitude and the a d o p t i o n o f
deviant behavior such as delinquency, criminality, drug
u s e , drinking alcohol and aggressive behavior.

Self-esteem is a feeling of self-worth. It refers to “a sense of acceptance, a personal liking for

oneself, and a form of proper respect for oneself”. Self esteem is also defined by Kaplan as “the
need of the person to maximize the experience of positive self-attitudes or self-feelings and to
minimize the experience of negative self-attitude”. Kaplan further explained that positive self-
attitudes refer to by many terms such as feelings of self-respect, worth, approval; regard,
acceptance as well as esteem, whereas negative self-attitudes are feelings of self-derogation,
rejection, and hate. For adolescences, having high self-esteem is of great importance since they
may undergo an identity crisis during this period of the life span. Furthermore, they are
expected to behave as young adults and not as children anymore. Therefore, the need for self-
respect, acceptance, approval, and regard will be very significant for them. One of the
determinants of experiencing positive self-esteem is the quality of their relationship with their
parents and peers. How they perceive, feel, and evaluate themselves is based on the attitude of
parents and peers toward them. In addition, how they perceive and interpret their parents and
peers' b e h a v i o r t o w a r d t h e m i s
d e t e r m i n e d b y h o w m u c h v a l u e t h e y
p u t o n them. Therefore, those who are rejected excluded, ignored, or ridiculed by their
parents or peers on whom they put high value, are likely to experience negative self-attitude or
self-feeling. For example, adolescences have a strong desire for autonomy in that they want to
become individuals in their own right, express their own ideas, and live uniquely theirs.
Therefore, parents who realize such desire and respect it as such, and actively encourage the
quest for autonomy will enhance adolescents' positive self-feeling so that they become and feel
more self-sufficient in doing things such as making their own decisions. However, if parents

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ignore this desire, adolescences are more likely to experience feeling of worthlessness, which in
turn may result in low self-esteem. The necessity for adolescences to have high self-esteem is
because it may affect their adjustment to peer pressure. In this case, the role of parents is
very important. As stated by Epstein: Parents should build up their children's self-esteem at a
very early age. Youngsters with a good self-image will almost always seek out membership in
more socially acceptable groups. Children who grow up with little or no self-confidence stand a
greater chance of getting mixed up with anti social peer groups. These adolescences think of
themselves as losers and only find acceptance in groups where other teens also feel negative
about themselves".
The fact that adolescences tend to attach great importance to the attitude and opinion of others
who are in their own ages is significant, therefore, those who are rejected, disapproved, or
isolated by their peers are more likely to experience low self-esteem. They may feel that they do
not have any status among their peer group. This can be due to their poor achievement at
school, having an ugly body shape if the group is based on this characteristic especially girls,
being in a low social-economic status, or having few or no friends. As Harter stated, the
individual who has no competence in the domains in which they desire to improve, such as
being socially unacceptable by peers, are likely to result in low self-esteem. One of the
consequences of having low self-esteem for adolescences, is that they may adopt deviant
behavior by engaging with deviant groups as a compensation for their inadequate self-concept
and their self-rejecting feelings.

Adolescents and their Relation with Peers

As children grow up they come to the period of being adolescents. In this period, their
attachment to parents becomes more distant physically and psychologically. This can be seen as
a decrease in emotional closeness and warmth. At the same time, their involvement with peers
becomes stronger. For adolescences, the peer group is the most important context in which the
learning and reinforcement of values and behaviors take place. Peers play an important role in
their psychological development because peers can give them support for two primary
developmental tasks. Firstly, identity, that is helping adolescences to clarify their personal
identity, or finding the answer to the question “who am I?”. Secondly, autonomy, that is,
discovering the self as separate and independent from parents. In addition to that, Conger
stated that the peers provide “the opportunity to learn how to interact with age-mates, to
control social behavior, to develop age-relevant skills and interests, and to share similar
problems and feelings”.
Based on the significant function of the peer group for adolescent development, the need for
status and acceptance from their peers is crucial. One element that reflects the approval or
acceptance, in adolescent society, is the number of friends they have. Therefore, to be part of a
leading crowd, that is, a group which is formed based on personal attitude, interest, or abilities,
may become crucial for them, for status and friends. In addition, it also affects the way they see
themselves. In contrast, being an outsider of a leading crowd may result in negative self-
evaluation. Furthermore, those who have neither status in the social system a whole, nor the
support of a set of friends will keep seeking their status elsewhere rather continuing to hold the
negative image about themselves. In these circumstances, adolescences may have a possibility

to engage with a deviant group who offers them member status in the group. This in turn, will
give adolescences more possibilities to be involved in deviant or aggressive behaviors. As
stated by Henggeler adolescences association with delinquent peers can contribute to deviant
behavior. This statement is supported by a finding from a study conducted by Cheung that the
more deviant behavior committed by friends, the more likely adolescences involve in deviant
behaviors as well. Hence, some scholars conclude that modeling and social approval for
delinquent acts are the two process that determine the adoption of delinquent behavior
Horrocks explained that in a peer culture, it is not that simple for adolescences to be accepted
by their peers. They need to do something that can satisfy the group or they have to conform to
the normative expectation shared by the group. Failure to do this will result in being excluded,

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rejected, and isolated. This demand from the group then is recognized as peer pressure. Some
studies have found that peer pressure is very powerful in driving and forcing adolescences
to delinquent or aggressive behavior. For example Dupre, Miller, Gold, and Rospenda found in
their study that 84% of adolescences who tried drugs did so as a result of their peer pressure.
Newman and Newman argued that "there are demands from within the group to conform to the
norms of the group and to demonstrate commitment and loyalty to the other group members".
The attempts of a group to control the behavior of its members by threatening unpleasant
consequences combined with the fear of rejection and ridicule from the members of the group
are two powerful conditions that can ensure that all the members of the group are to “toe the
line”. Therefore, it is not surprising that adolescences who engage with a deviant or aggressive
peer groups are more likely to be involved in a deviant or aggressive behavior as they are afraid
of being ridiculed if they reject involvement in deviant behavior (e.g. drug use) or they are
afraid of losing their membership status from the group. Moreover, For some adolescences to
gain acceptance and status in the peer group is very important. Therefore, within the group
setting they sometimes lose their sense of self-awareness. They become aggressive without
considering the rightness or wrongness of their acts and what can be the negative consequences.
This process is called as “deindividuation”. According to Geen there is a strong relationship
between aggressive behavior and deindividuation. The deindividuated individuals, who lose
the sense of identity, are stimulated by the fear of social disapproval. In addition, Diener
explained how groups function to draw on individual's attention away from the self to the
direction of external stimuli. In this stage, individuals are more controlled by cues of the
immediate situations rather than by their personal and social standards. In relation to the
identity crisis and in the formulation of self-concept, adolescences are extremely vulnerable to
judgments expressed by those in the immediate environment because the individuals is at
period in their life where others opinions are of tremendous importance. Strang in Rice has
outlined four basic dimensions of the self. One of them is the adolescents' social selves. In this
case, how others think and see of themselves, in turn influence how they think of themselves.
Since adolescences spend most of their awaking time with their peers and develop great
attachment to them as stated by Brown that high school students spend twice as much of their
time with peers as with parents or other adults, therefore, peers is regarded as their immediate
environment. It is not surprising, then, if adolescences tend to be stimulated by their peers'
behavior. Moreover, peers not only can influence adolescences to positively develop their self-
concept, but they can also influence adolescences to negatively develop their self-concept as
well. Therefore, while searching for self identity in adolescence, it is possible that they can be
misled by their peers, especially those who are highly involved in delinquent and aggressive
behavior.

To sum up, Adolescence period is a very critical period in human life. This is characterized by
many changes faced by young persons and each of them will contribute to their behavioral
development. As they move away from family toward their peer group, this due to searching for
their personal identity which also means that adolescences are trying to clarify who they are and
are trying to fit their position in the society. During this process, experiencing positive self-
esteem is very crucial for adolescences since they need to adjust to peer pressure that they may
experience when they are involved in a peer group as their immediate environment

IV. Application: As a future Educator, Make a Video Demonstration of how you are going to
manage your class given that you had already learned the concept of Growth and
Development among Children and Adolescent. Utilize the situations on each item below
for you to have a guide for the demonstration you will going to do:
1. Handle a learner that you had seen cheating during your
examination.
2. Handle a learner who always finds trouble with his other
classmates due to his misbehaviors.

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 3. Handle a learner who is often absent and is always late when he
is present in class.
4. Handle 2 learners who are in a relationship and are displaying
their affection for each other even inside the class.
5. Handle a learner who violates classroom rules and regulations.

Refrences/Resources:
 EducationStateUniversity. (2020). Human Growth and Development. Retrieved from:
[Link]
[Link]#:~:text=Factors%20Which%20Influence%20Human%20Growth
%20and%20Development&text=Different%20characteristics%20of%20growth
%20and,influences%20human%20growth%20and%20development.
 Tekeng. (2008). Understanding the Important Factors affecting the Development of
Adolescence. Retrieved from:
[Link]
TANT_FACTORS_INFLUENCING_THE_DEVELOPMENT_OF_ADOLESCENCE

Lesson 3
Aspects of Development: Cognitive, Social, Emotional, Personality, Moral
Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
a) Determine the Aspects of development: cognitive, social,
emotional, personality, moral
b) Demonstrate knowledge on the importance Aspects of
development: cognitive, social, emotional, personality, moral
c) Practice the Aspects of development: cognitive, social,
emotional, personality, moral through Lesson Planning
d) Key to Remember/vocabulary list:
e) Key to Remember/vocabulary list:
f) Key to Remember/vocabulary list:
Key to Remember/vocabulary list:
 Physical, bodily, corporeal, corporal agree in pertaining to the body. Physical indicates
connected with, pertaining to, the animal or human body as a material
organism: physical strength, exercise. Bodily means belonging to, concerned with, the
human body as distinct from the mind or spirit: bodily pain or suffering.
 Social is friendly; sociable; gregarious. ... living or disposed to live in companionship
with others or in a community, rather than in isolation
 Cognitive of or relating to cognition; concerned with the act or process of knowing,
perceiving, etc. : cognitive development; cognitive functioning. of or relating to the
mental processes of perception, memory, judgment, and reasoning, as contrasted with
emotional and volitional processes.
 Neuroimaging the process of producing images of the structure or activity of the brain
or other part of the nervous system by techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging
or computerized tomography.
 Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling
and behaving. The study of personality focuses on two broad areas: One understands
individual differences in particular personality characteristics, such as sociability or
irritability.
 Moral concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior and the goodness or
badness of human character.

Overview:

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In this lesson you will be able to determine Aspects of development: cognitive, social, emotional,
personality, moral, as well as its importance and also practice it through Lesson Planning

I. Activity: Recall the period during your Adolescence stage. What developments have you
remembered or observed? List down the developments you have observed in your own
adolescent stage. In accomplishing the task, utilize the graphic organizer below:
Cognitive Social Emotional Personality Moral

II. Analysis: Based on the task you had accomplished above, Answer the following
questions below.
1. What aspect of development do you think is needed to be guided by both
parents at home and teachers at school? What made you conclude so?
2. According to your self-evaluation, how will you rate yourself in terms of each
aspect of Development? Use a scale of 2, 4, 6 and 10 in rating your own
development. Give a reason for the score you had given in each aspect.
III. Abstraction:
Adolescent developmental domains are intertwined and strongly influenced by experiences and
environments.
The developmental changes that typically occur in adolescence have been documented
extensively in literature that is widely accessible. Importantly, each area of development is
intertwined with the other–physical, social, emotional and cognitive development–along with
sociocultural and environmental influences and experiences. A summary of some of the key
developmental aspects of adolescence and the nature of these changes follows.

Physical development
In early adolescence, the body undergoes more developmental change than at any other time,
apart from birth to two years old. The rate of growth is rapid and uneven, with a different pace
and rate of change for each individual. Physical changes include increases in height, weight, and
internal organ size as well as changes in skeletal and muscular systems.
Puberty occurs in early adolescence, triggered by the release of hormones which lead to the
development of primary sex characteristics (genitalia) and secondary sex characteristics (eg
breast development in girls; facial hair in boys). The increased hormone production affects
skeletal growth, hair production, and skin changes.
Physical changes are visible to all and highlight the range and pace of change. This sometimes
leads to adolescents feeling more or less mature than others. Physical development growth
spurts occur about two years earlier in girls than boys.

Social development
Adolescent social development is often described as the process of establishing a sense of
identity and establishing a role and purpose. It is an outwards sense of oneself. Body image is a
key factor in developing a sense of self and identity, especially for girls, and the family and
increasingly peers play an important role assisting and supporting the adolescent to achieve
adult roles. Risk-taking is a natural part of the adolescent journey. Social development and
emotional development are closely intertwined as young people search for a sense of self and
personal identity.

Emotional development
The way a person thinks and feels about themselves and others, their inward thoughts, is key to
their emotional development. Developing and demonstrating individual emotional assets such
as resilience, self esteem and coping skills is heightened during adolescence because of the rapid
changes being experienced. Schools are important sites for social and emotional learning and

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have developed policies and programs around student wellness, often with a focus on a
strengths-based approach.

Cognitive development
Cognition is the process involving thought, rationale and perception. The physical changes of
the brain that occur during adolescence follow typical patterns of cognitive development. They
are characterised by the development of higher-level cognitive functioning that aligns with the
changes in brain structure and function, particularly in the prefrontal cortex region.
The structural and functional brain changes affect the opportunity for increased memory and
processing. They may also contribute to vulnerability, such as risk taking and increased
sensitivity to mental illness.
In recent years data from developmental neuroimaging has enabled greater understanding of
the changes that occur in the human brain during adolescence. This data points towards a
second window of opportunity in brain development. Adolescence is a sensitive brain period,
that is a time when brain plasticity is heightened. During this time, there is an opportunity for
learning and cognitive growth as the brain adapts in structure and function in response to
experiences.
In the next step we will pull together the key developmental aspects of adolescence with a
discussion about your own experiences.

Personality
Parents look into the faces of their newborn infants and wonder, “What kind of person will this
child will become?” They scrutinize their baby’s preferences, characteristics, and responses for
clues of a developing personality. They are quite right to do so, because temperament is a
foundation for personality growth. But temperament (defined as early-emerging differences in
reactivity and self-regulation) is not the whole story. Although temperament is biologically
based, it interacts with the influence of experience from the moment of birth (if not before) to
shape personality (Rothbart, 2011). Temperamental dispositions are affected, for example, by
the support level of parental care. More generally, personality is shaped by the goodness of
fit between the child’s temperamental qualities and characteristics of the environment (Chess &
Thomas, 1999). For example, an adventurous child whose parents regularly take her on
weekend hiking and fishing trips would be a good “fit” to her lifestyle, supporting personality
growth. Personality is the result, therefore, of the continuous interplay between biological
disposition and experience, as is true for many other aspects of social and personality
development.
Personality develops from temperament in other ways (Thompson, Winer, & Goodvin, 2010). As
children mature biologically, temperamental characteristics emerge and change over time. A
newborn is not capable of much self-control, but as brain-based capacities for self-control
advance, temperamental changes in self-regulation become more apparent. For example, a
newborn who cries frequently doesn’t necessarily have a grumpy personality; over time, with
sufficient parental support and increased sense of security, the child might be less likely to cry.
In addition, personality is made up of many other features besides temperament. Children’s
developing self-concept, their motivations to achieve or to socialize, their values and goals, their
coping styles, their sense of responsibility and conscientiousness, and many other qualities are
encompassed into personality. These qualities are influenced by biological dispositions, but
even more by the child’s experiences with others, particularly in close relationships, that guide
the growth of individual characteristics.
Indeed, personality development begins with the biological foundations of temperament but
becomes increasingly elaborated, extended, and refined over time. The newborn that parents
gazed upon thus becomes an adult with a personality of depth and nuance.

Social Understanding
As we have seen, children’s experience of relationships at home and the peer group contributes
to an expanding repertoire of social and emotional skills and also to broadened social

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understanding. In these relationships, children develop expectations for specific people
(leading, for example, to secure or insecure attachments to parents), understanding of how to
interact with adults and peers, and developing self-concept based on how others respond to
them. These relationships are also significant forums for emotional development.
Remarkably, young children begin developing social understanding very early in life. Before the
end of the first year, infants are aware that other people have perceptions, feelings, and other
mental states that affect their behavior, and which are different from the child’s own mental
states. This can be readily observed in a process called social referencing, in which an infant
looks to the mother’s face when confronted with an unfamiliar person or situation (Feinman,
1992). If the mother looks calm and reassuring, the infant responds positively as if the situation
is safe. If the mother looks fearful or distressed, the infant is likely to respond with wariness or
distress because the mother’s expression signals danger. In a remarkably insightful manner,
therefore, infants show an awareness that even though they are uncertain about the unfamiliar
situation, their mother is not, and that by “reading” the emotion in her face, infants can learn
about whether the circumstance is safe or dangerous, and how to respond.
Although developmental scientists used to believe that infants are egocentric—that is, focused
on their own perceptions and experience—they now realize that the opposite is true. Infants are
aware at an early stage that people have different mental states, and this motivates them to try
to figure out what others are feeling, intending, wanting, and thinking, and how these mental
states affect their behavior. They are beginning, in other words, to develop a theory of mind, and
although their understanding of mental states begins very simply, it rapidly expands (Wellman,
2011). For example, if an 18-month-old watches an adult try repeatedly to drop a necklace into
a cup but inexplicably fail each time, they will immediately put the necklace into the cup
themselves—thus completing what the adult intended, but failed, to do. In doing so, they reveal
their awareness of the intentions underlying the adult’s behavior (Meltzoff, 1995). Carefully
designed experimental studies show that by late in the preschool years, young children
understand that another’s beliefs can be mistaken rather than correct, that memories can affect
how you feel, and that one’s emotions can be hidden from others (Wellman, 2011). Social
understanding grows significantly as children’s theory of mind develops.
As we have seen, children’s experience of relationships at home and the peer group contributes
to an expanding repertoire of social and emotional skills and also to broadened social
understanding. In these relationships, children develop expectations for specific people
(leading, for example, to secure or insecure attachments to parents), understanding of how to
interact with adults and peers, and developing self-concept based on how others respond to
them. These relationships are also significant forums for emotional development.
Remarkably, young children begin developing social understanding very early in life. Before the
end of the first year, infants are aware that other people have perceptions, feelings, and other
mental states that affect their behavior, and which are different from the child’s own mental
states. This can be readily observed in a process called social referencing, in which an infant
looks to the mother’s face when confronted with an unfamiliar person or situation (Feinman,
1992). If the mother looks calm and reassuring, the infant responds positively as if the situation
is safe. If the mother looks fearful or distressed, the infant is likely to respond with wariness or
distress because the mother’s expression signals danger. In a remarkably insightful manner,
therefore, infants show an awareness that even though they are uncertain about the unfamiliar
situation, their mother is not, and that by “reading” the emotion in her face, infants can learn
about whether the circumstance is safe or dangerous, and how to respond.
Although developmental scientists used to believe that infants are egocentric—that is, focused
on their own perceptions and experience—they now realize that the opposite is true. Infants are
aware at an early stage that people have different mental states, and this motivates them to try
to figure out what others are feeling, intending, wanting, and thinking, and how these mental
states affect their behavior. They are beginning, in other words, to develop a theory of mind, and
although their understanding of mental states begins very simply, it rapidly expands (Wellman,
2011). For example, if an 18-month-old watches an adult try repeatedly to drop a necklace into
a cup but inexplicably fail each time, they will immediately put the necklace into the cup

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themselves—thus completing what the adult intended, but failed, to do. In doing so, they reveal
their awareness of the intentions underlying the adult’s behavior (Meltzoff, 1995). Carefully
designed experimental studies show that by late in the preschool years, young children
understand that another’s beliefs can be mistaken rather than correct, that memories can affect
how you feel, and that one’s emotions can be hidden from others (Wellman, 2011). Social
understanding grows significantly as children’s theory of mind develops.

Moral
Morality is our ability to learn the difference between right or wrong and understand how to
make the right choices. As with other facets of development, morality doesn't form
independently from the previous areas we have been discussing. Children's experiences at
home, the environment around them, and their physical, cognitive, emotional, and social skills
influence their developing sense of right vs. wrong.
Between the ages of 2 and 5, many children start to show morally-based behaviors and beliefs.
For example, Tasha may see Juan take the blocks out of Tyler's hands and say, "Juan! You're
gonna get in trouble!" At this point, many young children also start to show empathy-based guilt
when they break the rules. For example, if Juan from the above example sees Tyler cry because
his blocks were stolen, Juan might start feeling somewhat bad that he hurt Tyler's feelings. As a
younger child, however, Juan would feel badly only if he was punished for taking the blocks
rather than making someone else sad.
According to Piaget, children between the ages of 5 and 10 see the world through a
Heteronomous Morality. In other words, children think that authority figures such as parents
and teachers have rules that young people must follow absolutely. Rules are thought of as real,
unchangeable guidelines rather than evolving, negotiable, or situational. As they grow older,
develop more abstract thinking, and become less self-focused, children become capable of
forming more flexible rules and applying them selectively for the sake of shared objectives and a
desire to co-operate.
Developmental psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget's work to create his theory of
the Stages of Moral Understanding. According to Kohlberg, young children at this age base their
morality on a punishment and obedience orientation. Much like Piaget, Kohlberg believed that
young children behave morally because they fear authority and try to avoid punishment. In
other words, little kids follow the rules because they don't want to get in trouble. It's too much
to expect preschool-aged children to automatically "do the right thing". However, most young
children can understand the difference between "good" and "bad" behavior, and this
understanding provides the basis for more complicated moral thinking in the future. 
Contemporary research has provided us with additional information about how young children
understand morals. Children between the ages 5 and 6 typically think in terms of distributive
justice, or the idea that material goods or "stuff" should be fairly shared. In other words,
everyone should get his or her exact "fair share." For example, Sally may think that it's only fair
if each child gets exactly 2 cookies and the same amount of milk in their glass. Other factors,
such as need or effort, are not considered. Sally wouldn't think that Susie should get an
additional cookie because her lunch fell on the floor. By age 6 or 7, children begin to consider
what people have earned or worked for when thinking about distributive justice. Children can
also reason that some people should get more because they worked harder. For example, Jane
begins to understand that Jill should earn a bigger prize because she sold more Girl Scout
cookies.

IV. Application: As a future teacher, create a video presentation of how will you deal with
the learners considering each aspect of development. Your video presentation must
include the way you deal with you students to improve their development in each
aspects listed below:
1. Cognitive
2. Social
3. Emotional

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 4. Personality
5. Moral

References/Resources:

 Caskey M, Anfara VA. Developmental Characteristics of Young Adolescents: Research

Summary [Internet]. Westerville OH: Association for Middle Level Education; 2014.
Retrievedfrom: [Link]
/ArtMID/888/ArticleID/455/Developmental-Characteristics-of-Young-
[Link]

 Thompson, R. (2020). Social and personality development in childhood. In R. Biswas-

Diener & E. Diener (Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF
publishers. Retrieved from [Link]
 Oswalt. (2020). Early Child Moral Development. Retrieved from:
[Link]
7/article/12769-early-childhood-moral-development

MODULE 2: The Child and Adolescent Learner

Lesson I:
Definition of childhood and adolescence
Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
a) Demonstrate knowledge on the concept of Childhood and
Adolescence
b) Determine the development that takes place during
Childhood and Adolescence
c) Evaluate the Children and Adolescent’s behavior towards
learning
Key to Remember/vocabulary list:
 Childhood is the time for children to be in school and at play, to grow strong and
confident with the love and encouragement of their family and an extended community
of caring adults. ... It refers to the state and condition of a child's life, to the quality of
those years.
 Pre-teenager is a boy or girl under the age of 13, especially one between the ages of 9
and 12. preteens, the years immediately preceding one's thirteenth birthday.
 Hormones are chemical substances that act like messenger molecules in the body. After
being made in one part of the body, they travel to other parts of the body where they
help control how cells and organs do their work. For example, insulin is
a hormone that's made by the beta cells in the pancreas.
 Biological changes are the Alterations in the quality or quantity of assets as a result of
natural physical processes, such as fiber strength, ripeness, density (quality), or
progeny, liveweight or volume (quantity).

Overview:
In this lesson you will be able to learn the definition of Childhood and Adolescence, you will also
determine the development that takes place during the stages of Childhood and Adolescence
and lastly, you will going to evaluate the Children and Adolescent’s behavior towards learning
through doing the activities that awaits you in this module.

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 I. Activity: Below are 2 excerpts from 2 articles, one is about the Brain development of a
child and the other one is about the Brain development of teenage. These 2 excerpts
were from: [Link] (the Australian parenting website)
Development is the term used to describe the changes in your child’s physical growth, as well
as her ability to learn the social, emotional, behaviour, thinking and communication
skills she needs for life. All of these areas are linked, and each depends on and influences the
others. In the first five years of life, your child’s brain develops more and faster than at any
other time in his life. Your child’s early experiences – his relationships and the things he sees,
hears, touches, smells and tastes – stimulate his brain, creating millions of connections. This is
when the foundations for learning, health and behaviour throughout life are laid down.
The main change is that unused connections in the thinking and processing part of your child’s
brain (called the grey matter) are ‘pruned’ away. At the same time, other connections are
strengthened. This is the brain’s way of becoming more efficient, based on the ‘use it or lose it’
principle. This pruning process begins in the back of the brain. The front part of the brain, the
prefrontal cortex, is remodelled last. The prefrontal cortex is the decision-making part of the
brain, responsible for your child’s ability to plan and think about the consequences of actions,
solve problems and control impulses. Changes in this part continue into early adulthood.
Because the prefrontal cortex is still developing, teenagers might rely on a part of the brain
called the amygdala to make decisions and solve problems more than adults do. The amygdala
is associated with emotions, impulses, aggression and instinctive behaviour.

II. Analysis: Based on the excerpts given, answer the following questions:
1. What can you say about the brain development of children?
2. What can you say about the brain development of teenagers?
3. How does the two developments differ from each other?

III. Abstraction:
Childhood is the time for children to be in school and at play, to grow strong and confident with
the love and encouragement of their family and an extended community of caring adults. It is a
precious time in which children should live free from fear, safe from violence and protected
from abuse and exploitation. As such, childhood means much more than just the space between
birth and the attainment of adulthood. It refers to the state and condition of a child’s life, to the
quality of those years.
Developments that happens in Childhood:
A period of physical development. We all know that young children often love to be active, but
they also need to understand that continued physical activity as well as healthy food choices are
important, and why.
A period of language development. Providing an environment for young children to express
themselves and speak and listen in a range of situations allows them to develop their language
and communication skills.
A period of emotional development. This area helps to shape children’s social skills and
develops respect and an understanding of their different feelings.
A period of social development. This involves children making sense of things by observing and
exploring everything from the places they spend time to the technology and other things that
they use.
A period of development of understanding. t’s important for children to discover phonemic
awareness – the ability to hear and identify different words and sounds, and also to start
reading and writing.
A period of development of interests. Activities like drawing, playing with paint, instruments or
technology all give children the chance to express themselves and learn new things.
Adolescence is a transitional phase of growth and development between childhood and
adulthood. An adolescent is any person between ages 10 and 19.
Three primary developmental stages of adolescence 
early adolescence

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During this stage, children often start to grow more quickly. They also begin notice other
body changes, including hair growth under the arms and near the genitals, breast development
in females and enlargement of the testicles in males. They usually start a year or two earlier in
girls than boys, and it can be normal for some changes to start as early as age 8 for females and
age 9 for males. Many girls may start their period at around age 12, on average 2-3 years after
the onset of breast development.
These body changes can inspire curiosity and anxiety in some―especially if they do not
know what to expect or what is normal. Some children may also question their gender
identity at this time, and the onset of puberty can be a difficult time for transgender children. 
Early adolescents have concrete, black-and-white thinking. Things are either right or
wrong, great or terrible, without much room in between.  It is normal at this stage for young
people to center their thinking on themselves (called "egocentrism").  As part of this, preteens
and early teens are often self-conscious about their appearance and feel as though they are
always being judged by their peers.
Pre-teens feel an increased need for privacy.  They may start to explore ways of being
independent from their family. In this process, they may push boundaries and may react
strongly if parents or guardians reinforce limits.
middle adolescence
Physical changes from puberty continue during middle adolescence.  Most males will have
started their growth spurt, and puberty-related changes continue. They may have some voice
cracking, for example, as their voices lower.  Some develop acne. Physical changes may be
nearly complete for females, and most girls now have regular periods.
At this age, many teens become interested in romantic and sexual relationships. They may
question and explore their sexual identity―which may be stressful if they do not have support
from peers, family, or community. Another typical way of exploring sex and sexuality for teens
of all genders is self-stimulation, also called masturbation.
Many middle adolescents have more arguments with their parents as they struggle for
more independence. They may spend less time with family and more time with friends. They
are very concerned about their appearance, and peer pressure may peak at this age.   
The brain continues to change and mature in this stage, but there are still many
differences in how a normal middle adolescent thinks compared to an adult. Much of this
is because the frontal lobes are the last areas of the brain to mature―development is not
complete until a person is well into their 20s! The frontal lobes play a big role in coordinating
complex decision making, impulse control, and being able to consider multiple options and
consequences. Middle adolescents are more able to think abstractly and consider "the big
picture," but they still may lack the ability to apply it in the moment. 
late adolescence/young adulthood
Late adolescents generally have completed physical development and grown to their full adult
height. They usually have more impulse control by now and may be better able to gauge risks
and rewards accurately. In comparison to middle adolescents, youth in late adolescence might
find themselves thinking:
"While I do love Paul Rudd movies, I need to study for my final."
"I should wear a condom…even though my girlfriend is on birth control, that's not 100% in
preventing pregnancy."
"Even though marijuana is legal, I'm worried about how it might affect my mood and
work/school performance."
Teens entering early adulthood have a stronger sense of their own individuality now and can
identify their own values. They may become more focused on the future and base decisions on
their hopes and ideals. Friendships and romantic relationships become more stable. They
become more emotionally and physically separated from their family. However, many
reestablish an "adult" relationship with their parents, considering them more an equal from
whom to ask advice and discuss mature topics with, rather than an authority figure.  
Children’s Behavior towards Learning
Behavior

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Children learn behavior by watching and imitating others. Many types of behavior detract from
learning. These include talking out of turn, being out of the seat without permission, not paying
attention and disrupting other students by making noise or touching them. The teacher needs to
identify the problem, figure out how to change the behavior, find a way to encourage students to
follow a pattern of desired behavior and use this pattern consistently so all the students are
focused on the lesson being taught.
Rewards
Some students respond to receiving rewards for good behavior, such as prizes, extra recess or
stickers on a chart. Students learn they will get something they want if they behave in a certain
way, but they don't always learn that behaving in a certain way is its own reward. This can
prevent students from consistently using the desired behavior that promotes learning.
Punishment
Some students respond to punishment. They stop using unacceptable behavior if they know
they'll face consequences for breaking the rules. Students who are verbally corrected, assigned
extra work, miss recess or are sent to the principal's office as punishment often learn to lie or
cheat to avoid punishment.
Responsibility
Acceptable classroom behavior should be reinforced by making consequences closer to those of
real life. The world doesn't always punish or reward people who behave in a particular manner.
Students need to learn that there are natural rewards and certain consequences that come from
certain types of behavior.
Considerations
Schools have sets of rules, and many have school improvement teams that study behavior's
effect on learning and adjust rules accordingly. It's helpful to gain support from parents,
colleagues and community members to identify problem behavior, set a good example and teach
students to practice proper behavior.
Adolescence Behavior towards Learning
Psychologist Carol Dweck defines motivation as “the love of learning, the love of challenge.” And,
according to her, motivation is often more important than initial ability in determining our
success. Yet somewhere in the middle grades the motivation of some young adolescents for
learning takes a nosedive. A young teen may begin to grumble about assignments and teachers,
ask to drop out of a favorite activity, complain that he’s bored or show signs of being lost in the
educational shuffle. Here are some the things that can contribute to low motivation:
Biological changes. The onset of puberty—getting her period or being 4 feet 2 inches tall when
your buddy is 5 feet 10 inches—distracts some teens. Distractions make it hard to think about
the swim team or the social studies project that’s due.
Emotional concerns. It may take extra effort to concentrate on a science project when she is
preoccupied with physical insecurities or concerned about being excluded from a special group.
The school environment. A young teen may lose motivation after moving from elementary
school to a middle school or junior high. The loss of motivation can be fueled by insufficient
support in the new school or by an increased workload and expectations to which the student
hasn’t yet adjusted.
Social and peer pressures. A child may be influenced by friends who believe that academic
success isn’t “cool,” or that girls aren’t good at math.
A shift in how your child views his ability. Younger children tend to believe that the harder you
try, the smarter you’ll get. But Dr. Dweck notes that as children move into their early teens, they
may begin to believe that ability is fixed and to compare their ability with that of others—the
harder you have to try, the less able you must be. This view can dampen motivation. Why try
hard if it won’t help you to do well?
Lack of opportunities. Some youngsters lack opportunities to take the classes or participate in
the activities that they need to spark their enthusiasm. This is most likely with students from
disadvantaged families or who are at risk, contributing to perceptions that they are
unmotivated.

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Short attention spans. Some educators report that it’s hard to get students to focus on a long
history project when they’re used to TV programs and media presentations that are fast, short
and entertaining.
Undeveloped work ethic. Some unmotivated youngsters may not have learned that school
success takes time and effort. Many attractions compete for students’ attention and, according
to some research, some students expect school and activities to be consistently exciting. They
aren’t aware of the fact that both in school and daily life, they can learn valuable lessons from
activities that aren’t always fun and that achievement usually requires real effort. You can
encourage and provide opportunities for your child, but ultimately your son is responsible for
seeing that his homework gets done and your daughter must be the one to practice the piano.

IV. Application: Make a reflection on the development of Children and Adolescents by

comparing and contrasting the informations learned about child and adolescent
development above to the observations you had on real life children and adolescents
surrounding you.

Resources/ References:
 Raising Children Network. (2006). Brain development: teenagers. Retrieved from:
[Link]
teen/brain-development-teens
 Raising Children Network. (2006). Brain Development: fisrt five years. Retrieved from:
[Link]
development/development-first-five-years
 Association of Maternal and Child Health Program. (2013). Adolescent Development.
Retrieved from:
[Link]/programsandtopics/AdolescentHealth/projects/Pages/AdolescentDevelop
[Link]
 US Department of Education (2002). Helping Your Child through Early Adolescence.
Retrieved from:
[Link]
 Ministry of Education. (2019). Behavior on the Classroom and Effects on Learning.
Retrieved from: [Link]
teaching/item/1705-behavior-in-the-classroom-and-effects-on-learning
 Allen, Waterman. (2019). Stages of Adolescence Development. Retrieved from:
[Link]
[Link]

Lesson II:

Physical and Motor Development in Young Children and Child’s brain development

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
a) Determine the Child’s brain development
b) Demonstrate knowledge on the concept of physical and
motor development in young children
c) Evaluate the connection between the children’s brain
development and their physical and motor development.

Key to Remember/vocabulary List:

 Learning environment refers to the diverse physical locations, contexts, and cultures in
which students learn. ... For related discussions, see learner, learning experience,
and learning pathway.

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  Behavior, conduct, deportment, comportment refer to one's actions before or toward
others, especially on a particular occasion. Behavior refers to actions usually measured
by commonly accepted standards: His behavior at the party was childish.
 Stress: In a medical or biological context stress is a physical, mental, or emotional factor
that causes bodily or mental tension. Stresses can be external (from the environment,
psychological, or social situations) or internal (illness, or from a medical procedure).
 An instructional intervention is a program or set of steps to help kids improve at things
they struggle with. Instructional interventions focus on subjects like reading or math.
They're designed so that you and the school can track your child's progress.
 Motor development means the physical growth and strengthening of a child's bones,
muscles and ability to move and touch his/her surroundings. A child's motor
development falls into two categories: fine motor and gross motor.
 Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and
comprehension. These cognitive processes include thinking, knowing, remembering,
judging, and problem-solving. These are higher-level functions of the brain and
encompass language, imagination, perception, and planning.
 Bipedalism is a form of terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its
two rear limbs or legs. An animal or machine that usually moves in a bipedal manner is
known as a biped, meaning "two feet". Types of bipedal movement include walking,
running, or hopping. 

Overview:
In this lesson you will be able to understand the Child’s brain development and also determine
their physical and motor development as well as evaluate the connection between the two.

I. Activity: Examine the 2 pictures below and observe each.

II. Analysis: Base on the pictures above, answer the following questions:
1. What are the physical and motor developments of young children have
you seen in the 2 photos above?
2. What can you infer about the developments that you have identified
from the 2 photos you had observed above?
3. Do you believe that the physical and motor developments of young
children have a connection towards their brain development? What
made you come up with your thought; give at least 2-3 reasons.

III. Abstraction:

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Children’s brains develop rapidly from ages birth through three. Brain development affects all
areas of a child’s growth.
There are four main areas of development: (1)motor (physical), (2)language and
communication, (3) social and emotional, and (4) cognitive. Brain development is part of
cognitive development. Cognitive development describes how a child’s intellect grows, and
includes thinking, learning and problem-solving skills. These skills affect all other areas of
development.
The first three years of a child’s life are critical for learning and development. Many parents ask
how they can help their child’s brain develop. The best way is to actively engage your child
through everyday activities like playing, reading and being there when he/she feels stress.
Here are ideas to encourage brain development:
Play
Play is a wonderful way to help a baby or toddler’s brain develop. Play might be a game, talking
or singing to actively engage your child’s brain. "Peek-a-boo" and holding toys out to watch help
a baby’s brain develop. Talk to your baby about what you are doing. For toddlers, sing songs
with actions, like “Wheels on the Bus,” encourage pretend play, color and build with blocks and
toys. These foster imagination and creativity.
Comfort
Babies can feel stress. Hold and cuddle your baby. Let him/her know you are there to comfort
and help them when they feel stress. Studies show that responsive, loving and supportive care
helps babies handle stress better than if care is inconsistent.
Read
Reading is one of the best ways to promote a child’s brain development. Even before he/she can
recognize letters or words, reading kick starts language and communication skills. Hearing
words and seeing pictures connects the two in a child’s mind. Repeating the same books further
builds recognition between the words you speak and the images on the page. As a child grows,
ask him/her to point to specific pictures on the page, like “Where is the dog?”
Brains are built over time, from the bottom up.
The basic architecture of the brain is constructed through an ongoing process that begins before
birth and continues into adulthood. Early experiences affect the quality of that architecture by
establishing either a sturdy or a fragile foundation for all of the learning, health and behavior
that follow. In the first few years of life, more than 1 million new neural connections are formed
every second. After this period of rapid proliferation, connections are reduced through a
process called pruning, so that brain circuits become more efficient. Sensory pathways like
those for basic vision and hearing are the first to develop, followed by early language skills and
higher cognitive functions. Connections proliferate and prune in a prescribed order, with later,
more complex brain circuits built upon earlier, simpler circuits.
The interactive influences of genes and experience shape the developing brain.
Scientists now know a major ingredient in this developmental process is the “serve and return”
relationship between children and their parents and other caregivers in the family or
community. Young children naturally reach out for interaction through babbling, facial
expressions, and gestures, and adults respond with the same kind of vocalizing and gesturing
back at them. In the absence of such responses—or if the responses are unreliable or
inappropriate—the brain’s architecture does not form as expected, which can lead to disparities
in learning and behavior.
The brain’s capacity for change decreases with age.
The brain is most flexible, or “plastic,” early in life to accommodate a wide range of
environments and interactions, but as the maturing brain becomes more specialized to assume
more complex functions, it is less capable of reorganizing and adapting to new or unexpected
challenges. For example, by the first year, the parts of the brain that differentiate sound are
becoming specialized to the language the baby has been exposed to; at the same time, the brain
is already starting to lose the ability to recognize different sounds found in other languages.
Although the “windows” for language learning and other skills remain open, these brain circuits
become increasingly difficult to alter over time. Early plasticity means it’s easier and more

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effective to influence a baby’s developing brain architecture than to rewire parts of its circuitry
in the adult years.
Cognitive, emotional, and social capacities are inextricably intertwined throughout the life
course.
The brain is a highly interrelated organ, and its multiple functions operate in a richly
coordinated fashion. Emotional well-being and social competence provide a strong foundation
for emerging cognitive abilities, and together they are the bricks and mortar that comprise the
foundation of human development. The emotional and physical health, social skills, and
cognitive-linguistic capacities that emerge in the early years are all important prerequisites for
success in school and later in the workplace and community.
Toxic stress damages developing brain architecture, which can lead to lifelong problems in
learning, behavior, and physical and mental health.
Scientists now know that chronic, unrelenting stress in early childhood, caused by extreme
poverty, repeated abuse, or severe maternal depression, for example, can be toxic to the
developing brain. While positive stress (moderate, short-lived physiological responses to
uncomfortable experiences) is an important and necessary aspect of healthy development, toxic
stress is the strong, unrelieved activation of the body’s stress management system. In the
absence of the buffering protection of adult support, toxic stress becomes built into the body by
processes that shape the architecture of the developing brain.
Policy Implications
The basic principles of neuroscience indicate that early preventive intervention will be more
efficient and produce more favorable outcomes than remediation later in life.
A balanced approach to emotional, social, cognitive, and language development will best
prepare all children for success in school and later in the workplace and community.
Supportive relationships and positive learning experiences begin at home but can also be
provided through a range of services with proven effectiveness factors. Babies’ brains require
stable, caring, interactive relationships with adults — any way or any place they can be
provided will benefit healthy brain development.
Science clearly demonstrates that, in situations where toxic stress is likely, intervening as early
as possible is critical to achieving the best outcomes. For children experiencing toxic stress,
specialized early interventions are needed to target the cause of the stress and protect the child
from its consequences.
Children grow and develop rapidly in their first five years across the four main areas of
development. These areas are motor (physical), communication and language, cognitive, and
social and emotional. Early intervention services are delivered during this critical time of
development.
Motor development means the physical growth and strengthening of a child’s bones, muscles
and ability to move and touch his/her surroundings. A child’s motor development falls into two
categories: fine motor and gross motor.
Fine motor skills refer to small movements in the hands, wrists, fingers, feet, toes, lips and
tongue. Gross motor skills involve motor development of muscles that enable babies to hold up
their heads, sit and crawl, and eventually walk, run, jump and skip.
Typical motor skill development follows a predictable sequence. It starts from the inner body,
including the head, neck, arms and legs, and then moves to the outer body such as hands, feet,
fingers and toes. Motor development is important throughout a child’s early life, because
physical development is tied to other development areas. For example, if a child is able to crawl
or walk (gross motor skills), he/she can more easily explore their physical environment, which
affects cognitive development. Social and emotional development progresses when a child can
speak, eat and drink (fine motor skills) 
Parents and caregivers can help develop a child’s motor skills at all ages. Some activities
include:
Placing your baby on his/her tummy, and helping him/her reach for a toy.
Putting a toy on the couch for your child to stretch toward when a he/she starts to stand.
Encouraging walking with a stroller your little one can push.

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Visiting playgrounds, where your child can climb, swing and slide.
The early years of a child’s life are very important for later health and development. One of the
main reasons is how fast the brain grows starting before birth and continuing into early
childhood. Although the brain continues to develop and change into adulthood, the first 8 years
can build a foundation for future learning, health and life success. How well a brain develops
depends on many factors in addition to genes, such as:
Proper nutrition starting in pregnancy
Exposure to toxins or infections
The child’s experiences with other people and the world
Nurturing and responsive care for the child’s body and mind is the key to supporting healthy
brain development. Positive or negative experiences can add up to shape a child’s development
and can have lifelong effects. To nurture their child’s body and mind, parents and caregivers
need support and the right resources. The right care for children, starting before birth and
continuing through childhood, ensures that the child’s brain grows well and reaches its full
potential.
Historically, it has been assumed that motor control and cognition develop separately. However,
it has now been well-documented in the literature that motor and cognitive skills mature along
a similar trajectory.1,2 Leisman, Moustafu, and Shafur studied motor and cognitive skills in the
context of the development of bipedalism in humans as a conduit for the evolution of the
neocortex.3 Piaget posited that children’s cognitive and motor development are closely related,
and was the first to investigate how intelligence evolves from contact with the external
world.4,5 Mobility is crucial to cognitive functioning, aiding in the formation of neural
connections and cortico-differentiation.6 As infants interact with the external environment, the
brain reacts to this input. Studies involving neuro-imaging have found that increased physical
activity promotes the formation of gray matter in the brain.
Motor skills that develop in infancy and beyond are not simply randomly generated in the
central nervous system or at the cortical or spinal cord level. While innate reflexes are present
at birth, many early movements are purposeful and conscious, engendering learning. When
novel motor skills are produced by a child, pre-planning as well as anticipating the outcomes of
the movements help to engender cognitive development. Therefore, a delay or deficit in gross
motor skills may impact cognitive development. This necessitates the need for intervention
throughout childhood in order to ameliorate the effects of motor impairments on other areas of
growth such as learning or social development.

IV. Application: Make a Reflection about the Child’s Physical and Motor Development as you
have observed in your younger siblings or in your nephews/nieces or even in your
neighbors’ children. What can you infer through your observations of real life children
in terms of physical and motor development from what you have learned above?

Resources/References:
 CDC (2020). Early Brain Development and Health. Retrieved from:
[Link]
 Helpmegrow (2020). What is Physical and Motor Development? Retrieved from:
[Link]
[Link]
 Helpmegrow (2020). How To Encourage Child Brain Development. Retrieved from:
[Link]
[Link]#:~:text=Children's%20brains%20develop%20rapidly%20from,is%20part
%20of%20cognitive%20development.
 Center on the Developing Child. (2007). In Brief: The Science of Early Childhood and
Development. Retrieved from:
[Link]

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  Elite Health Care. (2018). Associatiob between Childhood Motor and Cognitive
Development. Retrieved from: [Link]
center/rehabilitation-therapy/the-association-between-childhood-motor-and-
cognitive-development/

Module 3: Physical and Physiological Stages of Development

Lesson 1
Define the terms: physical and physiological
Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
a) Determine the Difference between Physical and Physiological
b) Demonstrate knowledge on each concept of Development-the
Physical Development and Physiological Development
c) Create Learning Material that enhances both Physical and
Physiological Development

Key to Remember/vocabulary List:

 Psychological means mental or emotional rather than physical. The word psychological
is used to describe things that are primarily mental or emotional, but it can also be used
when referring to the field of psychology.
 Self-awareness is the conscious knowledge of one's own character, feelings, motives,
and desires
 Self-recrimination is the act or an instance of blaming or censuring oneself.
 Asynchrony is the term used to describe the mismatch between cognitive, emotional,
and physical development of gifted individuals. Gifted children often have significant
variations within themselves and develop unevenly across skill levels.
 Sexual Dimorphism is a distinct difference in size or appearance between the sexes of an
animal in addition to difference between the sexual organs themselves.
 Somatostatin produces predominantly neuroendocrine inhibitory effects across
multiple systems. It is known to inhibit GI, endocrine, exocrine, pancreatic,
and pituitary secretions, as well as modify neurotransmission and memory formation in
the CNS.

Overview: In this lesson, you will be able to determine the difference between the terms
physical and physiological as well as recognize the difference between the 2 developments
mentioned and also create a learning material that will foster both Physical Development and
Physiological Development of Children and Adolescent in learning.

I. Activity: Identify at least 10 Physical Developments and 10 Physiological Developments

in Children and also in Adolescent. Utilize the graphic organizer provided below:
Physical Developments Physiological Developments
1. Children
2. Adolescent

II. Analysis: Upon taking a look of the data you had accomplished above, answer these
following questions below:
What differences can you site between the children and the adolescent’s Physical Development?
What differences can you site between the children and the adolescent’s Physiological
Development?

III. Abstraction:

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While physical and physiological both refer to bodies, physical means the body itself while
physiological refers to the body’s functions. Understanding the differences between physical
and physiological helps scientists and medical professionals to determine root causes of a
variety of conditions in humans, animals and in nature. Both physical and physiological
characteristics are important in understanding development, effects, addictions and traits
among humans and all other species.
Physical development refers to the growth of the physical body, such as growth of hair, bones,
muscles, organs or any other physical aspect of a species. Physiological development, on the
other hand, refers to the body’s capacity to increase certain functions of the body. For example,
a long-distance runner over time builds strong muscles, a physical development, but he will also
increase his ability to transfer oxygen faster, a physiological development.
Physical development is the process that starts in human infancy and continues into late
adolescent concentrating on gross and fine motor skills as well as puberty. Physical
development involves developing control over the body, particularly muscles and physical
coordination.
The peak of physical development happens in childhood and is therefore a crucial time for
neurological brain development and body coordination to encourage specific activities such as
grasping, writing, crawling, and walking.
As a child learns what their bodies can do, they gain self confidence, promoting social and
emotional development. Physical activities geared toward aiding in physical development
contribute significantly to a person’s health and well-being, according to the Surgeon General’s
report.
Gross Motor Control
Moving the large muscles in the body, specifically the arms and legs consciously and
deliberately, increases gross motor skills. Gross motor control involves balance and stability
with such movement as kicking, running, jumping, hopping, skipping, throwing, catching and
galloping.
Fine Motor Control
Achieving fine motor control involves using and coordinating the small muscles in the hand and
wrists with mastery. During the development process, children have the ability to self-help and
manipulate small objects such as scissors and writing tools. Fine motor skills generally follow
gross motor development.
Forms of Gross Motor Dysfunction
Some signs of gross motor dysfunction among children are difficulty perceiving the location of
the body in a static position, keeping track of movement while engaging in a motor activity,
difficulty following directions, trouble translating verbal inputs into the appropriate responses,
and poor coordination of muscle groups.
Diseases and disorders that affect gross motor skill development and skills among children are
developmental problems such as genetic disorders, muscular dystrophy, cerebral palsy and
some neurological conditions. In addition, gross motor skills can become impaired due to injury,
illness, stroke and congenital deformities.
Fine Motor Dysfunction
Signs of fine motor dysfunction among children include trouble mastering basic self-help skills
such as getting dressed or putting on shoes, difficulty drawing, tracing objects with a pencil,
manipulating scissors and frequent frustration when learning new activities.
A child's fine motor skills should have developed sufficiently by the age of six enough to
complete writing, dressing and feeding tasks. Adequate dexterity, bilateral coordination and
eye-hand coordination to complete writing and cutting tasks are also evident. After the age of
six, children continue to develop and refine these skills with continuous activities, including
play with toys and games during early childhood.

Psychological development, the development of human beings’ cognitive,

emotional, intellectual, and social capabilities and functioning over the course of the life span,
from infancy through old age. It is the subject matter of the discipline known as developmental

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psychology. Child psychology was the traditional focus of research, but since the mid-20th
century much has been learned about infancy and adulthood as well. A brief treatment of
psychological development follows. For full treatment, see human behaviour.
Infancy
Infancy is the period between birth and the acquisition of language one to two years later.
Besides a set of inherited reflexes that help them obtain nourishment and react to danger,
newborns are equipped with a predilection for certain visual patterns, including that of the
human face, and for certain sounds, including that of the human voice. Within a few months they
are able to identify their mother by sight, and they show a striking sensitivity to the tones,
rhythmic flow, and individual sounds that make up human speech. Even young infants are
capable of complex perceptual judgments involving distance, shape, direction, and depth, and
they are soon able to organize their experience by creating categories for objects and events
(e.g., people, furniture, food, animals) in the same way older people do.
Infants make rapid advances in both recognition and recall memory, and this in turn increases
their ability to understand and anticipate events in their environment. A fundamental advance
at this time is the recognition of object permanence—i.e., the awareness that external objects
exist independently of the infant’s perception of them. The infant’s physical interactions with
his environment progress from simple uncoordinated reflex movements to more coordinated
actions that are intentionally repeated because they are interesting or because they can be used
to obtain an external goal. About 18 months of age, the child starts trying to solve physical
problems by mentally imagining certain events and outcomes rather than through simple trial-
and-error experimentation.
Three-month-old infants already display behavioral reactions suggestive of such emotional
states as surprise, distress, relaxation, and excitement. New emotional states, including anger,
sadness, and fear, all appear by the first year. Infants’ emotional life is centred on the
attachments they form toward the mother or other primary caregiver, and through these
mutual interactions infants learn to love, trust, and depend on other human beings. Babies begin
to smile at other people beginning about two months, and by six months they have developed an
attachment to their mother or other caregiver. These attachments form the basis for healthy
emotional and social development throughout childhood.

The second major phase in human development, childhood, extends from one or two years of
age until the onset of adolescence at age 12 or 13. The early years of childhood are marked by
enormous strides in the understanding and use of language. Children begin to comprehend
words some months before they themselves actually speak. The average infant speaks his first
words by 12–14 months, and by the 18th month he has a speaking vocabulary of about 50
words. The child begins to use two- and then three-word combinations and progresses from
simple noun-verb combinations to more grammatically complex sequences, using conjunctions,
prepositions, articles, and tenses with growing fluency and accuracy. By the fourth year most
children can speak in adultlike sentences and have begun to master the more complex rules of
grammar and meaning.
In their cognitive abilities, children make a transition from relying solely on
concrete, tangible reality to performing logical operations on abstract and symbolic material.
Even a two-year-old child behaves as though the external world is a permanent place,
independent of his perceptions; and he exhibits experimental or goal-directed behaviour that
may be creatively and spontaneously adapted for new purposes. During the period from two to
seven years, the child begins to manipulate the environment by means of symbolic thought and
language; he becomes capable of solving new types of logical problems and begins to use mental
operations that are flexible and fully reversible in thought. Between the ages of 7 and 12, the
beginnings of logic appear in the form of classifications of ideas, an understanding of time and
number, and a greater appreciation of seriation and other hierarchical relationships.
Emotionally, children develop in the direction of greater self-awareness—i.e., awareness of
their own emotional states, characteristics, and potential for action—and they become
increasingly able to discern and interpret the emotions of other people as well. This contributes

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to empathy, or the ability to appreciate the feelings and perceptions of others and understand
their point of view. These new abilities contribute to the child’s moral development, which
typically begins in early childhood as concern over and avoidance of acts that attract pain and
punishment and progresses to a more general regulation of conduct so as to maintain parental
regard and approval. A further shift in moral reasoning to one based on the avoidance of
internal guilt and self-recrimination marks the passage from childhood and adolescence to
adulthood. All of these emotional advances enhance the child’s social skills and functioning.
Adolescence
Physically, adolescence begins with the onset of puberty at 12 or 13 and culminates at age 19 or
20 in adulthood. Intellectually, adolescence is the period when the individual becomes able to
systematically formulate hypotheses or propositions, test them, and make rational evaluations.
The formal thinking of adolescents and adults tends to be self-consciously deductive, rational,
and systematic. Emotionally, adolescence is the time when the individual learns to control and
direct his sex urges and begins to establish his own sexual role and relationships. The second
decade of life is also a time when the individual lessens his emotional (if not physical)
dependence on his parents and develops a mature set of values and responsible self-direction.
Physical separation and the establishment of material independence from parents mark the
adolescent’s transition to adulthood.
Adolescence is a complex and dynamic process characterized by simultaneous but
asynchronous development within several development streams. These streams include
physical development (puberty), cognitive and psychological development, and social
development. Although puberty is only one component of adolescent development, it generally
is considered to define the onset of adolescence and certainly is the most visible and tangible of
all of the developmental changes occurring during this period. This article reviews the
physiologic changes associated with normal puberty. Other developmental aspects are not
considered here, and the many abnormalities of puberty that sometimes can occur are not
discussed in detail.
One of the hallmarks of puberty is its variability. The onset, timing, tempo, and magnitude of
pubertal changes are influenced significantly by genetic factors as well as by general health and
nutritional, environmental, and socioeconomic factors. The timing of pubertal milestones
approximates a normal distribution. Studies correlating the timing of puberty between mothers
and children or between twins support a strong genetic influence that has been estimated to
account for 50% to 80% of the variance in the timing of pubertal onset. Racial and ethnic
variations also are seen. For example, the onset of puberty occurs somewhat earlier in African-
American children than it does in Caucasian children.
The age of puberty and menarche has declined steadily over the past several generations,
attributed to improvements in overall health and nutrition. Several large investigations have
documented this secular trend, and it now generally is agreed that puberty often begins at
younger ages than are reported in older texts. As a corollary, pubertal onset that once may have
been considered precocious now is recognized as being within the range of normal. The lay
press has speculated that the ever-decreasing age of puberty, especially in girls, may be related
to environmental exposure to estrogens or to hormonal contamination of the food chain.
However, recent studies appear to demonstrate that the trend to earlier puberty has plateaued.
Physiologic Mechanism of Puberty
Although the mechanism of puberty largely has been elucidated, it remains
unknown why puberty begins when it does in any individual. Body clocks, presumably
controlled by “master genes,” are the basis of the current hypothesis to explain pubertal onset,
but their existence has not yet been proven. Whatever the signal for puberty to begin, there is
broad agreement that it originates in the hypothalamus. These central processes are similar in
boys and girls; the sexual dimorphism that appears in puberty is driven by the gonadal
production of sex steroids—estrogen in girls and testosterone in boys.
Puberty occurs as a result of the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and the
production of estrogen and testosterone. This system is very active in early life, becomes
quiescent during childhood, and is reactivated to begin puberty. The system is fully functional at

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birth, and sensitive assays have demonstrated small pulses of follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) and leuteinizing hormone (LH) even during the quiescent phase of childhood. The relative
inactivity of the system during childhood is believed to be the result of inhibitory central
feedback that may be mediated by GABAergic neurons or neurons secreting neuropeptide Y.
With the onset of puberty, the central inhibitory feedback is lifted, and the hypothalamic
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulse generator becomes increasingly active. Pulsatile
secretion of GnRH begins first nocturnally and later throughout the entire day. Pulsatile GnRH
secretion stimulates increasingly pulsatile secretion of FSH and LH from the pituitary gland.
Both the frequency and the amplitude of pulses increase. FSH and LH, in turn, stimulate
production of sex steroids. In boys, the testes produce testosterone. In girls, the ovaries produce
estrogen. The production of sex steroids allows for the development of secondary sexual
characteristics, accelerates somatic growth, permits the emergence of fertility, and mediates a
wide range of other physiologic effects.
It is accepted that nutritional and metabolic factors influence puberty, and many lines of
evidence support the role of nutritional factors in determining pubertal onset. Leptin, a peptide
secreted by adipose cells into the general circulation, has emerged as the putative mediator
linking nutritional and metabolic status to pubertal development. For example, leptin levels
increase during puberty. In animal studies, leptin increases LH pulse frequency and amplitude
and can mitigate pubertal delay in underfed animals. It originally was believed that leptin might
determine the timing of pubertal onset by signaling nutritional and metabolic adequacy.
However, it now appears that the role of leptin is permissive, making it necessary, but not
sufficient, for puberty to proceed.
The adolescent growth spurt is linked to pubertal development through pathways that remain
unclear. The control of somatic growth during puberty also begins in the hypothalamus, where
growth hormone-releasing hormone and somatostatin are produced. The balance of these two
hormones, which have opposite effects, stimulates pulsatile production of growth hormone
(GH) by the pituitary gland. Local tissues, under the influence of GH, produce somatomedin-C
(also known as insulinlike growth factor), which is directly responsible for the growth of
somatic tissue.

IV. Application: Design a learning material that will going to foster physical and
physiological development on both children and adolescent learners. One learning
material intended for Physical Development in both children and adolescent learners
and also one learning material intended for Physiological Learning in both learners
mentioned.

References/Resources:
 Wills. (2018). Difference between Physical and Physiological. Retrieved from:
[Link]
 Thomas. (2017). Define Physical Development. Retrieved by:
[Link]
 The Editors of Ecyclopaedia Britannica. (2020). Physiological Development. Retrieved
from: [Link]
 Rosen. (2004). Physiologic Growth and Development during Adolescence. Retrieved
from: [Link]

Lesson 2
Factors Affecting Physical and Physiological Development

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
a) Determine the factors affecting physical and physiological
development of children

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 b) Infer the physical development affecting factors towards the
physiological affecting factors.
c) Develop Classroom Management Procedures that will enhance
Children’s learning considering both physical and physiological
factors they are experiencing

Key to Remember/vocabulary list:

 An adverse effect is an undesired harmful effect resulting from a medication or other
intervention, such as surgery. An adverse effect may be termed a "side effect", when
judged to be secondary to a main or therapeutic effect.
 Interpersonal skills are the behaviors and tactics a person uses to interact with others
effectively. In the business world, the term refers to an employee's ability to work well
with others. Interpersonal skills range from communication and listening to attitude and
deportment
 An extracurricular activity (ECA) or extra academic activity (EAA) is an activity,
performed by students, that falls outside the realm of the normal curriculum of school,
college or university education.
 Overweight and obesity are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that
presents a risk to health. A crude population measure of obesity is the body mass index
(BMI), a person's weight (in kilograms) divided by the square of his or her height (in
metres).
 Temperament refers to personality traits that determine how someone reacts to the
world. A person's temperament style plays a role in how they behave and interact with
other people and within their world.

Overview: In this lesson, you will going to determine the factors affecting physical and
physiological development of children as well as infer the two development factors and develop
classroom management procedures that will enhance children’s learning considering both
development factors.
I. Activity: Observe children around you; observe their physical growth and their
physiological growth as you had already learned what these two means during the
previous lesson. Now list down as many factors as you can; factors that contribute or
affect physical and physiological growth. Consider this graphic organizer below in
constructing your answer:
Factors affecting Physical Growth Factors affecting Physical Growth

II. Analysis: Based on the data produced above, answer these following questions:
1. What are the physical factors that you have directly observed from the
children surrounding you?
2. How about the physiological factors? Did you not find it hard to observe
the physiological factor affecting a child growth?
3. What can you conclude on both physical and physiological growth of a
child?
III. Abstraction:
Although the terms growth and development are used synonymously, they have different
meanings biologically. Growth refers to the incremental changes in physical characteristics such
as height, weight, size, etc., while development refers to qualitative changes to growth in an
orderly and meaningful fashion which results in maturity. Growth and development contribute
to each other, are inseparable, and occur simultaneously. For example, most babies, by the time
they grow up to be 8 months old, can weigh around 8 to 10 kilograms and can sit up.

10 Factors That Influence the Growth and Development of a Child

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Nature and nurture both contribute to the growth and development of children. Although
what’s endowed by nature is constant, nurture tends to make a big difference too. Here are a
few factors affecting children’s growth and development.

1. Heredity
Heredity is the transmission of physical characteristics from parents to children through their
genes. It influences all aspects of physical appearance such as height, weight, body structure, the
colour of the eye, the texture of the hair, and even intelligence and aptitudes. Diseases and
conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity, etc., can also be passed through genes,
thereby affecting the growth and development of the child adversely. However, environmental
factors and nurturing can bring the best out of the already present qualities in the genes.

2. Environment
The environment plays a critical role in the development of children and it represents the sum
total of physical and psychological stimulation the child receives. Some of the environmental
factors influencing early childhood development involve the physical surroundings and
geographical conditions of the place the child lives in, as well his social environment and
relationships with family and peers. It is easy to understand that a well-nurtured child does
better than a deprived one; the environment children are constantly immersed in contributes to
this. A good school and a loving family builds in children strong social and interpersonal skills,
which will enable them to excel in other areas such as academics and extracurricular activities.
This will, of course, be different for children who are raised in stressful environments.

3. Sex
The sex of the child is another major factor affecting the physical growth and development of a
child. Boys and girls grow in different ways, especially nearing puberty. Boys tend to be taller
and physically stronger than girls. However, girls tend to mature faster during adolescence,
while boys mature over a longer period of time. The physical structure of their bodies also has
differences which make boys more athletic and suited for activities that require physical rigour.
Their temperaments also vary, making them show interest in different things.

4. Exercise and Health

The word exercise here does not mean physical exercise as a discipline or children deliberately
engaging in physical activities knowing it would help them grow. Exercise here refers to the
normal playtime and sports activities which help the body gain an increase in muscular strength
and put on bone mass. Proper exercise helps children grow well and reach milestones on time
or sooner. Exercise also keeps them healthy and fights off diseases by strengthening the
immune system, especially if they play outside. This is because outdoor play exposes them to
microbes that help them build resistance and prevent allergies.

5. Hormones
Hormones belong to the endocrine system and influence the various functions of our bodies.
They are produced by different glands that are situated in specific parts of the body to secrete
hormones that control body functions. Their timely functioning is critical for normal physical
growth and development in children. Imbalances in the functioning of hormone-secreting
glands can result in growth defects, obesity, behavioural problems and other diseases. During
puberty, the gonads produce sex hormones which control the development of the sex organs
and the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics in boys and girls.

6. Nutrition
Nutrition is a critical factor in growth as everything the body needs to build and repair itself
comes from the food we eat. Malnutrition can cause deficiency diseases that adversely affect the
growth and development of children. On the other hand, overeating can lead to obesity and
health problems in the long run, such as diabetes and heart disease. A balanced diet that is rich

44 | P a g e
in vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates and fats is essential for the development of the
brain and body.

7. Familial Influence
Families have the most profound impact in nurturing a child and determining the ways in which
they develop psychologically and socially. Whether they are raised by their parents,
grandparents or foster care, they need basic love, care and courtesy to develop as healthy
functional individuals. The most positive growth is seen when families invest time, energy and
love in the development of the child through activities, such as reading to them, playing with
them and having deep meaningful conversations. Families that abuse or neglect children would
affect their positive development. These children may end up as individuals who have poor
social skills and difficulty bonding with other people as adults. Helicopter parenting also has
negative effects as they render children dependent on the parents even as young adults and
unable to deal with difficulties in life on their own.

8. Geographical Influences
Where you live also has a great influence on how your children turn out to be. The schools they
attend, the neighbourhood they live in, the opportunities offered by the community and their
peer circles are some of the social factors affecting a child’s development. Living in an enriching
community that has parks, libraries and community centres for group activities and sports all
play a role in developing the child’s skills, talents, and behaviour. Uninteresting communities
can push some children to not go outside often but play video games at home instead. Even the
weather of a place influences children in the form of bodily rhythms, allergies and other health
conditions.

9. Socio-Economic Status
The socio-economic status of a family determines the quality of the opportunity a child gets.
Studying in better schools that are more expensive definitely has benefits in the long run. Well-
off families can also offer better learning resources for their children and they afford special aid
if the kids need it. Children from poorer families may not have access to educational resources
and good nutrition to reach their full potential. They may also have working parents who work
too many hours and cannot invest enough quality time in their development.

10. Learning and Reinforcement

Learning involves much more than schooling. It is also concerned with building the child up
mentally, intellectually, emotionally, and socially so they operate as healthy functional
individuals in the society. This is where the development of the mind takes place and the child
can gain some maturity. Reinforcement is a component of learning where an activity or exercise
is repeated and refined to solidify the lessons learned. An example is playing a musical
instrument; they get better at playing it as they practice playing the instrument. Therefore, any
lesson that is taught has to be repeated until the right results are obtained.

Although nature contributes much to the growth and development of children, nurture
contributes much more. As mentioned earlier, some of these factors may not be controllable,
and you’ll have to make do with what you have. But there are certain things you can definitely
ensure for your child. This includes ensuring that your child gets enough rest every day, because
his development is heavily dependent on the amount of sleep he gets. Pay close attention to
your child’s nutritional and exercise levels, as these too play an important role in promoting
your child’s timely and healthy growth and development.

Human growth is influenced by environmental, genetic and hormonal factors. Epidemiological

studies have shown that non-pathological factors such as nutrition, psychological influences,
physical activity and climate play important roles on growth. The secretion and action of growth
hormone can be disrupted by mutations in genes affecting the synthesis of growth hormone

45 | P a g e
itself, its binding proteins and receptors or the production of pituitary transcription factors.
Other hormones – e.g. thyroid hormone, adrenal androgens, sex steroids, glucocorticoids,
ghrelin, leptin and insulin – also interact with the growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor-1
axis. Human linear growth starts from fertilisation and progresses through prenatal, infantile,
early childhood and adolescent phases to be completed by fusion of the epiphyseal growth
plates. After the rapid growth of foetal life, a marked deceleration follows in the first 3 years of
postnatal life, which then leads to a slowly decelerating childhood component and finally a
sigmoid-shaped pubertal phase. A thorough understanding of the normal pattern of human
growth and the factors affecting this process is necessary for clinicians to evaluate patients
referred with possible growth disorders and to identify those who require further medical
input.

IV. Application: Develop classroom procedures for teaching and learning process of
children as your learners. Take into consideration the 2 factors of development, physical
and physiological factors.

References/Resources:
 Awadhiya. (2019). Factors that Affect Growth and Development in Children. Retrieved
from: [Link]
development-in-children/
 Gregory. (2009). Physiology of Normal Growth. Retrieved from:
[Link]
7/pdf#:~:text=An%20individual's%20genetic%20potential%20for,hormonal
%20factors%20(Figure%201).&text=Environmental%20factors%20influencing
%20growth%20include,factors%2C%20physical%20activity%20and%20climate.

Lesson 3
Developmental stages: 6-10 (Children)

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
a) Determine the development stages of Children, ages 6-10
b) Check the changes that occur during this development stage,
if it affects the children’s behaviors and personality
c) Develop Management measure in handling Young Learners

Key to Remember/vocabulary List:

 Coordination is the ability to use different parts of the body together smoothly and
efficiently.
 Complexities are the state or quality of being intricate or complicated.
 Stress management is a wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies aimed at
controlling a person's level of stress, especially chronic stress, usually for the purpose of
and for the motive of improving everyday functioning.
 Magical thinking happens when you have, say, firmly held beliefs based on scanty or
even non-existent evidence or when you make plans in which ends and means are
radically out of synch.
 Norms are the agreed‐upon expectations and rules by which a culture guides the
behavior of its members in any given situation. Of course, norms vary widely
across cultural groups.

Overview: In this lesson, you will going to determine the development stages of Children, ages
6-10 as well as check the changes that occur during this development stage and develop
Management measure in handling Young Learners.

46 | P a g e
 I. Activity: Recall your childhood stage of development; you will go to find the task very
easy because you have been in these ages before. Evaluate developmental changes that
occur in your own self during the period of childhood. Simply list down the changes. You
can provide answers as many as you can.

II. Analysis: Answer the following questions below:

1. What vivid memories can you recall from your childhood?
2. How can you evaluate your childhood experiences? Did you find it
enjoyable and worth it? Or did you remember something very painful
from it?
3. In your own opinion, how would you deal with children when you will be
teaching them inside a classroom one of these days?
III. Abstraction:
What kinds of development occur between ages 6 and 10?
Children ages 6 to 10 are more independent and physically active than they were in the
preschool years. They also are more involved with friends and are learning to think in more
complex ways.
Progress in the major areas of development—physical, intellectual, emotional, and social—is
gradual. But the changes you will see in your child from one year to the next can be dramatic.
How will my child change physically?
Strength and muscle coordination improve rapidly in these years. Many children learn to throw,
hit a baseball, or kick a soccer ball. Some children may even develop skills in more complex
activities, such as playing basketball or dancing.

How will my child change intellectually?

From ages 6 to 10, your child develops a more mature and logical way of thinking. He or she
gradually becomes able to consider several parts to a problem or situation. This is a change
from the simplistic thinking of a preschooler.
Even though their thinking becomes more complex, children in this age group still think in
concrete terms. This means they are most concerned with things that are "real" rather than with
ideas. In general, these things are those that can be identified with the senses. For example,
actually touching the soft fur of a rabbit is more meaningful to a child than being told that an
object is "soft like a rabbit." Because they still can mostly consider only one part of a situation or
perspective at a time, children of this age have difficulty fully understanding how things are
connected.

How will my child change emotionally and socially?

When children enter school, they leave the security of home and family. They become players on
the larger stage of school and friends. Here, they learn some crucial skills—including how to
make friends—that they can use for the rest of their lives.
Children's self-esteem, which is their sense of worth and belonging, is fragile and can change
rapidly depending on what is happening around them. At times, children of this age seem like
little adults as they march off to school with backpacks full of responsibilities. But at other
times, they can be as unreasonable as toddlers.

How can I manage this active time?

Parents often overestimate their children's ability to make good decisions. Children of this age
need firm and consistent rules that are explained clearly and compassionately. Effective parents
are able to give their children enough independence to learn from their successes and failures
and at the same time provide consistent direction and unconditional support.
Try to check in with your child every day. Ask him or her about the good and bad things that
happened. And help your child learn from those experiences.
Although children from ages 6 to 10 display a similar range of physical abilities, mental
strengths, and social behaviours, they develop at their own pace. Even within families,

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differences between children can be extreme. One sibling may be outgoing and popular, while
another is shy and awkward. Some children make progress in one area, such as reading and
writing, while making little or no progress in another skill, such as math. Focus on helping your
child enjoy and learn from activities rather than on measuring the outcome.

General development from ages 6 to 10

You can expect children in this age group to progress in five major areas:
Physical development. Children ages 6 to 10 usually grow in spurts, averaging about 3 kg (7
lb) and 6 cm (2.5 in.) each year. Healthy growth is different for every child, and your child will
grow at his or her own pace. Your child's natural growth rate may be slower or faster. Your child
will also lose about four baby teeth each year. These are replaced by permanent teeth.

Cognitive development. Thinking and reasoning skills, called cognitive skills, mature rapidly
between ages 6 and 10. As these skills develop, so does a child's ability to solve problems. But
reasoning remains simple in that most children only understand concepts as they relate to the
here and now. Concepts such as the distant past are usually too abstract for children at this age
to grasp.
Emotional and social development. Children ages 6 to 10 are developing friendships. Self-
esteem, which is a person's sense of worth and belonging, becomes increasingly important as
your child interacts more with people outside of his or her immediate family. Children this age
also compare themselves to others.

Language development. At age 6, most children know the meanings of about 13,000 words.
From ages 6 to 10, they gradually think in more complex ways. For example, children advance
from understanding simple sentences to being able to interpret complicated content within a
paragraph. They grow from writing a few words at a time to composing complex stories and
reports.
Sensory and motor development. Children between ages 6 and 10 make major gains in muscle
strength and coordination. Most children within this age range develop basic motor skills, such
as kicking, catching, and throwing. Gradually, children become more skilled at more complex
activities, such as dancing, shooting a basketball, or playing the piano.
Growth and development milestones are roughly grouped by year of age. Use age-specific
guidelines as one of many tools to assess your child's overall development. Many things, such as
inherited genetic traits, health, personality and temperament, cultural norms, and home
environment, influence a child's pace at reaching milestones.

Milestones by age
By 6 years of age, most children:
Have gained enough muscle strength and coordination to hop and skip, and they can catch a
ball.
Begin to understand cause-and-effect relationships. "Magical thinking" typical of preschoolers
quickly fades around this age. But your child keeps an active imagination.
Focus on only one issue at a time when solving problems.
Begin to understand how combinations of letters and sounds form words. They recognize some
written words and may even have started reading simple text.
Become increasingly social with their peers. But they depend on caregivers for most personal
interaction.

By 7 years of age, most children:

Begin to show a preference for a certain learning style, such as hands-on or quiet reflection.
Develop friendships, usually with other children of the same gender.
Like to be involved in some group play but need time alone too.
Enjoy arts and crafts and physically active play.

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8 years o age, most children:
Generally think of things as "either-or." Things are either great or awful, ugly or beautiful, right
or wrong. Children focus on one part of an issue at a time, which makes it hard for them to
understand complexities.
Are reading.
Enjoy being around their friends. Some enjoy group activities, such as team sports.
Have rapidly changing emotions. Angry outbursts are common. Many children of this age are
critical of others, especially of their parents. They may seem dramatic and sometimes rude.
Have well-developed speech and use correct grammar most of the time. Many children have
well-developed conversation skills.
By 9 years of age, most children:
Think more independently and are developing good decision-making skills. This reflects their
increasing critical-thinking skills and ability to consider more than one perspective at a time.
Have caring, solid friendships.
Have gained a strong sense of empathy, which is understanding and being sensitive to the
feelings of others.
Are curious about relationships between boys and girls. Few will admit to this interest.
Speak well and pronounce words clearly.
Become increasingly interested in team sports.
Like to draw, paint, make jewellery, build models, or try other activities that use fine motor
skills.
By 10 years of age, most children:
Know the complete date (day of the week, day of the month, month, and year).
Enjoy being with friends and often have a "best" friend of the same gender.
Continue to enjoy team and group activities.
Continue to insist that they are not interested in children of the opposite sex. But they may show
off, tease, or act silly as a way of interacting with them.
Have speech patterns that are nearly at an adult level.
Sometimes seek out magazines and books in subjects of special interest.
Have good control of large and small muscles. Some children enjoy activities that use all these
skills, such as basketball, dancing, and soccer.
A lot is happening within the brains and bodies of children ages 6 to 10. Along with growing
stronger and more social, most children gradually gain critical thinking skills and a basic
understanding of complex issues. Also, children are becoming more aware of their bodies and
appearance.
This is a time of trial and error. Children in this age group are figuring out how the world works
and what their place is in it. It is easy for parents to be alarmed when their child has occasional
lapses in appropriate behaviour or judgment.
Try to encourage your child's independence while you demonstrate your unconditional love. A
child who feels he or she has a strong safety net at home is better equipped to try new things
and to grow and develop in healthy ways.
Common concerns of parents usually relate to physical growth and development, difficulties in
school, and social situations.
Issues related to physical appearance and skills
The rate of growth varies a lot among individual children. Some children are small for their age,
and others are large. It can be hard for a child who falls outside the range of "normal." A small
child may find it hard to succeed in sports. Children who are tall for their age may have
problems when people think they are older and expect them to act that way. Also, some
children, particularly girls, are "early bloomers" and may enter puberty before their peers. This
can lead to self-consciousness and embarrassment.
Help your child understand that everyone grows at his or her own pace. Assure your child that
he or she can handle difficulties related to size, appearance, or athletic skill.

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Also, encourage and model healthy eating and physical activity habits for your child. Staying at a
healthy weight and eating healthy foods helps children to feel their best not only physically but
also mentally and emotionally.
Difficulties in school
Children ages 6 to 10 develop at different rates not only physically but also intellectually. If your
child seems to be struggling in certain subjects and is not meeting general cognitive
development or language development milestones, talk to your doctor. Keep an open mind
about having your child evaluated instead of waiting for him or her to "grow out of it." Of course,
be mindful that there is a fine line between being concerned and over-reacting. Talk to your
child's teacher and other school staff about your child's strengths and weaknesses. Keep a
friendly and supportive relationship with your child's teachers to help build your child's
confidence. Working as a team also is likely to result in a more consistent approach. A child is
more likely to know what to expect and be more assured when parents and teachers are helping
each other.
Work on ways to strengthen your child's self-esteem. Help your child recognize and nurture his
or her own talents. Children in this age group often experience a wide range of emotions that
can change very quickly depending on what is happening around them. Try to show your child
how to see the big picture. Talk about all the successes he or she has had, such as doing well on a
test, learning new spelling words, or making an impressive art project.
Socialization
The ages between 6 and 10 are a confusing and exciting time for children. They make new
friends frequently.
Most children in this age group are beginning to understand and be sensitive to the feelings of
others—a trait known as empathy. But they are still self-centred. Their feelings are easily hurt.
Likewise, they can casually hurt others' feelings. You can help your child learn how to be more
empathetic and to understand the importance of healthy friendships. Talk about and list the
qualities that make a good friend. Talk about how your child can work on developing these
qualities.
Bullying may start to become a problem for some children near age 10 years. Take an active role
in preventing and educating your child about ways to deal with this type of behaviour.
Equip your child with ways to deal with and avoid being bullied.
If your child engages in bullying behaviour, address the problem right away. Talk about how his
or her words and actions affect other people. You play an important role in making your child
aware of others' feelings.
Involve parents and other adults who are around where the problems occur. For example, talk
to staff and teachers at your child's school in situations that include classmates.
For more information about bullying, see the topic Bullying.
Loading Content
Promoting Healthy Growth and Development
Although your child between the ages of 6 and 10 may seem very independent at times, he or
she still needs your constant guidance. Being present is the most important thing you can do to
help your child grow in healthy ways. Knowing that you are "around" and available provides
him or her with a sense of security. Although your child's world is expanding, you remain his or
her primary influence.
You can do many things to help your child grow and develop.
Promote physical development by encouraging and modelling healthy eating habits. Also, foster
a healthy body image by talking about and showing how it is important to accept people of all
colours, shapes, and sizes. For more information, see the topic Healthy Habits for Kids.
Promote cognitive development—thinking and reasoning skills—by being involved in your
child's school. Volunteer if possible, cultivate good relationships with teachers and other staff
members, and show your interest in what your child is learning. Also, work on skills at home,
such as simple math problems, money handling, reading, and writing. Age-appropriate
workbooks are widely available. But be careful not to pressure your child. Simply spending time
with him or her is an important part of setting a foundation for cognitive growth.

50 | P a g e
Promote language development by reading to your child every day. Make reading a routine,
even as he or she gets older and seems to lose interest. Set aside time that you and your child
can look forward to and talk about stories, words, and ideas. Visit your local library and try
finding books with new subjects that you think might interest your child.
Promote social and emotional development by being aware of sibling rivalry, which can become
a problem around this age. Also help your child learn social skills, such as by showing your
acceptance of others and not gossiping or saying mean things about other people.
Promote sensory and motor skill development by encouraging exercise every day. It doesn't
have to be highly structured: the main point is to move around and limit TV time and other
screen time. Practicing somersaults, playing catch, going to the park, or riding a bike are all
helpful in developing muscular skill and endurance. Also, encourage your child to create art
projects, such as drawing, cutting with safety scissors, gluing, and stringing beads. These and
similar activities help improve eye-hand coordination and fine motor skills. For more
information, see the topic Physical Activity for Children and Teens.

Also, you can help your child in other general ways.

Deal with fears. Understand that your child may become extremely interested in scary subjects
or images as a way to overcome fears about them. Help your child as much as you can by
answering questions and providing reassurance as needed.
Discourage physical violence and show your child ways to deal with anger without being
violent. Protect your child from violent media as much as you can. Some TV programs, movies,
video games, and websites show a lot of violent acts. Children who watch a lot of this violence
may come to believe that such behaviour is okay. This can make them more likely to act
violently themselves. It can also lead to nightmares, aggression, or fears of being harmed. Music
lyrics affect children's behaviour and emotions, too. Monitor the type of music that your child is
exposed to, and be aware of the music your child buys.
Establish limits. Set limits for your children to show them that you love and care about them.
Make sure your rules are reasonable and that your child understands them. It is important to
follow through on any consequences you have established for failing to follow rules.
Recognize and develop special talents. Help your child discover interests and practice skills. For
example, kick a soccer ball around the yard with your child or help him or her practice printing
letters.
Recognize his or her curiosity about the body and sexuality. You can help your child gain basic
knowledge and a healthy attitude toward these issues by showing a willingness to listen and
discuss them.
Before your child starts middle school, teach him or her how to resist using tobacco and other
drugs.

You can also help your child through each stage of development by evaluating your relationship
from time to time. In many ways, you have to "get to know" your child over and over again.
Think about:
What do I like most about my child?
What could be triggering difficult behaviour? Are any of these new triggers?
What new skills has my child developed within the past year? Six months? Three months?
What tasks can I encourage my child to do for himself or herself? How can I encourage him or
her?
When am I happy about how I treat my child?
What don't I like about some of our interactions? When do these episodes tend to occur?

As a parent or caregiver of children, it is also important for you to:

Learn and use effective parenting and discipline techniques and avoid the use of corporal
punishment. Parenting classes are offered in most communities. Ask your doctor or call a nurse
call line for more information.

51 | P a g e
Learn healthy techniques to resolve conflicts and manage stress. For more information, see the
topic Stress Management.
Ask for help when you need it. Call a family member or friend to give you a break if you feel
overwhelmed. Find out about community resources that are available to help you with child
care or other necessary services. Call a doctor or nurse call line to find out about a place to start.
Some communities have respite care facilities for children, which provide temporary child care
during times when you need a break.

Although your child between the ages of 6 and 10 may seem very independent at times, he or
she still needs your constant guidance. Being present is the most important thing you can do to
help your child grow in healthy ways. Knowing that you are "around" and available provides
him or her with a sense of security. Although your child's world is expanding, you remain his or
her primary influence.
You can do many things to help your child grow and develop.
Promote physical development by encouraging and modelling healthy eating habits. Also, foster
a healthy body image by talking about and showing how it is important to accept people of all
colours, shapes, and sizes. For more information, see the topic Healthy Habits for Kids.
Promote cognitive development—thinking and reasoning skills—by being involved in your
child's school. Volunteer if possible, cultivate good relationships with teachers and other staff
members, and show your interest in what your child is learning. Also, work on skills at home,
such as simple math problems, money handling, reading, and writing. Age-appropriate
workbooks are widely available. But be careful not to pressure your child. Simply spending time
with him or her is an important part of setting a foundation for cognitive growth.
Promote language development by reading to your child every day. Make reading a routine,
even as he or she gets older and seems to lose interest. Set aside time that you and your child
can look forward to and talk about stories, words, and ideas. Visit your local library and try
finding books with new subjects that you think might interest your child.
Promote social and emotional development by being aware of sibling rivalry, which can become
a problem around this age. Also help your child learn social skills, such as by showing your
acceptance of others and not gossiping or saying mean things about other people.
Promote sensory and motor skill development by encouraging exercise every day. It doesn't
have to be highly structured: the main point is to move around and limit TV time and other
screen time. Practicing somersaults, playing catch, going to the park, or riding a bike are all
helpful in developing muscular skill and endurance. Also, encourage your child to create art
projects, such as drawing, cutting with safety scissors, gluing, and stringing beads. These and
similar activities help improve eye-hand coordination and fine motor skills. For more
information, see the topic Physical Activity for Children and Teens.
Also, you can help your child in other general ways.
Deal with fears. Understand that your child may become extremely interested in scary subjects
or images as a way to overcome fears about them. Help your child as much as you can by
answering questions and providing reassurance as needed.
Discourage physical violence and show your child ways to deal with anger without being
violent. Protect your child from violent media as much as you can. Some TV programs, movies,
video games, and websites show a lot of violent acts. Children who watch a lot of this violence
may come to believe that such behaviour is okay. This can make them more likely to act
violently themselves. It can also lead to nightmares, aggression, or fears of being
harmed.footnote1 Music lyrics affect children's behaviour and emotions, too.footnote2 Monitor
the type of music that your child is exposed to, and be aware of the music your child buys.
Establish limits. Set limits for your children to show them that you love and care about them.
Make sure your rules are reasonable and that your child understands them. It is important to
follow through on any consequences you have established for failing to follow rules.

52 | P a g e
Recognize and develop special talents. Help your child discover interests and practice skills. For
example, kick a soccer ball around the yard with your child or help him or her practice printing
letters.
Recognize his or her curiosity about the body and sexuality. You can help your child gain basic
knowledge and a healthy attitude toward these issues by showing a willingness to listen and
discuss them.
Before your child starts middle school, teach him or her how to resist using tobacco and other
drugs.
You can also help your child through each stage of development by evaluating your relationship
from time to time. In many ways, you have to "get to know" your child over and over again.
Think about:
What do I like most about my child?
What could be triggering difficult behaviour? Are any of these new triggers?
What new skills has my child developed within the past year? Six months? Three months?
What tasks can I encourage my child to do for himself or herself? How can I encourage him or
her?
When am I happy about how I treat my child?
What don't I like about some of our interactions? When do these episodes tend to occur?
As a parent or caregiver of children, it is also important for you to:
Learn and use effective parenting and discipline techniques and avoid the use of corporal
punishment. Parenting classes are offered in most communities. Ask your doctor or call a nurse
call line for more information.
Learn healthy techniques to resolve conflicts and manage stress. For more information, see the
topic Stress Management.
Ask for help when you need it. Call a family member or friend to give you a break if you feel
overwhelmed. Find out about community resources that are available to help you with child
care or other necessary services. Call a doctor or nurse call line to find out about a place to start.
Some communities have respite care facilities for children, which provide temporary child care
during times when you need a break.

IV. Application: As a future teacher, you will go to deal with the learners either it is in the
ages 6-10. Design a classroom management procedure in handling these learners. Make
at least 10 procedures that will show your managing skills towards these kinds of
learners inside your classroom someday. Make good use of what you have learned from
this lesson.

References/Resources:
 Healthwise. (2019). Growth and Development Ages 6-10. Retrieved from:
[Link]
ca#:~:text=Children%20ages%206%20to%2010,%2C%20and%20social
%E2%80%94is%20gradual.

Lesson 4
Development stages: 10-19 (Adolescent)

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
a) Determine the development stages of Adolescent, ages 10-19
b) Check the changes that occur during this development stage,
if it affects the adolescent behaviors and personality
c) Develop Management measure in handling Adolescent
Learners

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Key to Remember/vocabulary List:
 Psychosexual is of or relating to the mental, emotional, and behavioral aspects of sexual
development. Or of or relating to mental or emotional attitudes concerning sexual
activity. And of or relating to the physiological psychology of sex.
 Adulthood implies a maturity of sorts, whether it be physical or psychological. ... In many
cultures, adulthood is marked with a “coming of age” ritual
 A growth spurt is a time during which your baby has a more intense period of  growth. ...
While some of these signs of a growth spurt may seem to last forever while you're
dealing with them, growth spurts usually only last a few days to a week.
 Homosexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction, or sexual behavior between
members of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality is "an
enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions" to people of the
same sex.
 Bisexual is sexually attracted not exclusively to people of one particular gender;
attracted to both men and women.
 Depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of
interest. Also called major depressive disorder or clinical depression, it affects how you
feel, think and behave and can lead to a variety of emotional and physical problems.

Overview: In this lesson, you will going to determine the development stages of Adolescence,
ages 6-10 as well as check the changes that occur during this development stage and develop
Management measure in handling Adolescent Learners.

I. Activity: Recall your adolescent period and if you are still in this stage of development
you will go to find the task very easy. Evaluate developmental changes that occur in your
own self during the period of adolescence. Simply list down the changes. You can
provide answers as many as you can.

II. Analysis: Answer the following questions below:

1. What vivid memories can you recall from your childhood?
2. How can you evaluate your childhood experiences? Did you find it
enjoyable and worth it? Or did you remember something very painful
from it?
3. In your own opinion, how would you deal with children when you will be
teaching them inside a classroom one of these days?

III. Abstraction:
Physical Development: Age 12–19
Adolescence—the transition period between childhood and adulthood—encompasses ages 12
to 19. It is a time of tremendous change and discovery. During these years, physical, emotional,
and intellectual growth occurs at a dizzying speed, challenging the teenager to adjust to a new
body, social identity, and expanding world view.
Perhaps no aspect of adolescence is as noticeable as the physical changes that teenagers
experience. Within the span of a few years, a dependent child becomes an independent and
contributing adult member of society. The start of adolescence also marks the beginning of
Freud's final stage of psychosexual development, the genital stage, which pertains to both
adolescence and adulthood.
Puberty is the time of rapid physical development, signaling the end of childhood and the
beginning of sexual maturity. Although puberty may begin at different times for different
people, by its completion girls and boys without any developmental problems will be
structurally and hormonally prepared for sexual reproduction. The speed at which adolescents
sexually mature varies; the beginning of puberty in both genders falls within a range of 6 to 7
years. In any grouping of 14‐year‐olds, for example, one is likely to see teenagers in assorted

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stages of development—some appearing as older children and others as fully mature
adolescents. Eventually, though, everyone catches up.
Hormones are responsible for the development of both primary sex characteristics (structures
directly responsible for reproduction) and secondary sex characteristics (structures indirectly
responsible for reproduction). Examples of primary sex characteristics are the penis in boys and
the uterus in females. An example of secondary sex characteristics is the growth of pubic hair in
both genders.
During childhood, males and females produce roughly equal amounts of male (androgen) and
female (estrogen) hormones. At the onset of puberty, the pituitary gland stimulates hormonal
changes throughout the body, including in the adrenal, endocrine, and sexual glands. The timing
of puberty seems to result from a combination of genetic, environmental, and health factors.
An early sign of maturation is the adolescent growth spurt, or a noticeable increase in height
and weight. The female growth spurt usually begins between ages 10 and 14, and ends by age
16. The male growth spurt usually begins between ages 10 and 16, and ends by age 18.
Girls generally begin puberty a few years earlier than boys, somewhere around ages 11 to 12.
Increasing levels of estrogen trigger the onset of puberty in girls. They grow taller; their hips
widen; their breasts become rounder and larger; hair grows on the legs, under the arms, and
around the genitals; the labia thicken; the clitoris elongates; and the uterus enlarges. Around the
age of 12 or 13, most girls today begin menstruating, or having menstrual periods and flow. The
onset of menstruation is termed menarche. At this time, females can become pregnant.
Increasing levels of the hormone testosterone trigger the onset of puberty in boys around ages
12 to 14. Boys become taller, heavier, and stronger; their voices deepen; their shoulders
broaden; hair grows under the arms, on the face, around the genitals, and on other parts of the
body; the testes produce sperm; and the penis and other reproductive organs enlarge. At this
time, boys can impregnate sexually mature girls. Teenage boys may also experience the
harmless release of semen during sleep, termed nocturnal emissions (wet dreams).
The resulting changes of puberty can have wide‐ranging effects on teenagers' bodies. For both
adolescent girls and boys, differences in height and weight, general awkwardness, emotional
ups‐and‐downs, and skin problems ( acne vulgaris, or pimples) are common. These and other
changes, including the timing of sexual maturation, can be sources of great anxiety and
frustration for the blossoming youth.
A part of discovering one's total identity is the firming of sexual orientation, or sexual,
emotional, romantic, and affectionate attraction to members of the same sex, the other sex, or
both. A person who is attracted to members of the other sex is heterosexual. A person who is
attracted to members of the same sex is homosexual. Many use the term gay to refer to a male
homosexual, and lesbian to refer to a female homosexual. A person who is attracted to members
of both sexes is bisexual.
In the 1940s and 1950s, Alfred Kinsey and his associates discovered that sexual orientation
exists along a continuum. Prior to Kinsey's research into the sexual habits of United States
residents, experts generally believed that most individuals were either heterosexual or
homosexual. Kinsey speculated that the categories of sexual orientation were not so distinct. On
his surveys, many Americans reported having had at least minimal attraction to members of the
same gender, although most had never acted out on this attraction. In short, Kinsey and
colleagues brought to the attention of medical science the notion of heterosexuality,
homosexuality, and bisexuality all being separate but related sexual orientations.
The etiology of heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality continues to elude researchers.
Today's theories of sexual orientation fall into biological, psychological, social, and interactional
categories.
Biological theories
Attempts to identify the specific physiological causes of homosexuality have been inconclusive.
Traditional physiological theories include too little testosterone in males, too much testosterone
in females, prenatal hormonal imbalances, prenatal biological errors due to maternal stress,
differences in brain structures, and genetic differences and influences.
Psychological and social theories

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Early childhood seems to be the critical period in which sexual orientation forms, suggesting
that learning plays a part in causing homosexuality. Freudians have traditionally held that
homosexuality is rooted in early childhood developmental conflicts, particularly the Oedipal
conflict. Freudians believe homosexuality develops in response to troubled family relationships,
an overly affectionate and dominant mother and a passive father, and/or the loss of one or both
parents. However, these theories cannot explain why homosexuality occurs in individuals not
coming from these types of families.
More recently, researchers have proposed that social‐learning factors may be account for
homosexuality. The sexual preference may develop when a child engages in early cross‐gender
behaviors (behaviors stereotypical of the other sex) or when a teenager's sexual drive emerges
during a period of primarily same‐gender friendships.
Interactional theories
Proponents of the interactional theory of homosexuality allege that sexual orientation
develops from a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors. John Money
explains that prenatal hormones first act on the embryo's and fetus's brain, which creates a
physiological predisposition toward a particular sexual orientation. During early childhood,
social‐learning factors influence the child, either facilitating or inhibiting the predisposition.
Health Issues: Age 12–19
Adolescent health problems are often correlated with low socioeconomic status, poor diet,
inadequate health care, risk‐taking activities, personality issues, and a sedentary lifestyle. Yet
the teenage years are typically healthy, although major health problems can emerge. Three
possible major health problems include eating disorders, depression, and substance abuse.
Eating disorders
Eating disorders involve a preoccupation with food. The most common of these among
teenagers is obesity, which is defined as a skin‐fold measurement in the 85th percentile for
one's height. Obesity carries with it the potential for social stigma, psychological distress, and
chronic health problems. Approximately 15 to 20 percent of adolescents are obese.
A preoccupation with not becoming obese can lead to anorexia nervosa, or self‐starvation. The
typical anorexic is a model teenager who is obsessed with food—buying, cooking, and preparing
it—but who eats very little herself. She is probably a perfectionist and has a distorted self‐
perception of her body, believing herself to be too fat. The anorexic is generally 20 percent
under her ideal weight. As many as 1 percent of adolescent girls are anorexic, and 2 to 8 percent
of them eventually die from starvation.
Related to anorexia is bulimia nervosa, a disorder that follows a pattern of binge‐purge eating.
After eating an enormous amount of food, bulimics vomit, take laxatives, or exercise vigorously
to burn off recently consumed calories. Bulimics, like anorexics, are obsessed with food, weight,
and body shape. Unlike anorexics, they maintain a relatively normal body weight.
Both anorexia and bulimia are far more common among females than males. They also cross all
levels of society. The exact causes of these eating disorders are unknown.
Depression
As many as 40 percent of adolescents have periods of depression, a type of mood disorder
characterized by feelings of low self‐esteem and worthlessness, loss of interest in life activities,
and changes in eating and sleeping patterns. Adolescent depression is often due to hormonal
changes, life challenges, and/or concerns about appearance. More teenage females than males
suffer from depression.
A real and tragic consequence of teenage depression is suicide. As many as 13 percent of
adolescents report having attempted suicide at least once. Risk factors include feelings of
hopelessness, suicidal preoccupation, a previous suicide attempt, having a specific plan to carry
out the suicide, having access to firearms or sleeping pills, and stressful life events. As with
adults, more teenage females attempt suicide, but more teenage males actually die from their
attempts. Females use less violent methods (such as taking pills) than males, who tend to use
more extreme and irreversible methods (such as shooting themselves).
Substance abuse

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Some adolescents abuse substances to escape the pains of growing up, to cope with daily
stresses, or to befriend peers who are part of a particular crowd. As alluring symbols of
adulthood, alcohol and tobacco/nicotine are the easily available drugs of choice for adolescents.
Alcohol is a depressant that acts to lower inhibitions while inducing a pleasant state of
relaxation. Nicotine is a stimulant that allegedly produces a pleasant state of arousal. Marijuana,
which contains tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is the most widely used illicit substance in the
United States. It produces a mild altered state of consciousness.
Drug use among teenagers is less common today than it was in the 1960s and 1970s, although
many young people still smoke, drink, and use illegal drugs. In a 1989 study, 35 percent of high
school seniors reported having had at least five drinks in a row at least once in the previous two
weeks. Also, 24 percent of high school seniors reported occasionally using marijuana.
Most adolescents reach Piaget's stage of formal operations (ages 12 and older), in which they
develop new tools for manipulating information. Previously, as children, they could only think
concretely, but in the formal operations stage they can think abstractly and deductively.
Adolescents in this stage can also consider future possibilities, search for answers, deal flexibly
with problems, test hypotheses, and draw conclusions about events they have not experienced
firsthand.
Cognitive maturity occurs as the brain matures and the social network expands, which offers
more opportunities for experimenting with life. Because this worldly experience plays a large
role in attaining formal operations, not all adolescents enter this stage of cognitive
development. Studies indicate, however, that abstract and critical reasoning skills are teachable.
For example, everyday reasoning improves between the first and last years of college, which
suggests the value of education in cognitive maturation.
Intellectual development
According to Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory, intelligence is comprised of three
aspects: componential (the critical aspect), experiential (the insightful aspect),
and contextual (the practical aspect). Most intelligence tests only measure componential
intelligence, although all three are needed to predict a person's eventual success in life.
Ultimately, adolescents must learn to use these three types of intelligence.
Componential intelligence is the ability to use internal information‐processing strategies
when identifying and thinking about solving a problem, including evaluating results. Individuals
who are strong in componential intelligence do well on standardized mental tests. Also involved
in componential intelligence is metacognition, which is the awareness of one's own cognitive
processes—an ability some experts claim is vital to solving problems.
Experiential intelligence is the ability to transfer learning effectively to new skills. In other
words, it is the ability to compare old and new information, and to put facts together in original
ways. Individuals who are strong in experiential intelligence cope well with novelty and quickly
learn to make new tasks automatic.
Contextual intelligence is the ability to apply intelligence practically, including taking into
account social, cultural, and historical contexts. Individuals who are strong in contextual
intelligence easily adapt to their environments, can change to other environments, and are
willing to fix their environments when necessary.
An important part of contextual intelligence is tacit knowledge, or savvy, which is not directly
taught. Tacit knowledge is the ability to work the system to one's advantage. Examples are
knowing how to cut through institutional red tape and maneuvering through educational
systems with the least amount of hassle. People with tacit knowledge are often thought of as
street‐smart.
Moral development and judgment
Another facet of cognitive development is moral development and judgment, or the ability to
reason about right and wrong. Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a theory of moral development
with three levels consisting of six stages. The first level, preconventional morality, has to do
with moral reasoning and behavior based on rules and fear of punishment (Stage 1) and
nonempathetic self‐interest (Stage 2). The second level, conventional morality, refers to
conformity and helping others (Stage 3) and obeying the law and keeping order (Stage 4). The

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third level, postconventional morality, is associated with accepting the relative and
changeable nature of rules and laws (Stage 5) and conscience‐directed concern with human
rights (Stage 6).
Moral development depends, in part, on the appearance of empathy, shame, and guilt.
Internalization of morality begins with empathy, the ability to relate to others' pain and joy.
Children in their first year begin to show signs of basic empathy in that they become distressed
when those around them do likewise. Internalization of morality also involves shame (feelings
of not living up to others' standards) and guilt (feelings of not living up to personal standards).
Shame develops around age 2, and guilt develops between ages 3 and 4. As children mature
cognitively, they evidence an increasing ability to weigh consequences in light of self‐interest
and the interest of those around them. Teenagers typically demonstrate conventional morality
as they approach their 20s, although some may take longer to gain the experience they need to
make the transition.
Research tends to support much of Kohlberg's model; however, the theory has been criticized
on several counts. According to some experts, the model favors educated individuals who are
verbally sophisticated. People may also regress in their moral reasoning or behave differently
than their moral reasoning may predict. Culture, family factors, and gender affect the attainment
of the higher levels of moral judgment; hence, Kohlberg's model has been criticized as limited in
terms of certain cultures, family styles, and distinction between differences in male and female
moral development.
An alternative to Kohlberg's model is that of Carol Gilligan. Gilligan proposed that men and
women evince moral reasoning that is equally viable but that appears in different forms. She
notes that men tend to be more concerned with justice, while women lean toward compassion.
The differences most often appear in circumstances where men and women make moral
judgments.
Similar to moral development is religious development. The three levels are the same as
Kohlberg's: preconventional (fundamentalistic black‐or‐white and egocentric thinking based
on religious laws and rules); conventional (conformity to accepted religious traditions and
standards); and postconventional (relativistic gray thinking; the acknowledgment of religious
contradictions, human interpretations, and the changeable nature of rules). This latter stage is
reached when the person has moved out of Piaget's concrete operations and into formal
operations or postformal operations, both of which involve extensive use of critical thinking
skills. As with moral development, teenagers often evidence conventional religious thinking as
they approach their 20s. Some move on to postconventional religious thinking during college,
where they are exposed to a large number of different people and viewpoints.

IV. Application: As a future teacher, you will go to deal with the learners either it is in the
ages 10-19. Design a classroom management procedure in handling these learners.
Make at least 10 procedures that will show your managing skills towards these kinds of
learners inside your classroom someday. Make good use of what you have learned from
this lesson.

References/Resources:
 CliffNotes. (2020). Development Psychology. Retrieved from:
[Link]
psychology/physical-cognitive-development-age-12/cognitive-development-age-1219

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