PHYSICS NOTES FOR ‘O’ LEVEL

(S.3 WORK)

1   
 
 WAVES
A wave is a disturbance which travels through a medium and transfer energy from one point to another
without causing any permanent displacement of the medium itself e.g. water waves, sound waves, waves
formed when a string is plucked

WAVE MOTION
When a wave is set up on the medium, the particles of the medium from about a mean position as the
wave passes. The vibrates are passed from one particle to the next until the final destination is reached

TYPES OFWAVES
Two broad types -:
a) progressive waves (stationary waves)
b) mechanical and electromagnetic waves).

PROGRESSIVE WAVES

Is a wave which moves away from its source through a medium and spreads out continuously? There
are two kinds of progressive waves namely:

i) Transverse waves
ii) Longitudinal waves
i) TRANSVERSE WAVES
These are waves in which particles vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave,
e.g. water waves, light waves, waves formed when a rope is moved up and down.

Crest

Res position or
Mean position
Direction of propagation of the
wave

Trough

2   
 
 ii) LONGITUDINAL WAVES
These are waves in which the particles of media vibrate in the same direction as wave
OR
These are waves in which the particles of the media vibrate parallel to wave motion e.g. sound waves,
waves from a slinky spring.
Longitudinal waves travel by formation of compressions and rare factions. Regions where particles
crowd together are called compressions and regions where particles are further apart are called
rare factions.

General representation of a wave

TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING WAVES

1 Rest position (Mean position)

This is the line OQ where particles are stationary or displacement of a particle is 0

2 Amplitude (a)

This is the maximum displacement of a particle from the rest position.

3 Cycle

This is one complete oscillation of the wave.

3   
 
 4 Wave length (λ)
• This is the distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs.
(Transverse wave)
• This is the distance covered by one complete cycle of a wave.
• This is the distance between two particles of a wave vibrating in phase e.g. x$ y or p $ Q.
• This is the distance between two successive compressions or rare factions.

5 Period

Is the time taken by a wave to perform one complete cycle, i.e. T=  where n is number of cycle.

6 Frequency

This is the number of cycles a wave completes in one second i.e. F= S.I. unit = Hertz ( )

7 Wave front

Is any line or section taken through an adversing wave in which all the particles are in the same phase.

8 Crest

It is the maximum displaced point a above the line of 0 (zero) disturbance.

9 Trough

It is the maximum displaced point below line of zero disturbance.

10 Wave velocity

It is the distance which the wave travels in one second in a given direction. S.I unit m/s.

4   
 
 THE WAVE EQUATION

From the wave speed v=  …..(i)

If the wave describes n cycles in time  

Then the distance covered d= nλ…. (ii)

Substituting for d in … (i) → v=

   

V=

But f= hence v= fλ wave equation

Examples

A radio station produces waves of wave length 10m. If the wave speed is 3×10 m/s, calculate

(i) Frequency of radio wave.

(ii) Period t
  
(iii) Number of cycles completed in 10
(i) λ = 10m , v= 3×10 m/s t= 10s
v=fλ→f=
 
 
=

= 3×10

(ii) period T = =

= 3.3 ×10

(iii) Number of cycles → f = →n=ft

   

= 3×10 × 10
= 3×10 cycles

5   
 
 2 The distance between 10 consecutive crests is 36cm. Calculate the velocity of the wave. If the
frequency of the wave is 12 .

V= f λ but d = ( n – 1 ) λ

= 12×0.04 = (10- 1) λ

= 0.48m/s 0.36 = 9 λ

.
λ =

= 0.04m

3. The diagram below shows a wave travelling in water.

0.8m 0 y p

8m

(a) Name (i) Any two points on the wave which are in phase

(ii) Labeled m and x

(b) ( i) Determine the amplitude of the wave.

(ii) If the speed of the wave is 80m/s. Determine the frequency of the wave.

6   
 
Questions

A vibrator produces waves which travel 35 m in 2 seconds. If the waves produced are 5cm from each
other, calculate;

(i) the wave velocity

(ii) wave frequency
(i) v= f λ → f= =

.
= =

14.7 × 5 = v

7 .5m/s = v

THE RIPPLE TANK

7   
 
A ripple tank is an instrument used to study water wave properties. It is a shallow glass trough which is
transparent. The images of the wave are projected on the screen which is placed below it.

The waves are produced by means of a dipper which is either a strip of a metal or a sphere. When the
dipper is moved up and down by vibration of a small electric motor attached to it. The sphere
produces circular wave fronts and the metal strip is used to produce plain waves.

A stroboscope helps to make the waves appear stationery and therefore allows the wave to be studied
in detail.

N.B Therefore the speed of the wave in a ripple tank can be reduced by reducing the depth of water in
the tank. The effect of reducing sped of waves is that wave length of water reduces but frequency
does not. The frequency can only be changed by the source of wave.

WAVE PROPERTIES

The wave produced in a ripple tank can undergo.

(a) Refraction
(b) Reflection
(c) Defraction
(d) Interference

REFLECTION OF WAVES

A wave is reflected when a barrier is placed in its path. The shape of the reflected wave depends on the
shape of the barrier.

The laws of reflection of waves are similar to the laws of reflection of light.

8   
 
 (i) Reflection of plane wave
(a) On a plane surface.

Reflection of circular wave

(a) On a plane surface

Image I 0 source

(i) Reflection of plane wave

(b) Concave reflector

9   
 
 (ii) Reflection of circular wave

(b) Concave reflector

(i) Reflection of plane wave

(a) Convex reflector

(ii) Reflection of circular wave

(b) Convex reflector

10   
 
 Note
During reflection of water waves, the frequency and velocity of the wave does not change.

REFRACTION OF WAVE
This is the change of in direction of wave travel as it moves from one medium to another of different
depth. It is caused in change of wave length and velocity of the wave. However, the frequency
and the period are not affected. In a ripple tank, the change in direction is brought about by the
change in water depth.

1 λ2 Shallow water

Deep water

Glass block

λ1 Barrier
λ2

Shallow water
Deep water ir

= wave length in deep water

= wave length in shallow water

Note (i)          >

(ii) = f λ and =f

(iii)  > When f – is constant.

11   
 
      
Refractive index n =
     

= =

       
n= =
       

DEFRACTION OF WAVES

This is the spreading of waves as they pass through holes, round corners or edges of obstacle. It takes
place when the diameter of the whole is in the order of wave length of the wave i.e. the smaller the
gap the greater the degree of defraction as shown below.

(a) Wide gap

(b) Narrow gap

12   
 
 (c) Edge of obstacle

Sound waves are more defrosted than light waves because the wave length is greater than that of light.
Therefore sound can be heard in hidden corners.

N.B - When waves undergo defraction, wave length and velocity remain constant.

INTERFERENCE OF WAVES

This is the super imposition of two identical waves travelling in the same direction to form a single wave
with a larger amplitude or smaller amplitude.

The two waves should be in phase (matching).

13   
 
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

This constructive interference occurs when a crest from one wave source meets a crest from another
source or a trough from one source causing reinforcement of the wave i.e. increased disturbance is
obtained.

The resulting amplitude is the sum of the individual amplitudes.

DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

This occurs when the crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave resulting in wave cancelling i.e.

sum

ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES

This is a family of waves which is made by electric and magnetic vibrations of very high frequency.

Electro magnetic waves do not need a material medium for transformation i.e. they can pass through a
vacuum.

14   
 
SPECTRUM OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES

In decreasing frequency

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES

• They are transverse waves.

• They can travel through vacuum.
• They travel at a speed of light ( 3.0 × 10 m/s).
• They can be reflected, refracted, defracted and undergo interference.
• They posses energy.

15   
 
 EFFECTS OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES ON METER

(a) Gamma rays.

• They destroy body tissues if exposed for a long time.
• They harden rubber solutions and lubricate oil to thickness.

(b) X- rays
• Causes curtains to give off electrons.
• Destroys body tissues if exposed for a long time.
• Used in industries to detect lickages in pipes and in hospitals to detect fractures of bones.
(c) Ultra violet
• Causes sun burn
• Causes metals to give off electrons by the process called photoelectric emission.
• Causes blindness.
(d) Visible light
• Enables us to see.
• Changes the apparent color of an object.
• Makes objects appear bent to refraction.
(e) Infrared
• Causes the body temperature of an object to rise.
• It is a source of vitamin D.
(f) Radio waves
• Induces the voltage on a conductor and it enables its presence to be detected.

16   
 
 Wave band Origin Source
Gamma rays Energy changes in modes Radio active substance
of atoms
X- rays Electrons hitting a metal X – ray tube
target
Ultra- violet Fairly high energy Very hot bodies
changes in atoms Electron discharge
Through gases especially
mercury
Vapour
Visible light Energy changes in Lamps, flames etc
electron structure of
atoms
Infrared radiation Low energy changes in All matter over a wide
electrons of atoms range of temperature
from absolute zero
onwards.
Radio waves High frequency Radio transmission
Oscillating electric current aerials.
Very low energy changes
in electronic structures
of atoms.

17   
 
 SOUNDS WAVES (LONGTUDINAL WAVES)

Is a form of energy which is produced by vibrating objects e.g. when a tuning fork is struck on a desk
and dipped in water, the water is splashed showing that the prongs are vibrating or when a guitar
string is struck.

SPECTRUM SOUND WAVES

Frequency 0 20 20,000
Type of sound Subsonic sound Audible sound Ultra sonic sound
waves wave.

SUBSONIC SOUND WAVES

These are not audible to human ear because of very low frequency of less than 20 .

AUDIBLE SOUND WAVES

These are audible to human ear. This frequency ranges from

20 - 20 K .

ULTRA SONIC SOUND WAVES

These are sound waves whose frequencies are above 20 . They are not audible to human ears.
They are audible to whales, Dolphins, bats etc.

APPLICATION OF ULTRA SOUND WAVES

• They are used by bats to detect obstacles e.g. buildings a head.

• Used in spectacles of blind to detect obstacles.
• Used in radio therapy to detect cracks and faults on welded joints.
• Used in industries to detect rocks in seas using sonar.
• Used to measure the depth of seas and other bodies.

18   
 
PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVES

• Cannot travel in a vacuum because there is no metal needed.

• Can cause interference.
• Can be reflected, refracted, defracted, planes polarized and undergo interference.
• Travels with a speed V= 330m/s in air.

TRANSMISSION OF SOUND.

Sound requires a material medium for its transmission. It travels through liquid, solids and gases,
travels better in solids and does not travel through vacuum.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT SOUNDS CAN NOT PASS THROUGH A VACCUM.

• Arrange the apparatus as in the diagram with air, in the jar.

• Switch on the electric bell, the hammer is seen striking the gong and sound is heard.
• Gently withdraw air from the jar by means of a vacuum pump to create a vacuum in the jar.
• The sound produced begins to fade until it is heard no more yet the hammer is seen striking the
gong.

19   
 
 • Gently allow air back into the jar, as the air returns, the sound is once again heard showing that
sound can not travel through vacuum.

Note: The moon is sometimes referred to as a silent planet because no transmission of sound can
occur due to lack of air (metal medium).

The speed of sound depends on;

(i) Temperature
(ii) Wind
(iii) Density of medium.

Speed of sound is more in denser medium than in less dense.

Increase in temperature increases the speed of sound i.e. sound travels faster in hot air than in cold air.
Speed of sound is increased if sound travels in the same direction as wind.

Change in pressure of air does not affect speed of sound because density is not affected by change in
pressure.

EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY THE LAWS OF REFLECTION OF SOUND

A x y B Hard plane surface

R T

R – Closed tube

T – Open tube

• Put a ticking clock in tube R on a table and make it to face a hard plane surface e.g. a wall.
• Put tube T near your ear and move it on either sides until the ticking sound of the sound is heard
loudly.
• Measure angle i and r which are the angles of incidence and reflected.

20   
 
 • From the experiment, sound is heard distinctly due to reflection.
• Angle of incidence (i) and angle of reflection (r) are equal and lie along XY in the same plane.
• This verifies the laws of reflection.

REFRACTION OF SOUND WAVES

Refraction occurs when speed of sound waves changes. The speed of sound in air is affected by
temperature. Sound waves are refracted when they are passed through areas of different
temperature. This explains why it is easy to hear sound waves from distant sources at night than
during day.

REFRACTION OF SOUND DURING DAY.

Cold air

Hot air

During day, the ground is hot and this makes the layers of air near the ground to be hot while that
above the ground is generally cool. The wave fronts from the source are refracted away from the
ground.

REFRACTION OF SOUND DURING NIGHT

Warm air

Cool air

During night, the ground is cool and this makers layers of air near the ground to be cool while above to
be warm. The wave fronts from the source are refracted towards the ground making it easier to
hear sound waves over long distances.

21   
 
DEFRACTION OF SOUND

This refers to the spreading of sound waves around corners or in gaps when sound waves have wave
length similar to the size of the gap. They are defracted most. It is due to refraction that a person
behind the house can hear sound from inside.

INTERFERENCE OF SOUND

When two sound waves from two different sources overlap, they produce regions of loud sound and
regions of quiet sound. The regions of loud sound are said to undergo constructive interference
while regions of quiet are said to undergo destructive interference.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW INTERFERENCE OF SOUND

Audio frequency generator

A 1m B

Walk slowly

ECHOES

An echo is a reflected sound. Echoes are produced when sound moves to and fro from a reflecting
surface e.g. a cliff wall. The time taken before an echo arrives depends on the distance away from
the reflecting surface.

In order for a girl to hear the echo; sound travels a distance of 2d.

Velocity =

For an echo; velocity of sound =

22   
 
 V=

Examples

1 A girl stands 34m away from a reflecting wall. She makes sound and hears an echo after 0.2
seconds. Find the velocity of sound.

V=

=
.

= 340m/s

2 A person standing 99m from a tall building claps his hands and hears an echo after 0.6 seconds.
Calculate the velocity of sound in air.

V= = = = 330m/s
.   .

3 A gun was fired and an echo from a cliff was heard 8 seconds later. If the velocity of sound is
340m/s, how far was the gun from the cliff?

V=

8× 340 = ×8

1360 = d

d = 1360m

4 A student is standing between two walls. He hears the first echo after 2 seconds and then another
after a further 3 seconds. If the velocity of sound is 330m/s, find the distance between the walls.

   
V= V=
   

23   
 
330 = 5 × 330 = ×5 = 330 + 825

= 330m = = 1155m

= 825 m

5 A man is standing midway between two cliffs. He claps his hands and hears an echo after 3
seconds. Find the distance between the two cliffs.

(Velocity of sound = 330m/s)

V= =

3 × 330 = ×3 + = 495 + 495

= = 990m

3×165=

495=

= 495m

MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY OF SOUND USING AN ECHO METHOD

Method;

A person stands a certain distance d from the reflecting surface, then measure that distance.

Make a sharp clapping sound by banging two blocks of wood together.

Report the sound at regular time intervals to coincide exactly with the echo.

Count the number of claps in a given time t

Find the time taken for one clap i.e.

Velocity =

24   
 
 Velocity =

V=

Example

A student made 50 claps in one minute. If the velocity of sound is 330s, find the distance between the
student and the wall.

V=

60 × 330 = ×60

198 = d

d = 198m

REVERBERATION

In a large hall where there are many reflecting walls, multiple reflections occur and cause or create an
impression that sound lasts for a longer time such that when somebody makes a sound; it appears
as if it is prolonged. This is called reverberation.

Definition of Reverberation

Reverberation is the effect of the original sound being prolonged due to multiple reflections.

ADVANTAGES OF REVERBERATION

In grammar, reverberation is used in producing sound. Complete absence of reverberation makes

speeches inaudible.

25   
 
DISADVANTAGES OF REVERNERATION

During speeches, there is a nuisance because the sound becomes unclear.

PREVENTION OF REVERBERATION

The internal surfaces of a hall should be covering the sound absorbing material called acoustic
materials.

WHY ECHOES ARE NOT HEARD IN SMALL ROOMS?

This is because the distance between the source and reflected sound is so small such that the incident
sound mixes up with the reflected sound making it harder for the ear to differentiate between the
two.

Question

Outline four properties of electro magnetic waves.

Distinguish between (i) sound waves and light waves.

(iii) sound waves and water waves

A man standing midway between two cliffs makes a sound. He hears the first echo after 3s. Calculate
the distance between the two cliffs (Velocity of sound in air = 330m/s)

Musical notes

Music

This is an organized sound produced by regular vibrations.

Noise

This is a disorganized sound produced by irregular vibrations.

26   
 
Musical note

This is a single sound of a certain pitch made by a musical instrument or voice.

Characteristics of musical notes

Pitch

This is the loudness or softness of sound. It depends on the frequency of sound produced, the higher
the frequency the higher the pitch.

Timber

This is the quality of sound produced, it depends on the number of overtones produced, the more the
number of overtones, the richer and the sweeter the music and therefore the better the quality.

Overtone

This is a sound whose frequency is a multiple of a fundamental frequency of the musical note.

Beat

This refers to the periodic rise and fall in the amplitude of the resultant note.

Loudness

This depends on the amplitude of sound waves and sensitivity of the ear.

Amplitude

This is the measure of energy transmitted by the wave. The bigger the amplitude, the more energy
transmitted by the wave and the louder sounder sound produced.

Sensitivity of the ear.

If the ear is sensitive, then soft sound will be loud enough to be detected and yet it will not be detected
by the ear which is insensitive.

27   
 
Pure and impure musical notes.

Pure refers to a note without overtones. It is very boring and only produced by a tuning fork.

Impure refers to a note with overtones. It is sweet to the ear and produced by all musical instruments.

VIBRATION IN STRINGS

Many musical instruments use stretched strings to produce sound. A string can be made to vibrate
plucking it like in a guitar or in a harp putting it in pianos. Different instruments produce sounds of
different qualities even if they are of the same note.

Factors affecting the frequency of the stretched string.

(a) Length

For a given tension of the string, the length of the string is inverse the proportion to the frequency of
sound produced. This can be demonstrated by an instrument called sonometer as shown below.

A- Fixed bridge
B- Movable bridge
C- Wheel
D- Stretched
R-Load

28   
 
 By moving bridge , higher frequency can be obtained for a short length AB and lower frequency for a
long length AC. The relation can be expressed as F ∂

(b) Tension

Adding weights or removing them from its ends at load R the tension of the higher sonometer wire.
It will be noted that the higher the tension, the higher the frequency of the note produced.

(c) Mass per unit length (m)

Keeping length (l) and tension (t) constant, the frequency of sound produced depends on the mass
per unit length of the string. Heavy strings produce low frequency sounds. This is seen in
instruments such as guitar, base strings are thicker than solo stings. If the tension and length are
kept constant, the frequency of sound is inversely proportional to the mass of the strings thus a thin

short and taut string produces high frequency sound. (F ∂ )

Example

A musical note has frequency of 420 and length (l), if the length of the string is reduced by , find

the new frequency.

F∂ → f = λ → fl = k (constant)

420k = ×

= 420 × 2

= 840

29   
 
Vibrating strings

The ways in which a string vibrates are called harmonics. The sound is produced when notes are
performed at both ends of a stationary wave.

A stationary wave is a wave formed when two progressive waves of the same frequency and wave
length travelling in opposite direction meet producing nodes and antinodes.

Progressive wave is a wave in which energy is transmitted from one place to another and is not stores.

(i) Fundamental note (1st harmonics) string plucked midway.

Diagram

Let V = velocity of sound in air and l- the vibrating length of the string.

L = λ → λ = 2L

but = = - fundamental frequency =

(ii) 2nd harmonics (1st overtone): string plucked way

30   
 
 L= λ

= = =2

(iii) 3rd harmonics (2nd overtone): string plucked way from one end.

L= →λ=
    

= = =

=3

Thus harmonics obtained from vibrating strings are  ,2 , 3 etc. hence both even and odd
harmonics are obtained.

A- Antinodes- these are points that are permanently at rest. No disturbance occurs at these points.

RESONANCE

This is when a body is set into vibrations with its own natural frequency by another near by body
which vibrates with the same frequency.

31   
 
Applications of Resonance.

• In determining the speed of sound in air using a tuning fork and the resonance tube.
• In tuning strings of a musical instrument e.g a guitar and tuning electrical circuits which include
indicators.

Dangers of Resonance

• Causes bridges to collapse as soldiers match across them. This can be prevented by stopping the
matching.
• Causes buildings to collapse due to earthquake.
• Chimneys can also collapse due to strong resonance.

Vibrations of air in pipes.

(a) When a wave of a particular wave length and frequency is sent into a closed pipe, reflection of the
wave occurs at the bottom of the pipe. The reflected wave will interfere with the incidence when
the length of the wave is adjacent so that a node is reflected at the reflected surface, a standing
wave is produced.

The air column is now forced to vibrate at the same frequency as that of the source of the wave which is
a natural frequency of the air column.

1st harmonic vibration

In 1st harmonics λ = L + c → λ = ( L + c0 fundamental frequency

 

= = …….(i)

32   
 
2nd harmonics

3rd harmonics

In closed pipes, only odd harmonics , 3 , 5 ,7 etc) are obtained because of the presence of odd
harmonics, closed pipes are not as rich as open pipes.

In closed pipes, nodes are formed at closed ends and antinodes at open end.

Open pipes

In open pipes, standing waves resulting into resonance are created when the incident waves are
reflected by the air molecules at the other end. Possible ways in which waves travel are shown
below:

In open pipes, the sound nodes are produced when antinodes are formed at both ends.

1st harmonic

L= λ → λ = 2L

33   
 
                          = = ………
…(i)

2nd harmonic
h

L=λ

Frequency
F = =

=2

3rd haarmonic

L= →λ=

= = 3    ) → =3
 

Openn pipes are preferred

p to closed pipes because
b theyy give both odd
o and evenn harmonics hence better
quality
q soundd.

34
4   
 
Determination of velocity of sound by Resonance.

C – End correction

, - Length of air.

• Assemble the apparatus as in the diagram.

• Put a vibrating tuning fork just above the resonance tube.
• Gently lower the resonance tube until the 1st resonance (loud sound) occurs.
• Measure the length at which it occurs.
• + c = λ…… (i)

• Raise the resonance tube until the 2nd resonance (loud sound) occurs.
• Measure + c = λ…… (ii) as in diagram (b)

• Subtract equation (i) from (ii) to eliminate c

• ( - ) + (c-c) =  λ -   λ

• - = λ

• Wave length λ = 2 (   - )…… (iii)

Hence the speed/velocity. V= fλ

V= 2f (  

35   
 
 Question.

In an experiment the velocity of sound in air using a resonance tube, the following results were
obtained:

Length of 1st resonance = 16.1cm

Length of 2nd resonance = 51.1cm

Frequency of tuning fork = 480

(i) Calculate the wave length of sound produced.

(ii) The end correction of the resonance tube.
(iii) The velocity of sound in air.
(i) λ=2( - )
= (51.1 – 16.1)
= 70cm
= 0.07m

(ii) +c= λ

16.1+ c = 70

C = 17.5 – 16.1
= 1.4cm

(iii) V= 2f( - )
. .
= 2 480 ( )

= 33600cm
= 336m/s

2 The frequency of the 3rd overtone (4th harmonic) produced by an open pipe is 840 . Given that
the velocity of sound in air is 330m/s, calculate;

(i) Length of the people

(ii) Fundamental frequency

36   
 
 3 A pipe closed at one end has a length of 10cm, if the velocity of sound is 340m/s; calculate the
frequency of the fundamental note.

4 A tuning fork of 256 was used to produce resonance in a closed pipe. The first resonance
position was 22cm and the 2nd resonance position was 97cm. Find the frequency of sound waves.

(b) An open tube produced harmonics of fundamental frequency 256 , what is the frequency of the
2nd harmonics.

HEAT
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat
It is a form of energy that changes the internal kinetic energy of a substance.
It is transferred in three different ways, conduction, convection and radiation

Conduction
It is the flow of heat through a material that does not require movement of the material medium e.g. in
metals when they are heated their molecules vibrates faster along their mean position and pass on the heat
to the molecules on the cooler parts of the metals also electrons that are always moving about the metal
transfer from the hot to the cold end.

Heat conduction is best in metals and worst in gases because of the distant spread of molecules in gases it
is not highly possible to have heat transfer in gases

Factors affecting conduction in metals

- Increase in the cross section area of the metal increases the rate of conduction.
- Decrease in the length of the metal bar
- Increase in the temperature difference
- Different metals conduct heat differently.
Experiment to compare conduction in metals.

37   
 
Procedures.
- The fix cork with wax at one end of each rod and place them on a tripod stand with their end put
together
- Heat the ends with a Bunsen flame , heat is conducted along each rod towards the cork
- The cork drops off whenever the wax melts
- The best conductor will drop its cork first and the worst conductor drops its cork last or not at all.

Application of heat conduction

- Good conductors are used in frying and cooking
- Bad conductors are used on handles of frying pans i.e. handle are made of plastic, wood, rubber.
Explain why metals feel colder when touched than bad conductors
This is because metals carry heat away from the hands due to high degree of conduction while bad
conductors do not conduct heat.
N.B
Liquids and conducts heat very slowly this is because their molecules are apart.
Experiment to show that water is a poor conductor of heat

Procedure
- Water is put in a test tube slanted as shown in the diagram above.
- The upper part of the tube is heated and convection currents are seen at the top of the tube, water
begins to boil.
- Ice at the bottom remains not melted. This shows that water is poor conductor of heat.
Convection:
This is the heat transfer which involves bulk movement of molecules of the medium.

38   
 
Convection cannot occur in vacuum because it requires a material medium. It occurs in fluids (liquid and
gases) because they flow easily.

Experiment to demonstrate convection in liquids:

Proceure;
- Arrange the apparatus as in the diagram above.
- Use a straw and carefully put potassium permanganate crystals in water at the bottom.
- When heat is applied, purple streaks are observed moving upwards in the middle of the flask and
down wards at the side of a flask in a circular form. The purple streaks show convection currents.
Explanation of convection currents:
When water at the bottom becomes hot, it expands and becomes less dense. It is therefore displaced
by dense cold water from the top. In displacement of hot water by cold water, it sets up convection
currents as observed by the purple loops.
Application of convection:
When warming a liquid, the heating element of an electronic kettle is placed at the bottom.
Domestic hot water system:
Cold water is supplied to the boiler along the cold water supply pipe. On warming, in the boiler the cold
water warms up, expands and becomes less dense, so it rises up.

39   
 
 As more cold water is applied to the boiler, hot water is displaced upwards and supplied to the hot water
taps along hot water pipes.
The ventilation pipe is used to release steam.

Convection in gases
Experiment to demonstrate convection in gases:

C A

B X

A lighted piece of paper will produce smoke at point A. The movements of smoke from A to B across
point X and out through C shows convection.
Explanation of how smoke moves:
40   
 
Smoke moves by convection because;
- The air above the candle warms up, becoming less dense and then rises up through C.
- The dense cold air from the paper (smoke) enters X through chimney A to replace the risen air
(smoke) causing convection currents.
Application of convection in gases:
- Chimneys in kitchens and factories
- Ventilation pipes in VIP latrines
- Ventilators in houses
- Land and sea breezes
Land breeze;
It occurs at night. At night land loses heat faster than sea water causing land to be cooler than the sea. As
a result, causing air above the sea to become warm and less dense, so it rises.
The air above the land which is cold, replaces the warm air resulting in the land breeze.

Sea breeze:
Sea breeze occurs during day. During day the land absorbs more heat from the sun than the sea water.
The land becomes warmer than the sea. So warm air rises which is replaced by the cold air from the sea.

VENTILATION:
Air inside a room, air gets heated up on hot days. Rooms are usually provided with ventilators above the
floor, through which warm air find its way outside while fresh air enter through the doors and windows. In
this way a circulation of air convection is set up.

41   
 
RADIATION:
This is the process of heat transfer in which the transfer of heat does not require a material medium.
Radiant heat is mainly comprised of infrared which makes the skin feel warm. It travels as fast as light and
it is the fastest means of heat transfer. It can travel through a vacuum.
Good and bad absorbers of heat radiation:
Some surfaces absorb heat radiation better than others as illustrated below;

The polished surfaces stay cool and the wax on it, is not melted. After a few minutes the wax on the dull or
black surface begins to melt. And cork eventually falls off.
A dull black surface is a good absorber of heat radiation while a polished surface is a poor absorber of heat
radiation because shine surfaces reflect heat radiation instead of absorbing it.
Comparison of radiation of different surfaces:
Requirements: - A Leslie tube
- Thermopile (instrument that converts heat to electrical energy).

Hot water metre

Leslie tube

42   
 
 Thermopile

One side of the tube is dull black, the other is dull white and the last one is made shiny polished.
The tube is filled with hot water and radiation from each surface is detected by a thermopile.
When the radiant heat falling on the thermopile is much, it registers a large deflection of the point.
With different surfaces of the tube made to face the thermopile one at a time. The following results are
obtained:
- The greatest deflection at the pointer is obtained when dull dark surface faces the thermopile.
- The least deflection is obtained a highly polished shiny surface faces the thermopile.
- The dull surface is a good radiator or emitter of heat radiation while a polished shiny surface is a poor
emitter of heat radiation.
Laws of radiation:
- Heat radiation travels in a straight line.
- Good absorbers of heat radiation are also good emitters.
- Temperature of the body remains constant when the rate at which absorbs heat radiation is equal to
the rate at which radiates heat energy.
- Bodies only radiate heat when their temperatures are higher than those of the surroundings and
absorb heat from the surroundings if their temperatures are low.
Application of radiation:
a. Thermos/vacuum flasks
b. Black and dull surfaces

i) Car radiators are painted black to easily emit heat

ii) Cooling fins of a refrigerator are black to easily emit heat.
iii) Solar plates or panels are black to easily emit heat.
c. Polished and white surfaces
i) White washed buildings keep cool in summer.
ii) Roots and petro tanks are aluminum painted to reflect radiant heat.
iii) White coloured clothes are won in summer to keep us cool.
iv) Silver tea pots, kettles and saucepan retain heat for a long time.

The vacuum flask:

It keeps hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold. It is very difficult for heat to travel in or out of the flask.

43   
 
How flasks minimizes heat loss
The double walled glass vessel with a vacuum between the walls minimizes heat transfer by conduction
and convection.
Silvered surfaces reduce heat loss by radiation.
The small amount of heat radiation from the hot substance inside the wall is reflected back across the
vacuum by slivering on the outer wall
However the flask can lose heat through radiation, this radiation is reduced by slivered inner walls.
The cork prevents heat loss by conduction since it is a bad conductor of heat.
NB
The thermos flask becomes useless when the vacuum seal breaks, because the vacuum will no longer
exists and heat loss by conduction and convection will occur.
Choice of dress
The choice of dress one puts on depends on conditions of the environment. On hot days, a white dress is
preferable because it reflects most of the heat radiations falling on it.
On cold days a dull black woolen dress is preferred because it absorbs most of the heat incident on it and
can retain for a longer time.

EXPANSION OF SOLIDS.

44   
 
Expansioon is an increease in size of a substance. When heeated they inccrease in sizee in all directtions.
Expansioon of solids ccan be illustrated using a metal ball w
with a ring as shown below
w.

The mettal ball passees through the ring when it is cold, butt when heated, the ball dooesn’t pass thhrough the
ring any more, showiing that it hass expanded. It passes thrrough the hole again wheen it cools, meaning that
the metaal contracts when
w it loses heat.
Differennt metals exppand at differeent rates wheen equally heeated, this caan be shown using a metaal strip madee
of two metals
m such as copper andd iron boundeed tightly toggether (bi- meetallic strip ) when
w the bi metallic
m strip
is heatedd, the copper expands more than ironn and the stripp bends as shown.
s

Usess of a metallicc strip (appliccation of expaansion of solids)

a) Fire alarm
a
Heat froom the source makes the bi metallic strip bend andd completes the electric circuit
c and thee bell rings.

45
5   
 
b) Thermostat
This is a device that makes temperature of appliances or room constant. The thermostat shown below
uses a bi metallic strip in the heating circuit of a flat iron.

-When flat iron reaches, the required temperature.

-The strip bends and breaks the circuit at the contact and switch off the heater.
-The strip makes contact again after cooling a little and the heater is on again.
A nearly steady temperature results. If the control knob screwed, the strip has to bend more to break the
circuit and this reads higher temperature.
Disadvantages of expansion
Expansion can cause a number of problems:
- Contraction of railway lines, bridges, oil pipes and putting up electrical transmission wires. Therefore
allowance must be for expansion.
Railway lines are constructed with gaps left in between consecutive on hot days when the rails expand;
they have enough room for expansion.
Cold days Hot days

If no gap is left in the rails, they bend on hot days.

46   
 
 Cold daays hhot days
Steel brridges
Those are constructeed in such a way w that onee end os resteed on rollers and the otheer end is norm
mally fixed.
This is too ensure thatt the structurre can contacct and expand freely at vaarious temperatures withoout
damaginng the bridge.

Transmission cablees
o telephone cables are noormally not pulled
Wires orr cables in traansmission or p tightly during installation in
order to allow room ffor expansionn and contracction during eextreme weaather conditioons.

EXPANS SION IN FLU UIDS

When liqquids or gasees (fluids ) geet hot , they expand
e just as
a solids do, but their exppansion is greeater than
that of soolids for the same
s amounnt of heat.

ment to demo
Experim onstrate exp
pansion in liiquids

47
7   
 
 Proceduure
- Fill thee flask completely with coolored water. Pass the narrow tube thrrough the holle of the corkk and fix the
cork tigghtly to the flask.
- Note the first level of water on a narrow tube
- Heat the bottom off the flask and observe the new level of o water on thhe capillary ttube.
- Thereffore liquids eexpand when heated since there was a rise in the levels of water in the capillary tube.

Application of expansioon property of liquids

This property is usedd in thermometer; the liquids used incllude alcohol and mercuryy.
Anomalous expansion of water
When water is heated ovver the tempeerature of 0 -440C it contracts instead of
o expanding and this is what
w is called
anomalous (unusual)
( exppansion of waater.
The volume of water is minimum
m at 40C and its deensity is maximum beyond 4oC the volume of wateer increases
i.e. expands increase in temperature.
t .

Application of anom
malous behaavior of wateer.

48
8   
 
 It is used to preserve aquatic life during cold weather.
As the temperature of the pond or lake fall the water contracts it becomes denser and sinks. a circulation is
thus set up until all the water reaches its maximum density at 40c if furth cooling occurs any water below
40c will stay at the top due to its lighter density thus ice format the top of water.
The lower layer of water at 40c can only loss heat by conduction. So in deep water there will be always
water beneath the ice in which fish and other creatures can live.

Disadvantages of anomalous behavior of water.

- it causes weathering of rocks due to its expansion and contraction
- it can cause water pipes to bust due to formation of ice inside the pipe
- it can have a satisfactory thermometer with water as the thermometric liquid.

EXPANSION OF GASES
A gas expands when heated almost 10,000 times more than solids this is due to the fact that cohesive exist
between molecules are extremely weak.
Experiment to demonstrate expansion in gases

49   
 
 - In the above set up the flask is slightly heated.
- Air bubbles will be seen coming out from the other end of the tube
- This shows that air expand when heated.
- In the second set up, when the surface of heat is removed and the flask is allowed to cool by pouring cold
water, the level of water will rise. This shows that air contacts when cooled.
Application of expansion of air.
1) Hot air balloon
Expansion of air is used in hot air balloon. When air in the balloon is heated, it expands and becomes less
dense and as a result the balloon rises up.
THERMOMETRY
Thermometers: these are instruments used for measuring temperatures
Thermometric properties
A thermometric property is a property of a substance which continuously change with temperature and may
be used for temperature measurements, these include:
- Increase in length.
- Change in difference
-       
- Change in pressure.

THERMOMETER SCALES.
There are 3 thermometer scales commonly used
1) Celsius / centigrade scale(0C)
2) Fahrenheit (0F)
3) Kelvin/ absolute(k)

a) Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit

F= 32
If Celsius scale reads 00c then F = θ +32
 
And if Celsius scale reads 1000c then F = X100+ 32
= 2120F
b) Converting from Fahrenheit to Celsius.
The formula is C = (F-32)
C = (212 – 32)
= 1000C

50   
 
c) Relationship between Celsius scale and Kelvin scale.
K = 273 + C where C is temperature in Celsius scale and is temperature in Kelvin scale.
d) Convert 00C to Kelvin scale
K = 273 + θ
= 273K.
Convert 1000C to Kelvin scale (Absolute scale)
K = 273 + 100
= 373K
To obtain a standard scale on a thermometer. Two fixed points must be marked out on it.
The upper and lower fixed points.

LOWER FIXED POINTS:

This is the temperature of pure melting ice at standard atmospheric pressure.
76cm Hg or 760mm Hg and – On Fahrenheit scale = 320F
- On Celsius scale = 0 0C
- Kelvin scale = 237K

DETERMINATION OF LOWER FIXED POINTS:

51   
 
Procedure;
-support the funnel on a retort stand as shown above.
-put the thermometer in funnel packed with pure melting ice.
- Adjust the thermometer so that the mercury thread is clearly seen.
-mark the points where the level of mercury stops is the lower fixed point.

UPPER FIXED POINT:

This is the temperature as steam above the boiling water of standard atmospheric pressure.
On Celsius scale is 1000C
On Kelvin scale is 373K
On Fahrenheit scale is 2120F.
Determination of upper fixed point using a hypsometer.
A hypsometer is a two walled vessel made out of a round bottom flask.

Procedure;
-Partly fill vessel with water and arrange the apparatus as in the diagram.
-Gently heat water in vessel using a Bunsen flame to its boiling point.

52   
 
-Adjust the thermometer so that mercury thread is seen clearly when water is boiling.
-Make the end of mercury thread as the upper fixed point.
-With the upper and lower fixed marked points on the thermometer the distance between them is divided
into 100 equal degrees so that the thermometer gets the scale. In the way it is said to be calibrated.
Using un calibrated thermometer to measure temperature:
The interval between the upper fixed point and the lower fixed point is called the fundamental interval. This
is divided into a hundred equal parts and each is called a degree.
1000C

Y
θ
X

00 C

Example:
1. The top of a mercury thread of a given thermometer is 3cm from the ice point, if the fundamental interval
is 5cm, determine the unknown temperature θ.
X = 3cm
Y = 5cm

θ = x 100

=   x 100

= 600C
2. The length of a mercury thread at a low fixed point and upper fixed point are 2cm and 8cm respectively
for a certain liquid X. Given that the length of mercury thread at un known temperature θ is 6cm determine
the value of θ.
X=6–2=4
Y = 8-2 = 6

53   
 
 θ =   x 100

= x 100

= 66.70C
3. Find the temperature in oC if the length of mercury thread is 7cm from the point and fundamental interval
is 20cm.

θ =  

= x 100

= 350C
4. Find the unknown temperature 0 given the following length of mercury.
-Length of steam = 25cm
-Length of ice point = 1cm
-Length of known temperature θ= 19cm
Y = 25 – 1 = 24 x 100
X = 19 – 1 = 18
= 3 x 25
= 750C
Thermometric liquids.
These include – mercury
- Alcohol
- Water
Water is not commonly used because of the following reasons:
-It is transparent i.e.
Its meniscus is difficult to see and read.
-It does not expand regularly
-It sticks on glass
-It has relatively low boiling point.
-It is poor conductor of heat.

54   
 
QUALITIES OF A GOOD THERMOMETRIC LIQUID:
-Must easily be seen (opaque)
-Must expand regularly with temperature.
-Must have a high boiling temperature to measure high temperature.
-Must have low freezing point to measure low temperature.
-Must not stick on glass
-Must be a good conduct of heat.
-Must not be very expensive
-Must not be poisonous and it should be available.

Advantages of mercury over alcohol when used as thermometric liquid.

Mercury Alcohol
It is opaque It is colourless
Good conduct of heat Poor conduct of heat as compared to mercury
Expand regularly Does not expand regularly as mercury
Has a high boiling point (3570C) Has low boiling point 780C
and can be used to measure
temperature.
Mercury does not stick on glass. Sticks on glass
It does not distill easily Distills easily.

Advantages of alcohol over mercury

Alcohol Mercury

55   
 
Has a low freezing point (1150c) Has a high freezing point of -390c hence
unsuitable to measure very low
temperatures.
Has a high a linear expansively(expands so Has a low linear expansivity (expands little for
much for small temperature range) the same temperature range)

CLINICAL THERMOMETER:
This thermometer is used to measure the human body temperature.

-The thermometer has a very fine bore which makes it sensitive.

-Expansion of mercury makes it shoot along the tube.
-The glass from which the tube is made very thin which body heat can reach the mercury quickly to read
body temperature.
-When thermometer bulb is placed into the mouth or armpit, the mercury expands and it is forced past
the constriction along the tube.
-When removed, the bulb cools and the mercury in it contracts quickly.
-The mercury column breaks at the constriction leaving mercury in the tube. The constriction prevents
flow back of mercury to the bulb when the thermometer is temporary removed from the patients mouth
or armpits.
The thermometer is reset by shaking the mercury back in the bulb.
Effect of heat on matter:
-When a solid is heated, the cohesive forces between its molecules are weakened and the molecules
begin to vibrate vigorously causing the solid to change into a liquid state.
-The temperature at which a solid changes into liquid is called the melting point. At melting point the
temperature remains constant until the solid has melted.
-When the entire solid has melted and more heat is applied, the temperature rises. The heat gained
weakens the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules considerably causing the molecules to move
faster until the liquid changes into gaseous state.

56   
 
 -The temperature at which a liquid changes into gaseous state is called the boiling point. At boiling point
temperature of the liquid remains constant since heat supplied weakens the cohesive forces of
attraction in liquid molecules.
-If the heated substance is water its temperature rises with time as shown below.
Properties/qualities of a thermometer.
i) Quick action
ii) Sensitivity.
- Quick action
This refers to the ability of a thermometer to measure temperature in the shortest time possible. This is
attained by using a thin walled bulb using a liquid which is a good conductor of heat e.g. mercury.
- Sensitivity
This is the ability of a thermometer to detect a very small temperature change. It is attained by:
i) Using a thermometer with a big bulb
ii) Use of a liquid which has a high linear expansivity.
iii) Using a narrow bore or reducing the diameter of the bore hole

HEAT CAPACITY
This is the heat required to rise the temperature of a substance by 10c or 1k S.I units is ŋ1oc or ŋ1ok
 
Heat capacity =
 

Specific heat energy

This is the heat required to raise the temperature of the substance by 10c S.I units is ŋkg-1 oc-1

Specific capacity has a symbol C = =

   

Heat = mass x c x temperature

Example
1. 6000J of heat is used to heat a liquid of mass 3kg 0C from 25oC to 450C. Find the specific heat
capacity of the liquid.

H=MCθ
6000 = 3 x c x20
C =100Jkg-1 oC-1

57   
 
 2. 10,000J of heat is used to heat the metal block of mass 400m 200c -1000c.find the (C) of the metal
block.
θ = (100 -20) = 800C
H =M C θ
10,000 = 0.4 x c x 80
C = 312.5Jkg -1 oC-1

3. Find the heat required to raise the temperature of a block of mass 200g from250C to
650C (specific heat capacity of the block is 130Jkg-1oC-1)

H=MCθ
H = 0.2 X 130 X 40 =1040J
DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A METALIC BLOCK

The mass (m ) of the metallic block is first measured and recorded using a beam balance.
The heater of known power (P) and thermometer are placed in the block. The initial temperature of the
block is recorded. The heater is switched on and left to heat for some time (t).
The purpose of cotton wool is to ensure that no heat is lost to the surrounding.
Assume no heat is lost to the surrounding
Heat supplied = heat absorbed or gained by the metal
Pt = m cm x θ

Cm =

Where cm is the specific heat capacity of the metal

Θ- Is the temperature change i.e. (θ = θ2-θ1)

58   
 
 Question
A heater rated 2kw Find the heat in
i) 5 seconds
ii) 10 minutes
iii) 2 hour

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT TEMEPRATURE OF A SOLID BY METHOD OF MIXTURES.

Procedure
- Put water of mass m1 in a container of heat capacity c1
- Put calorimeter and its contents in a calorimeter jacket and record the initial temperature θ1
- Mean while, put the solid of mass m in boiling water in a beaker as shown in figure(i) above for 5 minutes
- Record the boiling point θ2
- Quickly transfer the solid from boiling water to the calorimeter using a string.
- Begin to stirrer until the final steady temperature θ3 is obtained the heat shield is to prevent the heating
from boiling water to reach the calorimeter.
- Assume eligible heat to the surrounding.
Heat lost by solid = heat gain θ d by the calorimeter + heat gained by H20.
MCS (θ3 – θ2) = M1C1 (θ3 – θ1) + M2 C2 (θ3- θ1)

59   
 
 M C    M C   θ  – θ
Cs =
  θ θ

Knowing values of C1,M1, M2, C2,M and temperature changes, specific heat capacity of a solid Cs can be
obtained from the above expression.

Examples:
1. 252,000J of heat are supplied to 4kg of H20 at 400c.Find the final temperature of water (specific
capacity of H20 is 4200JKg-1oC-1)
H = MC (θ2 – θ1)
252,000 = 4 x 4200 (θ2 – 40)
Final temperature = 550C
2. In an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a solid. was put in boiling H20 for 5min.It
was then quickly transferred in 5kg liquid at 460C in plastic beaker. The final temperature of the mixture
was found to be 500C.Find the specific capacity of the solid (specific capacity of solid is 2000JKg-10C-1.
1. Heat lost by = Heat gained by liquid.
Solid
MC (θ1-θ2) = M1C1 (θ3-θ2)
2 x C (100-50) = 5 x 2000 (50 – 46
C = 400JKg-1oC-1
Determination of specific heat capacity of a liquid by electrical method

60   
 
 Procedure;
- Pour the liquid of known mass (m) in a plastic beaker or insulated aluminium pan
- Put the heater of known power (P) and the thermometer in the plastic beaker containing a liquid.
- Measure and record the initial temperature θ1 of the liquid.
- Switch on the heater to warm the liquid for time (t).
- Read and record the final stable temperature θ2 of the liquid.
Calculate the specific capacity.
Heat gained by liquid = Heat supplied by the heater.
MC (θ2 – θ1) = Pt

Specific heat capacity of the liquid C =

Assumptions the;
- The amount of heat absorbed by the plastic beaker is negligible.
- No heat is absorbed by H20 (liquid) from the surroundings.
Example;

1. An immersion heater of 60W was used to heat a liquid of 1Kg for   a minute. Find the specific capacity
of the liquid if the initial temperature was 270C and 870CHeat absorbed by water = Heat supplied by the
heater
MC (θ2 – θ1) = Pt
1x C (87 – 27) = 60 x 30
C = 30JKg-1oC-1

2. Atifa was to have a warm bath. She mixes 5Kg of hot H20 at 850C with 15Kg of cold water at 250C
taking C to be 4200JKgOC-1. Find the final temperature of the mixture.
Heat lost by hot water = Heat gained by cold water
MhC (θ2 – θ3) = McC (θ3 – θ1)
5 x 4200 (85 – θ3) = 15 x 14200 (θ3 – 25)
θ3 = 40oC
Importance of high specific capacity of H20 C = 4200JKg-1oC-1
4400J of heat required to increase the temperature by 10C is extremely high, because of this high value of
(C) of H20, it is commonly used as a cooling agent in many cooling systems e.g. car radiators

61   
 
LATENT
T HEAT
Latent heat is the heat lost or abssorbed by thee body duringg change of state
s at consstant temperaature.
There 2 types of latent heat
(i) latent heat of vaporizationn (Lv)
(ii) Latent heat oof fusion (Lf)
Latent heat of vaporization;
This is thhe amount off heat absorbbed by a boddy to change its state 4rm liquid to vappour at constaant
temperaature.
NB: Thee constant tem
mperature is the boiling point
p of the liqquid.
Latent heat
h of fusioon;
This is thhe amount off heat absorbbed by a boddy to change its state from
m solid to liquuid at constannt
temperaature. The connstant tempeerature is thee melting or frreezing pointt.
Cooling
g curve of a substance
s

Liquid cooling
Liquid in equilibrium
e w solid
with

Solidd cooling

Specificc latent heatt of vaporizaation Lv

This is thhe amount off heat requireed to changee 1Kg M of a substance frrom liquid to vvapour at constant
temperaature.
H = MLv where H is aamount of heeat supplied or
o lost by a bbody.
M = masss of the body. Lv = Specific latent heat
h of vaporrization of thee body.

62
2   
 
Examples
1. Find the amount of heat required to convert 5kg of water at boiling point to steam
(Take lv of steam as 2.3 x 106 Jkg-1 )
Quantity of heat H = MLV
= 5 X 2.3 X 10J
= 11.5 x 106J
= 1.15 X 105J
2. How much heat is needed to change 4kg of water at 100c to steam at 1000c
H = mlv
H = 4 X2 .3 X106J
H = 9.2 X 106J
3. A three (kilowatt electrical kettle is left on for 2 minutes after the water starts boiling. What mass of
water is boiled off in this time ?
Latent heat absorbed by H20 = Heat supplied by heater
M x 2.3 x 106 = 3 x1000 x 2 x 60
M = 0.1565kg = 156.5g

4. Find the heat given out when 10g of steam at 1000C condenses and cool to water at 500C
Heat given = heat required to cool steam to water + heat required to cool water from 1000C to 50oC.

H = mlv + mc (θ2 –θ1)

      
= +
= 25100J

Since the amount of heat in steam is 5 times of heat in boiling water, therefore steam is more fatal than
boiling water.

Importance of high value of specific latent heat of vapourization

1. Because of high value, steam is used as a heating agent e.g. cooking .
2. Can be used for sterilizing medical tools e.g. blades, forceps.

Determination of specific latent heat of vaporization of steam.

63   
 
 Procedure
- Assume the apparatus as in the diagram above.
- When the weight mass of in the beaker and record it as m1.
- Switch on the heater to heat water in the beaker.
- While water is boiling, read the position of the pointer of the stop clock.
- After time (t) weigh the mass of water (m2)
- Calculate the mass of steam from
M = m1 –m2
Obtain specific latent heat of vapourization from:
Latent heat absorbed by boiling water = heat supplied by heater

Mlv = pt
Lv =

Where lv is the specific latent heat of vaporization.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION (LF)

Specific latent heat of fusion is a mount of heat required to change the state of 1 kg mass of a substance
from solid to liquid at constant temperature S.I unit J/kg
Example
1(a) how much heat will change 10g of ice at 0 to water 0 (take specific latent heat of fusion of ice to
be 340,000J/kg)
H = mlv
  ,
H= = 3400J

2. What quantity of heat must be removed from 20g of water at 0 to change it to ice at 0 .

64   
 
 H = mlf
  ,
=  = 6800J.
3. How much heat is needed to change 5 g of ice at -5 .

H = mcθ + mlf + mcwθ

           
= + +
= 2,802.5J
Question
1. (a)What is meant by specific heat capacity?
b) 2 kg of ice initially at -10 is heated until it changes to steam at 100 .
i) Sketch a graph to show how the temperature changes with time.
Ii) Calculate the thermo energy required at each section of the graph sketched in b(i) above .
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice is = 3.36 x105Jkg-1
Specific latent heat of vapourization of water is = 2.26 x 106Jkg-1.
Specific heat capacity of water = 42 X103 J/kgk
Specific heat capacity of ice is = 2.1 x103J/kgk.
GRAPH TO SHOW HOW TEMPERATURE CHANGES WITH TIME

(iii) Thermal energy along AB,

= MCice θ
= 2 x 2.1 x 103 (0 - -5) = 4.2 x 104J
Thermal energy along BC
H = MLf

65   
 
 = 2 x 3.36 x 105= 6.72 x 105J
Thermal energy along CD,
= MCwθ
= 2 x 4.2 x 103 x (100-0) = 8.4 x 105J
Thermal energy along DE,
= Mlv
= 2 x 2.26 x 106 = 4.52 x 106J
Exercise;
1. (i)State and define the 3 major methods of heat transfer.
2.(a) Distinguish between specific heat capacity and specific latent heat of a substance.
(b)Describe an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
3. The Graph showing a heating curve of a metal

D
200 B C
Temp/0C
50 A

0 200 500 Time/s

(i) Explain what happens to the metal.
.
(ii)If the metal absorbs heat at the rate of 3000J/S and specific heat capacity is 400JKg-1oC-1, calculate
mass of the metal.
(ii) Find the specific latent heat of the metal,
3. (a) Find the ways you would modify a liquid in glass thermometer so that it can register temperature
more quickly.
(b) Why is it usually not a good idea to have a thermometer with high heat capacity?

66   
 
4. (a) Explain why the freezing compartment of a refrigerator is at the top.
(b)A glass of orange squash contains 0.2 kg of water at temperature of 240C.What is the minimum
amount of ice you would need to add in order that the temperature of the drink is 00C?
Experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice
Set up.

Procedure;
Support the plastic funnel using the retort stand.
Arrange the apparatus as in the diagram without the beaker.
When the water in the funnel starts dripping at a uniform rate, switch on the immersion heater and place
the beaker under the funnel at the same time.
After sometime (t) of warming ice using the heater (of known power (p),
Remove the beaker and the mass (m) of the water collected in the beaker is weighed.
Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of ice from:
Heat absorbed by ice = Heat supplied by heater
MLf = Pt

Lf = 

67   
 
Assumption;
-No heat is absorbed from the surrounding.
- All heat supplied by the heater has been absorbed by the ice only.
Significance of high value of specific latent heat of fusion
Ice is often used as a cooling agent e.g. ice cubes are added to juice to keep it cold.
Example:
An aluminum tray of mass 400g containing 300g of water is placed in a refrigerator, after 80 minutes, of
tray is removed and it is found that 60g of water remain un frozen at 00C. If the initial temperature of tray
and its content was 200c, determine the average amount of heat removed per minute by the
refrigerator.
Specific capacity of aluminum = 1J/g0C-1
Specific capacity of water = 4Jg-1oC-1
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 340J/g
Heat removed by the fridge = Heat loss by water from 200C to 00C + Heat loss by water to ice + heat
loss by tray.
= MwCw (θ2 – θ1) + Mice Lf + MtC1 (θ2 – θ1)
= 0.3 x 4000 (20 – 0) + 0.24 x 340,000 + 0.4 x 1000 (20 – 0)
= 113600J

Heat removed per minute =

= 1420J/min
question1:
In an experiment to determine specific latent heat of fusion of ice, the following results were obtained.
Mass of water obtained in the beaker = 20g
Power of the heater = 50W.
Time heater is switched on = 2min 6seconds
Determine specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
Latent heat and kinetic theory
(a) Latent heat of fusion.

68   
 
During change of state from solid to liquid (melting at constant temperature, the heat supplied weakens the
intermolecular forces of attraction, the molecular spacing increase, changing from static molecules of solid
to fast moving molecules in liquid state.
The average K.E of molecules remaining constant because melting takes place at constant temperature.
(b) Latent heat of vaporization;
During change of state from liquid to vapour, the molecules must overcome of intermolecular forces
of attraction so that they gain freedom to move about independently. As a result, the supplied is
used to overcome these forces resulting in gain molecular potential energy but not their kinetic
energy and also the work to expand against atmospheric pressure.
Why specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is always greater than specific latent heat of
fusion for the same substance.
Specific latent heat of vaporization is always greater than Lf because for molecules of a liquid to escape.
                .            
    . 
While for latent heat of fusion very low amount of heat is required to weaken the intermolecular forces of
attraction.

CHANGE OF STATE
1. Melting
It is a process by which a solid substance changes into a liquid e.g ice (solid) changes to water (liquid)
when heated. Temperature at which solid substance changes to liquid is called melting point.
NB: There is no change in temperature of substance at its melting point. This is because the heat
supplied is used to
weaken cohesive forces of attraction between molecules.
2. Boiling
This is the process by which a liquid when heated changes to the gaseous state at a fixed temperature e.g
pure
water at 1000c changes to vapour by the process of boiling.

69   
 
There is no change in temperature at boiling point because the heat supplied is used to weaken cohesive
attraction
of molecules and the rest is converted to kinetic form of energy.
3. Evaporation;
It is the process by which a liquid changes to gaseous state at any temperature. The rate of evaporation is
affected
by the following factors;
Factors;
1. Temperature
2. Amount of humidity in the atmosphere
3. Pressure
4. Surface area
5. Nature of the liquid
6. Wind and dryness of air
Temperature;
The higher the temperature, the higher the average speed at which molecules move and therefore there
will be more molecules moving to the liquid surface.
Pressure;
Increase in pressure lowers the rate of evaporation.
Surface area:
When the surface area of a liquid is increased, more molecules are brought to the surface and more rate of
evaporation is increased.
Nature of the liquid
Different liquids have different cohesive forces ,those which have greater cohesive forces tend to
evaporate less than liquids with less cohesive forces.
Wind and dryness of air
Dryness of air around the liquid surface causes rapid evaporation. Wind blows away water vapor along the
body and this causes rapid evaporation to take place.
Differences between boiling and evaporation

Boiling Evaporation
Takes place at a fixed temperature called boiling Occurs at any temperature
.

70   
 
 Boiling takes place throughout the liquid. Takes place only on the surface of the liquid
Boiling is a vigorous process Evaporation is a gentle process
Bubbles are formed with in the liquid No bubble is formed on the surface of the liquid.
Boiling doesn’t result into cooling Evaporation result into cooling.

Cooling by evaporation
The molecules which escape from the surface of liquids are those with greater kinetic energy, the molecules
which remain in the liquid are those with very low kinetic energy. The energy, the molecules use, as their
kinetic energy is the latent heat which they absorb. The absorption of this latent heat from the liquids brings
about a fall in temperature, thus a body cools.
Application of cooling by evaporation
-cooling of a body by evaporation of sweat from the body
-cooling water using a porous pot or refrigerator
-cooling of the dog by the saliva on its tongue evaporation
Demonstration of cooling by evaporation

A beaker about one third full of ether is stood in a small pour of water on a flat piece of wood
Air is then bubbled through the ether. The ether evaporates into bubbles and the vapour is carried quickly
away as the bubbles rise to the surface and burst thus increasing the rate of evaporation.
After sometime, the water on the wooden block cools to 00c and freezes to form ice. This demonstrates that
evaporation causes cooling.
Explanation
As the ether evaporates, it absorbs latent heat from its liquid state with the result that it cools below 00c. At the
same time heat becomes conducted through the walls the beaker from the pool of water below it and
eventually the water cools to 00c. After this, it begins to loose latent heat and freezes.
The refrigerator

71   
 
It operates on the evaporation by cooling principle.
The liquid used in a refrigerator is Freon which is volatile (Freon is collective term for suitable refrigerants e.g.
dichlorodifluoromethane boiling point about -300c or 243k).
Freon evaporates inside the coiled tubes surrounding the freezing compartment assisted by a pump which
reduces the pressure.
When Freon evaporates, it absorbs heat from the surrounding air and this causes the refrigerator and its
content to cool. The vapour produced is pumped away and compressed in the condenser where it condenses
to liquid again.
The heat released during condensation is quickly removed by cooling fins at the back of the refrigerator.
The process of evaporating and condensing Freon is repeated on and on, thus causing the refrigerator to cool
further.
Demonstration of effect of pressure on melting point (regelation)

72   
 
A weighted copper wire is allowed to pass through a block of ice. It sinks through, without cutting the ice block
into two pieces
Explanation
When a copper wire is pulled, a very high pressure is exerted on the ice block, lowering its melting point and
the ice melts.
The wire sinks through the water which is no longer under pressure and freezes above the wire because
melting point returns to 00c
In freezing, the water gives out its latent heat of fusion and thus conducted down through the wire to enable
the ice below it to melt. This effect is called regelation (freezing).
Note: If an iron wire is used in demonstration, it passes through the ice more slowly. No effect is obtained if
string is used.
VAPOUR PRESSURE.
It refers to the pressure exerted on the wall of the container by the vapour.
Consider a liquid in a closed vessel when molecules escape from the liquid they form vapour the surface of
the liquid
the vapour molecules move in directions and exerts a pressure called vapour pressure.
When the bounce off, the vessel strikes the liquids on surface and enter it. The dynamic equilibrium is
eventually
reached ,in which the rate at which molecules live the liquid is equal to which others returns to it.
When this happens, the space above the liquid is said to be saturated with vapour.
The vapour pressure used in this state is called saturated vapour pressure but before the equilibrium the
vapour
is said to be unsaturated.

73   
 
Saturated vapour pressure
It is the pressure exerted on the walls of a contain by the vapour when the rate at which molecules are
entering
the liquid is equal to the rate at which molecules are entering the liquid.
OR : Saturated vapour pressure
Is pressure exerted the vapour in a dynamic equilibrium in its own liquid.
Boiling point
Is the temperature at which at which the saturated vapour pressure is equal to the external atmospheric
pressure.
At this temperature liquid molecules have enough energy to form bubbles of vapour inside the liquid. The
bubbles
formed at the bottom contain saturated vapour when the reach the surface they burst.
FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE BOILLING POINT AND FREZING/MELTING POINT OF WATER
Addition of impurities
Increase or decrease in pressure
Effects of impurities on boiling and melting points
a) Melting point
The impurities lower the melting point of a surface e.g when impurity is added to ice it melts at a lower
temperature. This is because impurities weaken the cohesive forces in ice molecules making it easy for
them to move freely hence the change of state from solid to liquid.
b) Boiling point
Impurities raise the boiling point of a substance e.g when salti added to water the mixture must be heated
at a higher temperature before it boils. This is because impurities strengthen the cohesive forces between
water molecules so more heat must be supplied to weaken them. The increase in the heat supply makes
the boiling point to rise.
Effect of pressure on boiling and melting points
Boiling points
Increase in pressure raises the boiling point of liquid. This can be showed below resulting in decrease in
gas pressure.

74   
 
- Water in the flask shown above has to be heated to about 1000c before it boils. If the pressure above
the flask is high, the liquid starts to boil at a much lower temperature than usual.
- This can be shown by boiling water in the flask for a few minutes so that the steam sweeps out most
air .Heating is stopped and the clip is closed
- Cold water is poured on the inverted flask, so condensing the steamed water this reduces pressure
above water.
- The water starts to boil and if cooling in this way it continued boiling goes on until above 400c

75   
 
 Melting point
Increase in pressure lowers the melting point of a solid e.g ice. This effect makes skating /skiing possible,
the pressure of ice skate melts the ice under it, so that there is a thin layer of water between the skate
and ice. The layer of water acts as a lubricant and almost completely removes friction between skate and
ice.

The pressure cooker

This is a strong aluminium pan, whose lid is sealed with a rubber sealing ring to prevent steam from
escaping from inside the pan.
As the substance e.g water is heated to boil,the steam pressure inside builds up causing the boiling point to
rise to about 1200c
The high temperature makes the substance get cooked quickly.

GAS LAWS
Gases when heated will show a significant change in pressure volume and temperature. Unlike solids and
liquids which show on insignificant change in volume. There are 3 gas laws -:
1. Boyle’s law
2. Charles’s law
3. Pressure law
BOYLE’S LAW.
It states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume provided
temperature remains constant.

76   
 
Mathematically

P   at constant temperature.

PV = k (constant)
So, in calculation we use ;
P 1V 1 = P 2V 2
Example 1
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is 5artmospheres when its volume is 200cm3. Find its pressure when
the volume
(i) Is halved
(ii) Is doubled

(iii) Is increased by 1 times provided temperature remains constant.

Solution
(i) P1 V1 = P2 V2
5 x 200 = P2 x 100
P2 = 10 atmospheres.
(ii) P1V1 = P2 V2
5 x200 = P2 x 400
P2 = 2.5 atmospheres
(iii) P1 V1 = P2 V2
5 x 200 = p2 x 300
= 31 3 atmospheres.

When pressure is doubled the volume is halved or vice versa

EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY BOYLE’S LAW

77   
 
- Trap dry air in a bulb by pouring mercury through the reservoir
- For each volume (v) of trapped air , determine the height differences (h) between mercury levels y and
x
- Find the pressure (p) = H + h where H is the atmospheric pressure.
- Record results including as in the table below.

V(cm3) h(cmHg) P =( H + h)/cmHg (cm-3)

Graphs of Boyle’s law.

P P

V gas

CHARLES’S LAW.
It states that volume of affixed mass of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.
Mathematically.
Volume v  T where T is absolute temperature

V = kT =

In calculation we use

Example 1
i) Affixed mass of gas occupies 500cm3 at 27 . At what temperature will the volume of the gas
double if pressure remains constant?
ii) Find the volume of gas at -123 if pressure remains constant.

78   
 
 T1 = 27 + 273 = 300K T2 =?
 
i) = = =
T2 = 600K

ii) T1 = 27 +273 T2 =-123 +273

= 300K = 150K
 
= =
V2 = 250cm3.

Graphs of Charles’s law.

The graph is a straight line; it crosses the temperature axis at -273

Absolute zero temperature (ok)
This is the lowest temperature possible where all molecules of gases have zero kinetic energy.
All gases liquefy before this temperature and don’t obey gas laws at this temperature because they have
turned into liquid.
Experiment to verify Charles’s law.
- Trap air in a capillary tube using a sulphuric acid index
- Set the apparatus as in the diagram above.
- Vary the volume of trapped air by gently warming water in the beaker.

79   
 
- For every temperature of water in the beaker record corresponding volume of trapped air using the
scaleon the meter ruler.
- Record the results as in a suitable table
- Then a graph of volume against temperature is plotted as shown.

- The graph is very straight line and crosses temperature

Axis at -2730c. This verifies Charles’ law.

NOTE
- Trapped air acts as gas
- Constant pressure will equal to the atmospheric pressure of the trapped air.
- Pressure due to the weight of the index is equal to zero.
- Concentrated sulphuric acid is used for trapping air in capillary tube
- Drying the trapped air.
PRESSURE LAW.
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.

80   
 
 Mathematically
P  T

P = KT = =K (Constant)

In calculation we use

= =

Example
The pressure of gas in a cylinder is 15atm at 27 what will It be at 177 at what temperature will the
pressure be 10 atmospheres.
T1 = 27+ 273 = 300 T2 = (177 + 273)K= 450K

= = =

P2 = 22.5atm.

(i) P1 = 15atm P2 = 10atm

T1 = 300K T2 =?

=  =
 

T2 = 200K.

Graphical form of pressure law.

81   
 
Experiment to verify pressure law.

- Set the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

- Gently heat the water in the beaker to vary temperature.
- For every temperature θ set adjust the mercury level in the manometer until it touches the I mark.
- Record the height difference p of trapped air given by p = H + h, where H is atmosphere pressure.
- Plot a graph of p against θ as shown.

Method 2

82   
 
 - The apparatus is set up as shown above
- The rubber tubing from the flask to the pressure gauge should be as short as possible
The flask must be in water almost to the top of its neck.
- The can is heated from the bottom; the pressure is then recorded over a wide range of
temperature. The heating is stopped to allow steady gauge reading for each reading taken.
- The results are tabulated and a graph of pressure against temperature plotted. A straight line
graph touching the temperature axis at -273oC verifies pressure law
Equation of state (ideal gas equation)
This is an equation which relates pressure, volume and absolute temperature of a fixed mass of a gas in
different states. It is written as = constant where T is the absolute temperature.

But in calculation we use

EXAMPLE
The pressure and volume of a fixed mass of gas at 270C is 5atm and 300oC respectively. Find the
temperature of a gas in oC, occupying the volume of 4500oC at pressure of 4 atmospheres.

T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 T2=?

=     
               
=

T2 = 360K
In Celsius scale T2 = 360 – 273 = 870C
Question
1. A cycle pump contains 50cm3 of air at 17 at 1 atmosphere. Find
83   
 
 i) The pressure when the air is compressed to 10cm3 and its temperature rises to 27
ii) Volume of air at pressure of 4 atmospheres and temperature of 77 .

Standard temperature and pressure (S.T.P)

This is the physical condition of temperature equal to 0 and pressure is equal to 76cmhg at S.T.P,1 mole
of any gas occupies 22.4l
GAS LAW AND KINETIC THEORY.
Kinetic theory can be used to explain
i) Cause of gas pressure
ii) Boyle’s law
iii) Charles’s law
iv) Pressure law.

CAUSES OF PRESSUERE.
1. Gas molecules are in constant random motion colliding with each other and bombarding the walls of the
container. As they bombard the walls of the container, they exert a force on the walls. These forces cause
gas pressure.

2. BOYLE’S LAW

At constant temperature, the average speed of gas molecules is constant. When the volume of the
container decreases, the rate of collision and bombardment increases resulting in increase of force exerted
on the walls and increase in pressure. Likewise increase in volume at constant temperature result in
decrease in pressure.

3. CHARLES ‘S LAW.
When temperature of gas molecules increases, they move faster. To maintain the pressure constant, the
volume of gas must increase simply because when temperature decreases, the volume has to in decrease
to maintain the pressure constant.

4. PRESSURE LAW.
When the temperature of gas increases, molecules move faster. When the volume is less, this decreases
the rate of bombardment resulting in decrease in gas pressure.

ELECTROSTATICS

This refers to the study of charge at rest. To understand the nature of charge, it is necessary to know
the structure of an atom.

84   
 
Structure of an atom

The electrons are negatively charged while protons are positively charged. The two types of charges
however are of the same magnitude in a neutral atom.

In a neutral atom, the number of negative charges is equal to the number of positive charges and the
atom is said to be electrically neutral. Therefore, electrostatics is the study of static electricity
because the charges which constitute it are stationary.

ELECTRIFICATION

This is the process of producing electric charges which are either positive or negative.

Methods of producing Electric charges

• By friction or rubbing (good for insulators and non conductors).

• By conduction/contact (good for conductors).
• By induction (conductors).

Electrification by friction

Two uncharged bodies (insulators) are rubbed together. Electrons are transferred from the body to the
other. The body which looses electrons becomes positively charged and that which gains electrons
becomes negatively charged.

Acquire positive charge Acquire negative charge

Glass silk
Fur Ebonite (hard rubber)
Cellulose Ace tale Polythene

85   
 
Explanation of charging by friction

When two bodies are rubbed together, work is done, transferred electrons from one body to another.
This results into two bodies acquiring opposite charges.

Law of Electro statics

• Like charges repel each other.

• Unlike charges attract each other.

Electrification by conduction

• Support the uncharged conductor on an insulated stand.

• Put a positively charged rod in contact with the conductor.
• Because of mutual repulsion between the positive charges in the rod, some of them are converted
or transferred to the conductor.
• When the conductor is removed from the rod, it is found to be positively charged.

NB: The insulated stand prevents flow of charge away from the conductor. To charge the conductor
negatively, a negative rod is produced.

Electrification by induction

(a) Charging the body positively.

86   
 
 Procedure
• Put the conductor on an insulated stand as in (i)
• Bring a negatively charged rod near the conductor.
• The positive and negative charges separate as shown in (ii)
• Earth the conductor by momentarily touching it with a finger and electrons flow from it to the earth
as in (iii) in presence of the charged rod.
• Remove the charged rod, the conductor is found to be positively charged.

(b) Charging the body by induction negatively,

Procedure
• Put the conductor on an insulated stand as in (i)
• Bring a positively charged rod near the conductor.
• The positive and negative charges separate as shown in (ii)
• Earth the conductor by momentarily touching it with a finger and electrons flow from it to the earth
as in (iii) in presence of the charged rod.
• Remove the charged rod, the conductor is found to be negatively charged.

87   
 
Charging two bodies simultaneously of opposite charges

• Support two uncharged bodies on an insulated stand as shown in (a)

• Bring a positively charged rod near the two bodies, positive and negative charges separate as
in (b).
• Separate (A) from (B) in presence of the inducing charge.
• Remove the inducing charge, (A) will be negatively charged and (B) will be positively charged.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

A conductor is a material which allows charge to flow through it. It has loosely bound electrons known as
conduction electrons. The flow of these electrons constitutes current flow e.g. all metals, graphite,
acids, bases and salt solutions are conductors.

An insulator is a material which does not allow flow of charge through it. It has no conduction electrons
because its electrons are strongly bound by the nuclear attractive forces e.g. rubber, dry wood, glass,
plastic, sugar solutions etc.

The gold leaf electroscope

88   
 
 • It consists of a brass cap and brass plate connected by a brass rod.
• A gold leaf is fixed together with a brass plate with a brass.
• The brass plate, gold leaf and part of brass rod are put inside a metallic box which is enclosed
with glass windows.

CHARGING A GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE BY INDUCTION.

(i) Charging it positively

• Bring a negatively charged rod near the cap of the gold leaf electroscope.
• Positive charges are attracted to the cap and negative charges are repelled to the plate and gold
leaf.
• The leaf diverges due to repulsion of the same number of charges on the plates.
• Earth the gold leaf electroscope in presence of a negatively charged rod.
• Electrons on the plate and leaf flow to the earth.
• The leaf collapses.
• Remove the negatively charged rod, positive charges on the ca spread out to the rod and leaf
therefore the leaf diverges hence the gold leaf is positively charged.
(ii) Charging it negatively.

89   
 
 • Get an uncharged gold leaf of electroscope.
• Bring the positively charged rod near the gold leaf cap.
• Negative charges are attracted to the cap and positive charges are repelled to leaf and glass plate.
• Earth the gold leaf electroscope in presence of a positively charged rod.
• Negative charges flow from the earth to neutralize positive charges on plate and leaf.
• The leaf collapses.
• Remove the positively charged rod, negative charges on the cap spread out on the leaf plate,
therefore, the leaf diverges and a gold leaf therefore becomes negatively charged.

Testing for presence of charge

Distribution of charge on a conductor.

90   
 
 (a) Hollow conductor

When the proof plane is placed on the outside surface of a charged hollow conductor, charge is
transferred to the uncharged G.L.E, the leaf diverges as shown in (a). This proves that charge was
present on the outside of the surface.

When the proof plane is placed on the inside of a charged conductor is transferred to the uncharged
G.L.E, the leaf does not diverge as in (b) therefore, charge resides on the outside surface of the
hollow charged conductor.

(b) Curved bodies

(c)

A curve with a big curvature has a small radius and a curve with small curvature has big radius
therefore, curvature is inversely proportional to radius. A straight line has no curvature.

Surface charged density is directly proportional to the curvature. Therefore a small curvature has small
charge density. Surface charge density is the ratio of charge to the surface area.

(ii)Rectangular conductor

91   
 
 (iii) Spherical conductor

Action of points

Charge concentrates at sharp points. This creates a very strong electrostatic field at charged points which
ionizes the surrounding air molecules producing positive and negative ions. Ions which are of the
same charge as that on the sharp points are repelled away forming an electric wind which may blow a
candle flame as shown in the diagram below and ions of opposite charge are collected to the points

Therefore, a charged sharp point acts as;

92   
 
 (i) Spray off’ of its own charge in form of electric wind.
(ii) Collector of unlike charges. The spray off and collecting of charges by the points is known as
corona discharge (action of points.)

Application of action of points (corona discharge)

Used in a lightening conductor.

• Used in electrostatics generators.

• Electrostatic photocopying machines.
• Air crafts are discharged after landing before passengers are allowed. Air crafts get electrified
but charge remains on the outer surface.

Lightening conductor

A lightening conductor is made up of a thick copper strip which is fixed to the ground and on the walls of
the tall building ending with several shaped spikes. It is used to protect structures from damage
once struck by highlightening.

How it works

93   
 
 • A moving cloud becomes negatively charged by friction.
• Once it approaches the lightening conductor, it induces opposite charge on the conductor.
• A high charge density on a conductor ionizes the air molecules and sends a stream of positively
charged ions which neutralize some of the negative charges of the cloud.
• The excess negatively charged ions are safely conducted to the earth through a copper strip.
Ice pail experiment

Electric fields

This is a region a round the charged body where electric forces are experienced. Electric fields may be
represented by field lines. Field lines are lines drawn in an electric field such that their directions at any
point give a direction of electric field at that point. The direction of any field at any given point is the
direction of the forces on a small positive charge placed at that point.

Properties of electric field lines

94   
 
 • They begin and end on equal quantities of charge.
• They are in a state of tension which causes them to shorten.
• They repel one another side ways.

Field patterns

(a) Isolated charge

(b) Unlike charges close together

(c) Like charges close together

A neutral point is a region where the resultant electric field is zero i.e. field lines cancel each other and
therefore no resultant electrostatic forces exist.

(d) Field between charged points and plates

(i) Negative charge close to a positively charged plate

95   
 
 (ii) Poositive charg
ge on a negaatively chargged plate

96
6