CHAPTER 1

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the branch of Science that deals with the properties, structure and composition of matter.
There are a large number of branches for Chemistry. Some of them are:

1. Inorganic Chemistry
2. Organic Chemistry
3. Physical Chemistry
4. Analytical Chemistry
5. Polymer Chemistry
6. Biochemistry
7. Medicinal Chemistry
8. Industrial Chemistry
9. Hydrochemistry
10. Electrochemistry
11. Green Chemistry etc.

Matter: Matter is anything that occupies space, has a definite mass. Based on the physical state we can
divide matter into different categories.

1. Solid state
2. Liquid state
3. Gaseous state
4. Plasma state
5. Bose-Einstein condensate
6. Fermionic condensate…

Classification of matter
Based on the chemical composition, matter can be divided into two categories – pure substances and
mixtures.

Pure substances contain only one type of particles.They have fixed composition . E.g. sodium (Na),
Potassium (K), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Helium (He), Carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), ammonia (NH3),
cane sugar (C12H22O11) etc. These are further divided into two – elements and compounds.

Elements are pure substances which contain only one type of particles. These particles may be atoms or
molecules. The term element was first introduced by Robert Boyle, the father of ancient Chemistry. Now
there are about 118 elements. Some elements exist as monoatomic and some others are polyatomic. E.g.
Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen (diatomic), Helium,Neon (monoatomic), Phosphorus, Sulphur (polyatomic) etc.

Compounds are pure substances which contain more than one type of atoms. E.g. CO2, H2O, NH3, H2SO4 etc.
Mixtures contain more than one type of particles.( E.g. all types of solutions, gold ornaments, sea water,
muddy water, air etc. The components of a mixture can be separated by physical methods.Mixtures can be
prepared in various composition.

There are two types of mixtures – homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. Mixtures having uniform
composition throughout are called homogeneous mixtures. E.g. all type of solutions, air etc.

Mixtures having different compositions at different parts are called heterogeneous mixtures. E.g. sea water,
soil etc.
 LAWS OF CHEMICAL
COMBINATIONS
The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the following five basic laws:
1. Law of Conservation of Mass (Law of indestructibility of matter): This law was proposed by Antoine
Lavoisier. It states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. We can only convert one form
of matter into another form. Or, in a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants is equal to the
total mass of products. Chemical equations are balanced according to this law.
Illustration
Consider the reaction 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Here 4 g of H2 combines with 32 g of O2 to form 36 g of
water. Total mass of reactants = 4 + 32 = 36g
Total mass of products = 36 g
2. Law of Definite Proportions (Law of definite composition): This law was proposed by Joseph
Proust. It states that a given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements
by weight. Or, the same compound always contains the same elements combined in a fixed ratio
by mass.
Illustration: Carbon dioxide can be formed in the atmosphere by various methods like respiration,
burning of fuels, reaction of metal carbonates and bicarbonates with acid etc. All these samples of CO 2
contain only two elements Carbon and Oxygen combined in a mass ratio 3:8.
3. Law of Multiple Proportions: This law was proposed by John Dalton. It states that if two elements
can combine to form more than one compound, the different masses of one of the elements that
combine with a fixed mass of the other element, are in small whole number ratio.
Illustration: Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two compounds – water and hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen + Oxygen →
Water 2g 16g 18g
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Hydrogen
Peroxide 2g 32g 34g
Here, the masses of oxygen (i.e. 16 g and 32 g) which combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen (2g) bear a
simple ratio, i.e. 16:32 or 1: 2.
4. Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes: This law was proposed by Gay Lussac. It states that when
gases combine or are produced in a chemical reaction they do so in a simple ratio by volumes
provided all gases are at same temperature and pressure.
Illustration: H2 combines with O2 to form water vapour according to the equation 2H 2(g) + O2(g) →
2H2O(g). If 100 mL of hydrogen combine with 50 mL of oxygen, we get 100 mL of water vapour. Thus,
the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen which combine together (i.e. 100 mL and 50 mL) bear a simple
ratio of 2:1.
5. Avogadro’s Law: This law was proposed by Amedeo Avogadro. It states that equal volumes of all
gases at the same temperature and pressure should contain equal number of moles or molecules.
Illustration: If we take 1L each of NH3, N2, O2 and CO2 at the same temperature and pressure, all of
them contain the same number of moles and molecules.
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
The term atom was first used by John Dalton from the Greek word a-tomio (means indivisible). He
proposed the first atomic theory. The important postulates of this theory are:
1. Matter is made up of minute and indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of
 atoms
3. Atoms of same element are identical in their properties and mass. While atoms of different
elements have different properties and mass.
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
Atoms and Molecules
Atom is the smallest particle of an element which may or may not have independent existence..
Molecules are the smallest particle of a substance capable of independent existence.. A molecule has
all the properties of that substance.
Types of molecules
Based on the type of atoms, there are two types of molecules – homonuclear molecule and
heteronuclear molecule. A molecule containing only one type of atom is called homoatomic molecule.
e.g. H2, O2, N2, O3 (ozone) etc
Heteroatomicr molecules contain different types of atoms. E.g. CO2, H2O, C6H12O6, NH3 etc.

Based on the no. of atoms there are three types of molecules – monoatomic, diatomic and polyatomic
molecules.
Monoatomic molecules contain only one atom. E.g. all metals, noble gases like He, Ne, Ar etc.

Diatomic molecules contain 2 atoms. E.g. H2, O2, N2, halogens (F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2)

Polyatomic molecules contain more than two atoms. E.g. ozone (O3), Phosphorus (P4), Sulphur (S8) etc.

Atomic mass
Atomic mass of an element is a number that expresses how many times the mass of an atom of the
element is greater than 1/12th the mass of a C12 atom.
For e.g. atomic mass of Nitrogen is 14, which means that mass of one N atom is 14 times greater than
1/12th
the mass of a C12 atom.
Atomic mass unit (amu): 1/12th the mass of a C12 atom is called atomic mass unit (amu).

i.e. 1 amu = 1/12 x mass of a C12 atom

= 1.66 x 10 -24 g
= 1.66 x 10--27 kg
Today, ‘amu’ has been replaced by ‘u’ which is known as unified mass.
Average atomic mass: Almost all the elements have isotopes. So we can calculate an average atomic mass of
an element by considering the atomic mass of the isotopes and their relative abundance. For e.g. chlorine has
two isotopes Cl35 and Cl37 in the ratio 3:1. So the average atomic mass Cl =(3x35 + 1x37)/4 =35.5
Molecular mass:
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule. It is obtained by
multiplying the atomic mass of each element by the number of its atoms and adding them together.
For e.g. molecular mass of H2SO4 is calculated as: 2 x 1 + 32 + 4 x 16 = 98 u.
Formula mass:
In the case of ionic compounds (like NaCl), there is no discrete (separate) molecules. Here the
positive ions and the negative ions are arranged in a three-dimensional structure. So we can calculate only
formula mass by taking molecular formula of the compound.
Mole concept
Mole is the unit of amount of substance. It is defined as the amount of substance that contains as
many particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g C12 isotope. 1 mole of any substance contains 6.022 x 10 23
atoms. This number is known as Avogadro number or Avogadro constant (NA or N0).
1 mol of hydrogen atoms = 6.022×10 23 atoms
1 mol of water molecules = 6.022×1023 water molecules
1 mol of sodium chloride = 6.022 × 1023 formula units of sodium chloride
Molar mass: The mass of one mole of a substance in gram is called its molar mass (gram molecular mass).
The molar mass in grams is numerically equal to molecular mass in u.
Molar mass of oxygen = 32g
Molar mass of hydrogen = 2g
etc.
Molar volume: It is the volume of 1 mole of any substance. At standard temperature and pressure (STP),
molar volume of any gas = 22.4 L (or, 22400 mL). i.e. 22.4 L of any gas at STP contains 1 mole of the gas
or 6.022 x 1023 molecules of the gas and its mass = molar mass.
For e.g. 22.4 L of hydrogen gas = 1 mole of H2 = 6.022x1023 molecules of hydrogen = 2 g of H2
Percentage composition
It is the percentage of each elements present in 100g of a substance.
i.e. percentage composition (mass percent) of an element = Mass of that element in the compound x 100
Molar mass of the compound
=No. of the atoms of an element x atomic mass of that element in the compound x 100
Molar mass of the compound

It is helpful in checking the purity of a given sample. Also by knowing the percentage composition, we can
calculate the empirical and molecular formula of a compound.
Empirical and Molecular formulae
Empirical formula is the simplest formula which gives only the ratio of different elements present in
the compound. But molecular formula is the actual formula that gives the exact number of different elements
present in the sample. For e.g. the empirical formula of glucose is CH 2O but its molecular formula is C6H12O6.
By knowing the percentage composition, we can calculate the empirical and molecular formula of a
compound.
Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric calculations
The word ‘stoichiometry’ is derived from two greek words – stoicheion (meaning element) and metron
(meaning measure). Thus stoichiometry deals with the calculations involving the masses or the volumes of
reactants and the products.
Chemical Equation
It is the representation of a chemical reaction by symbols and formulae. Here the reactants are
written in the left hand side and the products, on the right hand side. (The substances which participate in a
chemical reaction are called reactants and the substances which are formed as a result of a reaction are
called products).
A chemical equation should be balanced and the physical states of reactants and products are written
in brackets.
The following informations are obtained from a chemical equation.
1. An idea about the reactants and products and their physical states.
2. An idea about the masses of reactants and products.
 3. An idea about the number moles and molecules of reactants and products.
4. An idea about the volumes of reactants and products at STP.
Limiting reagent (Limiting reactant):
The reagent which limits a reaction or the reagent which is completely consumed in a chemical
reaction is called limiting reagent or limiting reactant.
For e.g. in the reaction 2SO2(g) + O2(g)→ 2 SO3(g), 2 moles of SO2 reacts completely with 1 mole of
O2 to form 2 moles of SO3. If we take 10 moles each of SO2 and O2, we get only 10 moles of SO3 because 10
moles of SO2 requires only 5 moles of O2 for the complete reaction. So here SO2 is the limiting reagent and 5
moles of O2 remains unreacted.
Reactions in solutions
Solutions are homogeneous mixture containing 2 or more components. The component which is present in
larger quantity is called solvent and the other components are called solutes. Or, the substance which is
dissolved is called solute and the substance in which solute is dissolved is called solvent.
For e.g. in NaCl solution, NaCl is the solute and water is the solvent.
A solution containing only 2 components are called binary solution. If the solvent is water, it is called
aqueous solution.
One of the most important terms related to a solution is its concentration. It is defined as the amount of
solute present in a given volume of solution. Concentration can be expressed in the following ways:
1. Mass percent (w/w or m/m): It is defined as the number of parts solute present in 100 parts by
mass of solution.
i.e. Mass % of a component = Mass of solute × 100
Mass of solution
2. Mole fraction: It is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of a particular component to
the total number of moles of solution.
i.e. Mole fraction of a component = Number of moles of the component
Total number of moles of all the components
For example, in a binary solution, if the number of moles of A and B are nA and nB respectively, then
the mole fraction of A ( xA) = nA/(nA + nB) and that of the component B (xB) = nB/(nA + nB)

xA + xB = 1
i.e the sum of the mole fractions of all the components in a solution is always equal to 1.
3. Molarity (M): It is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre of solution.
i.e. Molarity (M) = Number of moles of solute (n)
Volume of solution in litre (V)
1 M NaOH solution means 1 mole of NaOH is present in 1 L of solution.

Molarity (M) = Mass of the solute x 1000

Molar mass of the solute x volume of the solution in ml
Molarity = % x dx10
Molar mass of solute

Molarity equation for dilution M1V1 =M2V2

M1 = Molarity of the solution before dilution
M2 = Molarity of the solution after dilution
V1 = Volume of the solution before dilution
V2 = Volume of the solution after dilution
 4. Molality (m): It is defined as the number of moles of the solute present per kilogram (kg) of the
solvent.
i.e. Molality (m) = Number of moles of solute
Mass of solvent in kg

Molality (m) = Mass of the solute x 1000

Molar mass of the solute x Mass of the solvent in gram

Among the above concentration terms, molarity depends on temperature because it is related to volume,
which changes with temperature. All the others are temperature independent.

5.Normality (N)
It is the number of gram equivalents of solute dissolved per litre of the solution . It is denoted by N
Normality (M) = Number of gram equivalents of solute (n)
Volume of solution in litre (V)