Motion, Forces and Energy An important factor when measuring time intervals is

human reaction time. This can have a significant impact

Physical Quantities and Measurement upon measurements when the measurements involved are
Techniques very short (less than a second)

For clocks and timers just look at the time and avoid
parallax errors as well as human reaction time.

4 Determine an average value for a small distance and

for a short interval of time by measuring multiples
(including the period of oscillation of a pendulum)
A simple pendulum makes use of a swing (oscillation) of
the metallic bob to measure time period.
The oscillation refers to a swing of bob from left to right
and back to the starting position.

1 Describe how to measure a variety of lengths with The time period of the pendulum is the time taken for one
appropriate precision using tapes, rulers and complete oscillation. Remember the time period is very
micrometers (including reading the scale on an analogue dependent on the length of the pendulum (i.e. distance from
micrometer) fixed point to the bob see next image) and
How do we avoid errors in measurements: the gravitational force. When the length increases time
Your eyes should be positioned such that your line of sight period increases while when the gravitational force
is perpendicular to the ruler. Measurement errors are increases time period decreases.
introduced when this is not done and are called parallax
errors. One more thing that you should keep in mind is the
definition of frequency. Frequency is the number of
Measurements via certain tools oscillations of the pendulum in one second.
Instrument Precision Measuring range
Tape measure 1 mm Several Meters How to find time period using a simple pendulum.
Metre rule 1 mm Several cm to 1 m  First measure time for 20 complete oscillations
Vernier callipers 0.1 mm 1 cm to 15 cm using a stop watch or a stop clock (remember
Micro meter 0.01 mm Less than 2.5 cm measuring time period of just one oscillation will
screw gauge not be accurate and can introduce errors)
 Find T1 (time period 1) using formula TOTAL
2 Describe how to use a measuring cylinder to measure TIME FOR 20 OSCILLATIONS/20
the volume of a liquid and to determine the volume of a  Once you have found T1 repeat the experiment for
solid by displacement next four times to find T2 T3 T4 T5
Measuring cylinders can be used to measure the volume of  In end to get an accurate reading of time period 
liquids or, by measuring the change in volume, the volume take average of the 5 time periods
of an irregular shape i.e. T1+T2+T3+T4+T5/5
 

Multiple Readings
 Suppose you have to measure the thickness of a
sheet of paper. The thing that you are trying to
measure is so small that it would be very difficult to
get an accurate answer
 If, however, you measure the thickness of 100
sheets of paper you can do so much more
accurately. Dividing your answer by 100 will then
give an accurate figure for the thickness of one
sheet
 This process of taking a reading of a large number
of values and then dividing by the number, is a
3 Describe how to measure a variety of time intervals good way of getting accurate values for small
using clocks and digital timers figures, including (for example) the time period of a
Stop-clocks and stopwatches can be used to measure time pendulum – measure the time taken for 10 swings
intervals and then divide that time by 10
5 Understand that a scalar quantity has magnitude (size)
only and that a vector quantity has magnitude and
direction
Difference between Scalar and Vector quantities
Scalar Vector
Has magnitude only, but no Has both magnitude and
direction direction
Is one dimensional Can be 1D, 2D or 3D Diagram showing the result of adding two aligned vectors
(forces) together
Any change in scalar Any change in vector
quantity is the reflection of quantity can reflect either  
change in magnitude change in direction or If the two vectors point in completely different directions,
change in magnitude or then the value of the resultant vector can be found
changes in both graphically:
Ex: distance, speed, time, Ex: displacement, force,  Draw an arrow representing the first vector
mass, energy and weight, velocity,  Now starting at the head of the first arrow, draw a
temperature acceleration, momentum, second arrow representing the second vector
electric and gravitational  The resultant vector can be found by drawing an
field strengths arrow going from the tail of the first vector to the
tip of the second vector
6 Know that the following quantities are scalars:
distance, speed, time, mass, energy and temperature
Covered

7 Know that the following quantities are vectors:

Diagram showing an example of the “tip-to-tail” addition of
displacement, force, weight, velocity, acceleration,
two vectors
momentum, electric field strength and gravitational field
strength
Covered

8 Determine, by calculation or graphically, the resultant

of two vectors at right angles

 Join one vector’s (v) tail to the other ones (u) head
at point A preserving their original directional
orientation. Then connect the rest of two dots.
That’s the resultant (u+v) with direction. Motion, Forces and Energy
Motion
Vectors can be added together to produce a resultant vector.
The rules for doing this, however, are slightly different to
scalars:
 If two vectors point in the same direction, the
resultant vector will also have the same directions
and its value will be the result of adding the
magnitudes of the two original vectors together
 If two vectors point in opposite directions then
subtract the magnitude of one of the vectors from
the other one. The direction of the resultant will be
the same as the larger of the two original vectors
 4 Define acceleration as change
in velocity per unit time; recall
and use the equation
acceleration = change in
velocity time taken a = ∆v ∆t
Acceleration is the rate of change
of velocity: In other words, how
much the velocity of an object changes by every second
Acceleration is given by the equation:

(Where u is the initial velocity of an object and v is its final

velocity)
The units of acceleration are m/s2, which mean the same
thing as m/s/s – the change in velocity (in m/s) every second

1 Define speed as distance travelled per unit time and

define velocity as change in displacement per unit time
Difference between speed and velocity
Speed Velocity 5 State what is meant by, and describe examples of,
It is the distance covered by It is the displacement of the uniform acceleration and non-uniform acceleration
the body per unit time body per unit time Uniform acceleration: Is defined as the acceleration in
It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity which the velocity of a body changes at a constant rate in a
The average speed of a The average velocity of a given interval of time. In other waters it is an acceleration in
moving body can never be moving body can be zero which its magnitude and direction does not change with
zero (when displacement = 0) time.
It gives an idea about the It gives an idea about An example of this is free falling body, the acceleration of
rapidity of the motion of a rapidity as well as position which is due to gravity.
body of body in motion
Speed of a moving body can Velocity of a moving body
never be negative can be positive, negative or
0 (depending on the point of
reference)
Non-uniform acceleration: It is defined as acceleration in
2 Recall and use the equation speed = distance time v = s which the velocity of body does not change at a constant
t rate in a given interval of time. In non-uniform motion, the
Speed (measured in metres per second) is the distance direction of the body or the magnitude of acceleration can
moved by an object each second change with time.
The average speed of an object is given by the equation: An example of this is car on a road
Average Speed = Distance Moved/ Time Taken
You can rearrange the equation with the help of the formula
triangle:

3 Recall and use the equation average speed = total

distance travelled total time taken
To find the average speed we use this:
Average Speed = Total Distance Travelled/ Total Time
Taken
Acceleration is a vector quantity. The area under the
acceleration v/s time graph gives the change in velocity. The
slop of a velocity v/s time graph gives the acceleration of
the body
Graphs showing how the distances travelled by three
6 Know that a deceleration is a negative acceleration and objects vary over time
use this in calculations
We know that acceleration means the rate at which an object Speed-time graph
speeds up, that means deceleration means the rate at which A Velocity-time graph shows how the velocity (or speed) of
an object slows down. For example, when we are using an object changes over time
brake during driving, we are taking benefits of deceleration  
to reduce the speed of the vehicle.
The deceleration will be computed by dividing the final
velocity minus the initial velocity, by the amount of time is
taken for this drop in velocity. The formula for acceleration
can be used here, with a negative sign, to identify the
deceleration value.

The formula for deceleration

Deceleration = (Final Velocity–Initial Velocity)/Time taken
It is denoted by –a, where a is acceleration.
If starting velocity, final velocity and time taken are given,
then deceleration formula is given by, Graph showing how the velocity (speed) of an object
a = (v−u)/t changes over time
If we have initial velocity, final velocity, and distance
travelled, then we can compute deceleration as: 8 Determine from the shape of a distance–time graph
a = (v2–u2)2s when an object is:
Where: (a) at rest
-a deceleration (b) moving with constant speed
u initial velocity (c) accelerating
v final velocity (d) decelerating
s distance  A horizontal line means stationary
t time  A straight line means constant speed
 If the gradient increases the object is speeding
In order to calculate the deceleration of the body in the up (accelerating)
motion, we use the deceleration formula. It is expressed in  If the gradient decreases the object is slowing
meter per second square or ms−2 down (decelerating)
 If the line is going down, the object is
moving backwards
7 Sketch, plot and interpret distance–time and speed–
time graphs
Distance-time graph
A distance-time graph shows how the distance of an object
(from a point) varies over time:

Note
When you come across any graph, look carefully at what is
plotted on each axis and think for a while about what the
graph is showing you.
Distance-time graphs are also known as position-time
graphs or displacement-time graphs. Don’t be fooled by
these different names: they describe the same kind of things.
9 Determine from the shape of a speed–time graph when
an object is:
(a) at rest
(b) moving with constant speed
(c) moving with constant acceleration
(d) moving with changing acceleration
 If the line is horizontal, the velocity is constant (no
acceleration)
 If the line slopes upwards then the object In the absence of air resistance objects fall with constant
is accelerating (speeding up) acceleration
 If the line goes down then the object
is decelerating (slowing down) When a parachutist jumps out of an aeroplane, two main
 If the line is on the x axis then the object is at rest forces act:
 Weight (the force of gravity)
Note  Air resistance

Diagram showing how the changing forces on a skydiver 

 Initially the air resistance is very small. There is a
downwards unbalanced force and the skydiver
accelerates
 As the skydiver speeds up, the air resistance
increases
 Eventually the air resistance balances the weight
and so the skydiver travels at a constant speed
– terminal velocity
 When the parachute is opened the increase air
resistance on the parachute creates an upwards
unbalanced force, making the parachuting the slow
down
 

10 State that the acceleration of free fall g for an object

near to the surface of the Earth is approximately
constant and is approximately 9.8m/s 2
In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same
acceleration, regardless of their mass
This acceleration is equal to the gravitational field strength
and is approximately 10 m/s2 near the Earth’s surface
So long as air resistance remains insignificant, the speed of
a falling object will increase at a steady rate, getting larger
the longer it falls for. Graph showing how the velocity of a skydiver changes
  during the descent
 If the area beneath the graph forms a triangle (the object is
 Terminal velocity is at around 53m/s accelerating or decelerating) then the area can be
 Galileo's law of free fall states that, in the absence determined using the formula:
of air resistance, all bodies fall with the same area = ½ x base x height
acceleration, independent of their mass. This law is If the area beneath the graph is a rectangle (constant
an approximation as can be shown by using velocity) then the area can be determined using the formula:
Newtonian mechanics. area = base x height

11 Calculate speed from the gradient of a distance–time 13 Calculate acceleration from the gradient of a speed–
graph time graph
The speed of an object is given by the gradient of the line The acceleration of an object is given by the gradient of the
graph:

Graph showing how acceleration can be determined from

gradient

 Lines that slope downwards have negative

gradients and so can be said to have negative
accelerations: This is the same thing as a
12 Calculate the area under a speed–time graph to deceleration
determine the distance travelled for motion  If the gradient of the line changes then the
with constant speed or constant acceleration acceleration of the body must be changing:
The distance travelled by an object can be found by  A line with constant gradient represents constant
determining the area beneath the graph acceleration (linear motion)
   A curved line represents changing acceleration –
either decreasing (if the gradient gets smaller) or
increasing (if the gradient gets large)

The distance travelled can be found from the area beneath

the graph
 
 Motion, Forces and Energy
Mass and Weight

1 State that mass is a measure of the quantity of matter

in an object at rest relative to the observer
Weight and Mass are 2 different quantities:

Mass is the amount of matter in a body

 Mass of an object does not change with location
 It cannot be 0
 It is a scalar quantity. I.e it has magnitude only
 It can be measured in grams and kilograms
 System International (S.I) unit is Kilogram
 Measured with a beam balance or a calibrated
electronic balance

Weight of an object is the gravitational force, or gravity,

acting upon it
 Weight depends on the effect of gravity
 It varies according to location
 It increases or decreases depending on gravity
 Weight is a vector quantity, I.e it has both
magnitude and direction
 System International (S.I) unit is Newtons
  Measured with a spring balance hence you can understand that the bag of potatoes is heavier
than 1kg.
Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object. It is
depended on mass.
Therefore the more mass an object has, the more its weight
due to the greater g. force acting upon it. There are factors which affect weight:
Weight of an object is directly proportional to its mass  The mass of the object
The weight of an object is Weight = Mass x Gravitational  The location of the object (I.e latitude/moon/earth)
Force or W= MxG  The distance between the object and the middle of
(If the object is in free-fall with no other force acting on it the Earth where the closer it is to the centre, the
only) stronger the pull and hence more weight.
Where, weight is measured in Newtons (N), mass in
Kilograms (Kg), and the [Link] strength in Newton per Kg Mass can be measured by an electronic balance.
(N Kg-1)
4 Describe how to determine mass using an electronic
2 State that the mass of an object resists change from its balance
state of rest or motion (inertia) Mass can be measured by an electronic balance.
Inertia of an object refers to the reluctance of the object to An electronic balance is the most common method for
change state of rest or motion due to its mass. determining a sample's mass. They do not directly measure
Mass is a measure of Inertia, where greater mass means mass however the force acting downwards upon the
more inertia. As such we can say that mass is proportional balance I.e the gravitational force/gravitational pull.
to inertia. The machine originally weighs the object, and then
Therefore the larger the object, the harder it is for it to start converts the weight into mass. Therefore we can say that
moving, slow down, move faster or change direction. the machine originally weighs the object for its weight, but
Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to any change gives the answer in mass (by converting weight into mass)
in its velocity. This includes changes to the object's speed, This is done as weight = mass x [Link]
or direction of motion. An aspect of this property is the Then mass = weight/ [Link]
tendency of objects to keep moving in a straight line at a
constant speed, when no forces act upon them. 5 Describe how to measure weight using a force meter
Force gauge/force meter is a measuring instrument used to
measure forces.
3 Know that weights, and therefore masses, may be A common mechanical force meter, known as the spring
compared using a beam balance or equal-arm balance scale, features a hook and a spring that attach to an object
Mass and Weight can be compared by the following: and measure the amount of force exerted on the spring in
order to extend it.
An example of a digital force gauge is a load cell (this is
often combined with software and a display). A load cell is
an electronic device that is used to convert a force into an
electrical signal. 
1. 2.
6 Define gravitational field strength as force per unit
mass; recall and use the equation gravitational field
strength = weight mass g = W m and know that this is
equivalent to the acceleration of free fall
Gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a
force due to gravitational attraction.
3. 4. This force is called gravitational force and affects objects
1. A beam balance 2. An arm balance [Link] balance most which are closer to earth, another planet or a moon.
[Link] gauge On Earth the g. force is 9.8 N per Kg, (In O Levels it is
rounded to 10 N per Kg). Meaning that a kilogram of mass
Weights, and therefore masses can be compared by a beam experiences a force of 10 Newtons.
balance. The gravitational field strength can be measured by: G =
A beam balance is device used for the determination of W/M
mass for a body under gravitational effect. Where, g is the g. field force, w is the weight and m is the
Additionally, it can be measured by an arm balance where 2 mass.
different weights, hence masses are compared with each This equation can be rearranged to find weight by: W =
other. It allows us to compare an unknown amount of matter MxG
to a known one.
7 State that a gravitational field is a region in which a
Example you can place a 1kg disc of steel next to a 2kg bag mass experiences a force due to gravitational attraction
of potatoes. When these 2 entities are put on 2 different The weight of an object depends on the strength of the
sides the 2kg bag of potatoes will be lower than that of steel gravitational force acting upon it.
The gravitational field strength at a point is the gravitational Where how ‘dense’ (compact) an object is can be found by
force exerted per unit mass placed at that point. the amount of matter (mass) in the given volume (space)
It is measured in Newton per Kg ( N kg-1)
The symbol for representing density is ρ (Read as ‘Roh’)
Note:
 What is the weight of 1kg of mass? S.I unit of density is kilogram per cubic metre, it can be
Since W=mg, Weight = 1 x 10, Weight = 10. written as: Kg m-3
Therefore the weight of 1kg of mass is 10 Newtons. If the measurements are taken in Kg and the volume in
cubic metres then it is Kg m-3
 Weight = mass x gravitational force OR w=mg But for generally smaller objects, the density is taken by
Weight is measured in Newtons, mass in Kg, and having the measurements in cm and the volume in cubic
[Link] in newton per Kg. metres hence g cm-3

 Mass has two significant effects in Physics: 2 Describe how to determine the density of a liquid, of a
o The mass of an object’s opposed any regularly shaped solid and of an irregularly shaped solid
attempt to change that object’s motion which sinks in a liquid (volume by displacement),
The greater the mass of an object, the more including appropriate calculations
difficult it is to speed it up, slow it down or
change its direction Note:
This property of mass is sometimes referred  Density = total mass/total volume
to as inertia  1000kg/m3 is the same as 1/gm3
o Mass is also the source of an object’s  A less dense fluid, liquid or gas will go above a
weight – the force of gravity on a mass denser fluid.
The greater the mass, the greater the weight
To measure the density of an object, we must measure its
mass and volume and then use the following equation:
Density = Mass/Volume
The mass of an object can be measured quite simply by
placing it on a top pan balance
You ought to state that you will ‘zero’ the balance before
using it

Always zero a top pan balance before taking any

measurements
In the case of a liquid, the liquid must be placed in a
container, the mass of which should be measured both when
it is empty and when it contains the liquid:
The mass of the liquid will be the difference between the
two values
The volume can be determined in a couple of ways:
Motion, Forces and Energy Regular shapes (e.g. cubes, spheres, cylinders):
Density The width (and length) can be measured using a ruler or a
pair of digital calipers
To make the measurements accurate, several measurements
should be taken between different faces or points on the
circumference, and an average taken
 

1 Define density as mass per unit volume; recall and use

the equation density = mass volume ρ = m V
The amount of mass packed in a space is called as destiny.
It can be referred to as the amount of matter in a given
volume.
Density is therefore mass per unit volume When measuring the width (or diameter) take several
Density = Mass/Volume readings between different points and take an average
 
The volume can then be calculated using an appropriate
equation:

(Note: When measuring the width of a sphere or cylinder,

divide the measurement by two to find the radius)
 
Irregular shapes:
The volume can be found using a Eureka can:
 

Placing an object in a full Eureka can will displace water

equal to its volume
Fill the Eureka can with water
Place an empty measuring cylinder below its spout
Now carefully lower the object into the Eureka can (use a
piece of string, perhaps)
Measure the volume of displaced water in the measuring
cylinder
 
Alternatively, the object can be placed in a measuring
cylinder containing a known volume of liquid, and the
change in volume then measured
 

When an irregular solid is placed in a measuring cylinder,

the level of the liquid will rise by an amount equal to the
volume of the solid
Once the mass and volume of the shape is known, its
density can be calculated

 
 while
repulsion
between
like charges
Magnetic force The attractive pull or Attraction
repulsive push of forces between
between electric charges unlike
charges
while
repulsion
between
Motion, Forces and Energy like charges
Forces Driving force The act of applying force to Most forces
propel something
Balanced and Unbalanced Forces
Contact force A contact force is any force Friction
that requires contact to occur

Difference between contact and non contact forces

Contact force Non-contact force

Contact force occurs due to Non-contact force occurs due

the contact between two to either attraction or
different objects. repulsion between two
objects such that there is no
contact between these
objects.
There is no field linked with There is always a field linked
the contact force. with non-contact force
1 Identify and use different types of force, including The frictional force is an Gravitational force is an
weight (gravitational force), friction, drag, air resistance, example of a contact force. example of a non-contact
tension (elastic force), electrostatic force, magnetic force, force.
thrust (driving force) and contact force
Types of forces and uses
Force Definition Use Difference between balanced and unbalanced
Gravitational The gravitational force is a Diver down  When the individual forces applied on an object are
force force that attracts any two in water of same magnitude and opposite direction, then the
objects with mass. We call forces are known as balanced forces. On the other
the gravitational hand, when the forces acting on the object are of
force attractive because it different sizes, then the forces are known as
always tries to pull masses unbalanced forces.
together
 In balanced forces, the magnitude of the two forces
Friction The force that opposes or Tyres on a is equal, whereas, in the case of unbalanced forces,
tends to oppose motion slope the magnitude of the two forces are unequal.
between surfaces in contact
 In balanced forces, the two individual forces act in
Drag Like friction, the drag force Airplanes
opposite direction. Conversely, in unbalanced
always opposes the motion of forces, the individual forces either act in same or
an object. Unlike simple opposite direction.
friction, the drag force is
 Balanced forces cause a still object to remain at rest.
proportional to some function
As against this, the unbalanced forces cause a
of the velocity of the object
stationary object to move in the direction of the
Air resistance Air resistance describes the Parachute
greater force.
forces that are in opposition
 If the object is in motion and balanced forces are
to the relative motion of an
applied, then the object will continue to move with
object as it passes through the
the same speed. On the contrary, if unbalanced
air
forces are exerted on a moving object then it will
Elastic force The pull exerted by a Rubber
slow down, speed up, stop, or its direction will be
stretched spring, string or band
changed.
rope
 If the forces exerted on the object are balanced, then
Electrostatic The attractive pull or Attraction
the net force will be zero, as the two individual
force repulsive push of forces between
forces cancel out each other and will not result in
between electric charges unlike
the change in its state of rest/motion.
charges
  Unlike, if the applied force on an object is Newton's First Law of motion examples
unbalanced, then the net force will be non-zero,  A driver of automobile brakes abruptly and, by
which result in the change in its state. inertia, shoots forward.
 A stone in the ground is in a state of rest.
2 Identify forces acting on an object and draw free-body  A bicycle stored five years ago in a loft comes out
diagram(s) representing the forces of its inertia when a child decides to use it.
How to draw free-body diagrams:  A marathoner continues to run several meters
 Observe the following rules when constructing a beyond the finish line due to the inertia of his
free-body diagram: career.
 Draw the object under consideration; it does not
have to be artistic. At first, you may want to draw a 4 State that a force may change the velocity of an object
circle around the object of interest to be sure you by changing its direction of motion or its speed
focus on labeling the forces acting on the object. If Velocity is the speed of an object in a given direction.
you are treating the object as a particle (no size or As it is a vector quantity, if a force changes either its motion
shape and no rotation), represent the object as a (i.e movement) or its speed then the velocity will also be
point. We often place this point at the origin of changed.
an xy-coordinate system.
 Include all forces that act on the object, representing 5 Determine the resultant of two or more forces acting
these forces as vectors. Consider the types of forces along the same straight line
described in Common Forces—normal force, When several forces act on a body, the resultant (overall)
friction, tension, and spring force—as well as force on the body can be found by adding together forces
weight and applied force. Do not include the net which act in the same direction and subtracting forces which
force on the object. With the exception of gravity, act in opposite directions:
all of the forces we have discussed require direct  
contact with the object. However, forces that the
object exerts on its environment must not be
included. We never include both forces of an
action-reaction pair.
 Convert the free-body diagram into a more detailed
diagram showing the x– and y-components of a
given force (this is often helpful when solving a Diagram showing the resultant forces on three different
problem using Newton’s first or second law). In this objects
case, place a squiggly line through the original  
vector to show that it is no longer in play—it has When the forces acting on a body are balanced (i.e. there is
been replaced by its x– and y-components. no resultant force), the body will either remain at rest or
 If there are two or more objects, or bodies, in the continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed
problem, draw a separate free-body diagram for
each object. 6 Recall and use the equation resultant force = mass ×
acceleration, F = ma
 Note: If there is acceleration, we do not directly
The resultant force is the single force that could replace all
include it in the free-body diagram; however, it may
the forces acting on an object, found by adding these
help to indicate acceleration outside the free-body
together. If all the forces are balanced, the resultant force is
diagram. You can label it in a different color to
zero.
indicate that it is separate from the free-body
diagram.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion:
Newton's second law of motion pertains to the behavior of
objects for which all existing forces are not balanced. The
second law states that the acceleration of an object is
dependent upon two variables - the net force acting upon the
object and the mass of the object. The acceleration of an
object depends directly upon the net force acting upon the
object, and inversely upon the mass of the object. As the
force acting upon an object is increased, the acceleration of
the object is increased. As the mass of an object is
3 State Newton’s first law as ‘an object either remains at increased, the acceleration of the object is decreased.
rest or continues to move in a straight line at constant
speed unless acted on by a resultant force’
Newton's first law of motion states that a body at rest
remains at rest, or, if in motion, remains in motion at
a constant velocity unless acted on by a net external force.
This is also known as the law of inertia. Inertia is the
tendency of an object to remain at rest or remain in motion.
F= ma

It tells us that:
1. Resultant force F on an object produces an Work, Forces and Energy
acceleration which is a Forces
2. Doubling the resultant force F on an object doubles Friction
its acceleration which is a
3. With the same resultant force F, doubling the mass
m halves the acceleration which is a.

Newton's second law can either be expressed as resultant

force = mass × acceleration or The acceleration of an object
is directly proportional to the resultant (or net) force, in the
same direction as the force, and inversely proportional to 1 Describe friction as a force that may impede motion
the mass of the object. and produce heating
Friction is a force that opposes the motion of an
7 State Newton’s third law as ‘when object A exerts a object caused by the contact (rubbing) of two surfaces. It
force on object B, then object B exerts an equal and always acts in the opposite direction to the direction in
opposite force on object A’ which the object is moving
According to Newton's third law of motion, whenever two  
objects interact, they exert equal and opposite forces on
each other. This is often worded as 'every action has an
equal and opposite reaction'.

Examples of Newton's third law of motion are ubiquitous in

everyday life. For example, when you jump, your legs apply
a force to the ground, and the ground applies and equal and
opposite reaction force that propels you into the air.
Engineers apply Newton's third law when designing rockets
and other projectile devices.

8 Know that Newton’s third law describes pairs of forces

of the same type acting on different objects
If an object A exerts a force on object B, then object B must Friction opposes the motion of an object
exert a force of equal magnitude and opposite direction back  
on object A. Air resistance (sometimes called drag) is a form of friction
caused by a body moving through the air
This law represents a certain symmetry in nature: forces Friction (including air resistance) results in energy loss due
always occur in pairs, and one body cannot exert a force on to the transfer of energy from kinetic to internal (heat)
another without experiencing a force itself. We sometimes
refer to this law loosely as action-reaction, where the force 2 Understand the motion of objects acted on by a
exerted is the action and the force experienced as a constant weight or driving force, with and without drag
consequence is the reaction. (including air resistance or resistance in a liquid)
We can readily see Newton’s third law at work by taking a Drag force
look at how people move about. Consider a swimmer Like friction, the drag force always opposes the motion of
pushing off from the side of a pool, as illustrated below. an object. Unlike simple friction, the drag force is
proportional to some function of the velocity of the object in
that fluid. This functionality is complicated and depends
upon the shape of the object, its size, its velocity, and the the ruler falls before being stopped. The ruler can be
fluid it is in. adjusted to measure in seconds rather than in millimetres.

Athletes as well as car designers seek to reduce the drag Braking distance
force to lower their race times. Aerodynamic shaping of an The braking distance of a vehicle can be increased by:
automobile can reduce the drag force and thus increase a  poor road and weather conditions, such as gravel, or
car’s gas mileage. wet or icy roads - less friction between tyres and the
road
3 Explain how an object reaches terminal velocity  poor vehicle conditions, such as worn brakes or
Near the surface of the Earth, any object falling freely will worn tyres - less friction between brakes and wheels
have an acceleration of about 9.8 metres per second squared  more mass in the vehicle (extra passengers for
(m/s2). Objects falling through a fluid eventually example) - the braking friction has to work for a
reach terminal velocity. At terminal velocity, the object greater distance to remove the larger kinetic energy
moves at a steady speed in a constant direction because
the resultant force acting on it is zero. For example, a When a force is applied to the brakes of a vehicle, there
skydiver falling spread-eagled through the air reaches a is work done by the friction between the brakes and the
maximum speed of about 53 m/s. wheel. This reduces the kinetic energy of the vehicle,
slowing it down and causing the temperature of the brakes
Three stages of falling to increase.
There are three stages as an object falls through a fluid:
 at the start, the object accelerates downwards due to The faster a vehicle travels, the greater the braking force
the force of gravity needed to stop it in a certain distance. A greater braking
 as the object's speed increases, frictional forces such force produces a greater deceleration. Large decelerations
as air resistance or drag increase may cause the brakes to overheat, and the driver may also
 at terminal velocity, the weight of the object due to lose control of the vehicle.
gravity is balanced by the frictional forces, and the
resultant force is zero
 The weight of an object does not change as it falls,
as long as it stays whole.

4 Define the thinking distance, braking distance and

stopping distance of a moving vehicle
Stopping distances
In an emergency, a driver must bring their vehicle to a stop
in the shortest distance possible:
Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance
This is when:
Thinking distance is the distance a vehicle travels in the
time it takes for the driver to apply the brakes after realising
they need to stop
Braking distance is the distance a vehicle travels in the
time after the driver has applied the brake

5 Explain the factors that affect thinking and braking

distance including speed, tiredness, alcohol, drugs, load,
tyre surface and road conditions
Reaction times
Reaction times vary from person to person, but are typically
0.2 s to 0.9 s. A driver’s reaction time can be affected by:
 tiredness
 drugs
 alcohol
 distractions

Longer reaction times increase the thinking distance when

stopping from a given speed.
There are different ways to measure reaction times. One
simple method involves dropping a ruler between
someone’s open thumb and forefinger. The higher the
reaction time needed to grasp the falling ruler, the further
 2 Define the spring constant as force per unit extension;
recall and use the equation spring constant = force
extension k = F x
Hooke’s law states that:
The extension of a spring is proportional to the applied force

(Where k is the spring constant, which represents how stiff a

spring is)
 
 Many other materials (such as metal wires) also
obey Hooke’s law
 Hooke’s law is associated with the initial linear
(straight) part of a force-extension graph
 Objects that obey Hooke’s law will return to their
original length after being stretched
 If an object continues to be stretched it can be taken
past the limit of proportionality (sometimes called
the elastic limit). At this point the object will no
longer obey Hooke’s law and will not return to its
original length
 

The spring on the right has been stretched beyond the limit
of proportionality

Note:
 A relationship is said to be proportional if the graph
is a straight line going through the origin.
 If a graph is a straight line but does not go through
Work, Forces and Energy the origin the relationship is said to be linear.
Forces
3 Sketch, plot and interpret load–extension graphs for
Elastic deformation
an elastic solid and describe the associated experimental
procedures
The method below describes a typical procedure for
carrying out an investigation into the properties of a
material

1 Know that forces may produce a change in size and

shape of an object
When forces are applied to materials, the size and shape of
the material can change.
An experiment to measure the extension of a spring 

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram

2. A single mass (0.1 kg, 100g) is attached to the
spring, with a pointer attached to the bottom, and
the position of the spring is measured against the
ruler
3. The mass (in kg) and position (in cm) are recorded
in a table
4. A further mass is added and the new position
measured
5. The above process continues until a total of 7
masses have been added
6. The masses are then removed and the entire process
repeated again, until it has been carried out a total
of three times, and averages can then be taken
7. Once measurements have been taken:
8. The force on the spring can be found by multiplying
the mass on the spring (in kg) by 10 N/kg (the
gravitational field strength)
9. The extension of the spring can be found by
subtracting the original position of the spring from
each of the subsequent positions
10. Finally, a graph of extension (on the y-axis) against
force (on the x-axis) should be plotted

4 Define and use the term ‘limit of proportionality’ for a

load–extension graph and identify this point on the
graph (an understanding of the elastic limit is not
required)
Spring constant is a measure of the stiffness of a spring up
to its limit of proportionality or elastic limit. The limit of
proportionality refers to the point beyond which Hooke's
law is no longer true when stretching a material. The elastic
limit of a material is the furthest point it can be stretched or
deformed while being able to return to its previous shape.
Once a material has gone past its elastic limit, its
deformation is said to be inelastic.
 This is what happens when a planet orbits a star (or satellite
orbits a planet)

The Moon is pulled towards the Earth (at 90 degrees to its

direction of travel). This causes it to travel in a circular path
 
The force needed to make something follow a circular
path depends on a number of factors:
Work, Forces and Energy  The mass of the object (a greater mass requires a
Forces greater force)
Circular Motion  The speed of the object (a faster-moving object
requires a greater force)
 The radius of the circle (a smaller radius requires a
greater force)

1 Describe, qualitatively, motion in a circular path due

to a force perpendicular to the motion as:
(a) speed increases if force increases, with mass and
radius constant
(b) radius decreases if force increases, with mass and
speed constant
(c) an increased mass requires an increased force to keep
speed and radius constant
Changing Direction
When a force acts at 90 degrees to an object’s direction of
travel, the force will cause that object to change direction
 

When the two cars collide, the first car changes its direction
in the direction of the force
 
If the force continues to act at 90 degrees to the motion, the
object will keep changing its direction (whilst remaining at
a constant speed) and travel in a circle
 Some other examples involving moments include:
 Using a crowbar to prize open something
 Turning a tap on or off
 Opening or closing a door

3 State and use the principle of moments for an object in

equilibrium
The principle of moments states that:
For a system to be balanced, the sum of clockwise moments
must be equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments
 

Work, Forces and Energy

Forces
Turning Effect of Forces

1 Describe the moment of a force as a measure of its

turning effect and give everyday examples
Diagram showing the moments acting on a balanced beam 
A moment is the turning effect of a force.
Moments occur when forces cause objects to rotate about
In the above diagram:
some pivot
Force F2 is supplying a clockwise moment;
The size of the moment depends upon:
Forces F1 and F3 are supplying anticlockwise moments
 The size of the force Hence:
 The distance between the force and the pivot F2 x d2 = F1 x d1 + F3 x d3
2 Define the moment of a force as moment = force × 4 Describe an experiment to verify the principle of
perpendicular distance from the pivot; recall and use moments
this equation The principle of moments doesn’t just apply to seesaws – it
The moment of a force is given by the equation: is important in many other situations as well such as, for
Moment = Force × perpendicular distance from the pivot example, a shelf:
Moments have the units newton centimetres (N cm) or  
newton metres (N m), depending on whether the distance is
measured in metres or centimetres

Diagram showing the moment of a force causing a block to To prevent the shelf from collapsing, the support must
topple provide an upward moment equal to the downward moment
of the vase
   

Work, Forces and Energy

Forces
Centre of Gravity

The object on the right will topple, as its centre of mass is

no longer over its base
 
1 State what is meant by centre of gravity If the centre of mass does not lie above its base, then an
The centre of mass of an object (sometimes called the centre object will topple over
of gravity) is the point through which the weight of that The most stable objects have a low centre of mass and a
object acts. wide base.
 
2 Describe how to determine the position of the centre of
gravity of a plane lamina using a plumb line
For a symmetrical object of uniform density (such as a
symmetrical cardboard shape) the centre of mass is located
at the point of symmetry.

When an object is suspended from a point, the object will

always settle so that its centre of mass comes to rest below
the pivoting point
This can be used to find the centre of mass of an irregular
shape: The most stable objects have wide bases and low centres of
mass
 

Diagram showing an experiment to find the centre of mass

of an irregular shape
 
 The irregular shape (a plane laminar) is suspended
from a pivot and allowed to settle
 A plumb line (lead weight) is then held next to the
pivot and a pencil is used to draw a vertical line
from the pivot (the centre of mass must be
somewhere on this line)
 The process is then repeated, suspending the shape
from two different points
 The centre of mass is located at the point where all
three lines cross
Momentum
3 Describe, qualitatively, the effect of the position of the
centre of gravity on the stability of simple objects
An object is stable when its centre of mass lies above its
base
 impulse  =  F × t
The change in momentum of a mass is equal to the impulse
provided by the force:
impulse = change in momentum
 F × t  =  mv - mu
(Where u is the initial velocity of the mass and v is the final
velocity of the mass)

3 Apply the principle of the conservation of momentum

to solve simple problems in one dimension
1 Define momentum as mass × velocity; recall and use In the absence of external forces (such as friction), the total
the equation p = mv momentum of a system remains the same
Momentum is defined by the equation: This means that in a collision, the sum of the momentums
momentum  =  mass × velocity before the collision will be the same as the sum of
 p  =  m × v momentums after the collision.
(where p stands for momentum)

Momentum is defined as the product of mass and

velocity
 The units of momentum are kg m/s (the units of
mass multiplied by the units of velocity) Diagram showing the total momentum of a system before
 Momentum is a vector quantity – it has direction as and after a collision
well as magnitude  
 This means that momentum can be negative as well In the above diagram the total momentum before and the
as positive: total momentum after must be equal:
 If an object travelling to the right has positive m × u   =   M × V -  m × v
momentum, an object travelling in the opposite Note that because the red ball is travelling to the left after
direction (to the left) will have negative momentum the collision, its momentum will be negative – hence the
minus sign in the above equation

4 Define resultant force as the change in momentum per

unit time; recall and use the equation resultant force =
change in momentum /time taken, F = ∆p ∆t
The resultant force is the overall force acting on an object.
This is where all the forces can be replaced by a
single force that has the exact same effect as all the
original forces acting together.

2 Define impulse as force × time for which force acts;

recall and use the equation impulse = FΔt = Δ(mv)
When a resultant (unbalanced) force acts on a mass, the
momentum of that mass will change

The impulse of a force is equal to that force multiplied by

the time for which it acts:
 Motion, Forces and Energy
Energy, Work and Power
Energy

1 State that energy may be stored as kinetic,

gravitational potential, chemical, elastic (strain),
nuclear, electrostatic and internal (thermal)
Energy is the capacity of something to do work:
If something contains a store of energy it is able to do work
If something does not store energy then it will not work
The law of conservation of energy states that:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only change
from one form to another
What this means is that the total amount of energy in a
closed system remains constant, although how much of each
form there is may change
Some examples:
A falling object (in a vacuum): Gravitational potential
energy → Kinetic energy
A gas cooker: Chemical → Internal (Heat)
An LED (Light Emitting Diode): Electrical → Light

Energy may be stored in the following ways:

Kinetic energy: The energy of a body due to its motion (I.e

movement). Such as wind and sea waves.

Potential energy: It is the stored energy in a system. This

form of energy is due to the state, shape or position of the
system.
There are different types of potential energy that can be
converted into other energies.

Chemical Potential energy: It is the energy stored in a

substance due to the position of the atoms or electrons in the
substance. Such include food, fossil fuels and batteries.

Elastic Potential energy: It is the energy stored in a body

due to its elastic deformation (Elastic deformation is a
change of the shape of the body as a reaction to applied
stress. This deformation is only temporary and once the
stress is released, the un-deformed shape of the body is
restored). Such as bows, rubber bands or springs.

Gravitational Potential Energy: It is the energy stored in a 2 Describe how energy is transferred between stores
body due to its height from the ground. When the object is during events and processes, including examples of
released, its gravitational potential energy is converted to transfer by forces (mechanical work done), electrical
kinetic energy as it falls. Such as Hydro-Electric Dams. currents (electrical work done), heating, and by
electromagnetic, sound and other waves
Nuclear energy: It is the energy released during a nuclear In addition to the six forms of energy mentioned above,
reaction. there are four ways in which energy can be transferred from
There are two types of nuclear reactions: one form to another:
Nuclear fission: A heavier nucleus splits up into two or
more lighter nuclei
Nuclear fusion: Two or more lighter nuclei fuse together to
form a heavier nucleus

Electrostatic energy: It is the energy of an electric charge

due to its motion and position. Most common in our day to
day lives.

Light energy: Light is an electromagnetic wave that is

visible to the eye. Such as sun, fir, bulbs.

Thermal energy: It is the energy stored in a body due to its

temperature. The particle of a hotter body possess more
thermal energy then those of a colder body. Thermal energy
is transferred from the hotter body to the colder body. Such
as burning coal produces thermal energy. 3 Know the principle of the conservation of energy and
apply this principle to the transfer of energy between
stores during events and processes
Conservation of Energy in Multiple Stages
Many processes involve several steps before energy ends up
in its final form
For example:
 A fossil fuel power station takes chemical energy
(the fuel) and uses it to produce electrical energy,
but the individual steps are:
  Chemical → Internal (heat) → Kinetic (steam) →  
Kinetic (turbine and generator) → Electrical

Energy dissipation
 When energy is transferred from one form to
another, not all of the energy will end up in the
desired form (or place)
 This lost energy often ends up
being dissipated (spreading out into the
environment), usually in the form of heat, light or
sound

Diagram showing the forms of energy transfers and stores Worked example showing how GPE transfers to KE

4 Recall and use the equation for kinetic energy Ek =

1/2mv2
Gravitational Potential Energy
The gravitational potential energy (GPE) of an object is the
energy it has due to its height in a gravitational field:
If an object is lifted up it will gain GPE
If it falls, it will lose GPE
Gravitational potential energy: The energy an object has
when it is lifted up
 
The GPE of an object is related to its mass (m), height (h)
and the gravitational field strength (g):

The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is

approximately 10 N/kg
(You will always be told this value in your examination
paper)

5 Recall and use the equation for the change in

gravitational potential energy ΔE p = mgΔh
The kinetic energy (KE) of an object is the energy it has as a
result of its speed
Kinetic energy: the energy an object has when it is moving
 
It is related to the mass (m) and speed (v) of the object by
the equation:

(Note: In the above equation only the speed is squared – not

the mass or the ½)
 1 Recall and use the equation work done = force ×
distance moved in the direction of the force W = Fd
Energy is the capacity of something to do work
Work is done whenever a force acts on an object that
moves (or is moving) in the direction of the force
The greater the force, the greater the work
The larger the distance moved, the larger the work

Work is done when a force is used to move an object a

distance
 
Whenever any work is done, energy gets transferred
(mechanically) from one form to another
The amount of energy transferred (in joules) is equal to the
work done (also in joules)
Energy transferred (J) = work done (J)
Usually, if a force acts in the direction that an object is
moving then the object will gain energy
If the force acts in the opposite direction to the movement
then the object will lose energy

The amount of work that is done if related to the size of the

force and the distance moved by the object in the direction
of the force:
work done  =  force × distance moved
 
W = F× d
You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula
triangle:

Motion, Forces and Energy

Energy, Work and Power
Work
Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation Energy resources are large banks of energy that can be
The units of work are joules (J) (the same as the units of transferred into a form that can be used by society, such as
energy), but can also be given as newton metres (Nm) electrical energy
 
The table below gives a brief description of the main energy
resources, along with the form of energy contained in that
resource

2 Describe how useful energy may be obtained, or

electrical power generated, from:
(a) chemical energy stored in fossil fuels
(b) chemical energy stored in biofuels
(c) hydroelectric resources
(d) solar radiation
(e) nuclear fuel
(f) geothermal resources
(g) wind
(h) tides

(i) waves in the sea including references to a boiler,

turbine and generator where they are used
All energy resources have advantages and disadvantages
associated with them:

Motion, Forces and Energy

Energy, Work and Power
Energy Resources

1 List renewable and non-renewable energy sources

 Most of our energy resources on the Earth come from the
Sun:
 The Sun heats up the atmosphere, creating wind and
producing waves
 Water evaporated by the Sun falls as rain, filling up
reservoirs
 Plants grown using sunlight form the basis for fuels
– both biofuels and fossil fuels
 The Sun’s energy is produced by through the
process of nuclear fusion in its core
 Nuclear fusion involves the collision (and bonding)
of hydrogen nuclei to form helium nuclei, releasing
nuclear energy in the process
Some forms of energy, however, do not come from the Sun
These include:
 Geothermal – this comes from heat produced in the
Earth’s core
 Nuclear – this comes from elements which make up
a small proportion of the Earth’s crust
 Tidal – this comes (mainly) from the gravitational
attraction of the moon
 

Some points to note:

 A renewable energy resource is one that is
replenished at a faster rate than the rate at which it
is being used
As a result of this, renewable energy resources
cannot run out
 A reliable energy resource is one that can produce
energy at any time
Non-reliable resources can only produce energy
some of the time (e.g. when it’s windy)

3 Describe advantages and disadvantages of each

method limited to whether it is renewable, when and
whether it is available, and its impact on the
environment
Covered

Note:
 (b) (%) efficiency = (useful power output)/(total power
input) ( × 100%) and recall and use these equations
Energy and Efficiency
Whenever energy is transferred from one form to
another, some of that energy is usually wasted and is
transferred away from the system, usually in the form of
heat or waves (light and sound)
Whenever energy is transformed, some of the original
energy usually ends up in an unwanted (wasted) form
An efficient system is one where most of the energy going
into that system ends up in the form that is wanted
Eg. An LED light bulb is efficient because most of the
electrical energy (90%) ends up as light
An inefficient system is one where most of the energy ends
up in forms that weren’t wanted
Eg. An old incandescent light bulb is inefficient because
only a small amount of the electrical energy (5%) ends up as
light

Sankey diagrams comparing modern and old light bulbs

 

Calculating Efficiency
The efficiency of a system is the percentage of energy
transferred from the original store that ends up in the
intended form
Efficiency can be calculated using the following equation:

Motion, Forces and Energy

Energy, Work and Power Efficiency can also be written in terms of power) the energy
Energy Resources per second):

1 Define efficiency as:

(a) (%) efficiency = (useful energy output)/(total energy
input) ( × 100%)
 You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula
triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the same as a

joule per second (J/s)

Motion, Forces and Energy

Energy, Work and Power
Power

1 Define power as work done per unit time and also as

energy transferred per unit time; recall and use the
equations
(a) power = work done/ time taken, P = W t (b) power =
energy transferred/time taken, P = ∆E t
Machines, such as car engines, transfer energy from one
form to another every second
The power of a machine is the rate at which the machine
transfers energy
The greater the rate at which energy is transferred, the
greater the power
Because work done is equal to energy transferred, the power
is also equal to the rate of doing work
Power is the amount of energy transferred (or work done)
every second.
Power, work and time are related by the following equation:
  If the area is measured in cm2 (and the force in N),
then the pressure will be in N/cm2
 If the area is measured in m2 (and the force in N),
then the pressure will be in N/m2
 Pressure can also be measured in pascals, Pa
1 Pa is the same as 1 N/m2

2 Describe how pressure varies with force and area in

the context of everyday examples
Covered

3 State that the pressure at a surface produces a force in

Motion, Forces and Energy a direction at right angles to the surface and describe an
Pressure experiment to show this
Pressure is a scalar quantity defined as force per unit area.
Pressure only concerns the force component perpendicular
to the surface upon which it acts, thus if the force acts at an
angle, the force component along the direction
perpendicular to the surface must be used to calculate
pressure.

4 Describe how the height of a liquid column in a liquid

barometer may be used to determine the atmospheric
pressure
Barometers and Manometers are devices that measure
pressure:
A barometer is a device that is used to measure air pressure
A manometer is used to measure other pressures
A simple barometer consists of a column of mercury in an
1 Define pressure as force per unit area; recall and use inverted tube, sat in a tray of mercury exposed to the
the equation pressure = force area p = F A atmosphere
Pressure is the concentration of a force:  
If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small
pressure
Therefore pressure is defined as the force per unit area
If it is spread over a small area it will result in a large
pressure
Pressure is related to force and area by the equation:

A simple mercury barometer, used to measure atmospheric

pressure 
The weight of the mercury in the tube is balanced by
You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula atmospheric pressure pushing down on the mercury in the
triangle: tray
If atmospheric pressure increases, a greater length of
mercury can be supported in the tube
If atmospheric pressure decreases then less mercury will be
supported in the tube

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

 
The units of pressure depend on the units of area:
 In the above equation:
Pressure is in pascals (Pa) – where 1 Pa if the same as 1
N/m2
Depth is in metres (m)
Density is in kg/m3
The gravitational field strength on Earth is approximately 10
N/kg
(You will always be given this figure)
 
A simple manometer consists of a U-tube containing
mercury
A simple manometer, consisting of mercury in a U-tube
 
One end of the U-tube is open to the atmosphere
The other end is connected to the pressure that is to be
measured
As the measured pressure increases, the mercury is pushed
around the U-tube:
The greater the pressure, the further it is pushed

5 Describe, quantitatively, how the pressure beneath the

surface of a liquid changes with depth and density of the
liquid
When an object is immersed in a liquid, the liquid will exert
a pressure, squeezing the object
This pressure is exerted evenly across the whole surface of
the liquid, and in all directions
 

Pressure, at a point in a liquid, acts equally in all directions

 
The pressure in the liquid depends upon a couple of factors:
 The depth of the liquid
 The density of the liquid
 The bigger either of these factors, the greater the
pressure

6 Recall and use the equation for the change in pressure

beneath the surface of a liquid change in pressure =
density × gravitational field strength × change in height
∆p = ρg∆h
The size of this pressure depends upon the density (ρ) of the
liquid, the depth (h) of the object and the gravitational field
strength (g):