5 WALLING • The panels are cast in two stages, not one:

– The off-form or external face of the panel is cast first,

Various concrete panel walling systems can be used to build a then the insulation board is installed onto the off-form
concrete home. This handbook discusses the two most common concrete layer. (The actual insulation material may vary
ones: depending on the particular proprietary sandwich panel
system being used.)
• Cast Off-site Concrete Panel Walling (commonly referred to as – A second concrete layer is then cast on top of the
precast wall panels). insulation board to enclose it and finish off the panel.
• Cast On-site Concrete Panel Walling (commonly referred to as • The internal layer of concrete is load-bearing and provides the
tilt-up wall panels). structural capacity of the panel, while the external layer is not
load bearing.
It also discusses a common variant of the two:
There are proprietary sandwich panel systems available in
• Concrete Sandwich Panel Walling (which can be manufactured Australia.
either on- or off-site).
As with all concrete walling systems, an optimum result will
5.1 Cast Off-Site Concrete Panel Walling depend on thorough planning and practical design. Don’t hesitate
Cast off-site concrete panel walling is a form of construction that to consult with architects, designers, engineers and recognised
is quick and affords the benefits of solid concrete walls at a concrete panel manufacturers, who can advise you on the
competitive price. particular needs of your project.

In this method, the solid concrete panels are cast in moulds on 5.4 Internal Walling
a level surface (usually a smooth steel base) in quality-controlled
factories away from the building site. The panels are then left to 5.4.1 Studwork Walling
cure to the appropriate level of strength. Once cured, they are Studwork walls are a typical internal walling system in concrete
stripped from the moulds, lifted into storage areas, and panel homes, and can be constructed out of either steel or timber
transported to the site only when they’re needed. framing. These walls must be designed according to the Timber
Framing Manual (for timber stud walls) or the specifications of the
The concrete panels are installed with a mobile crane, which steel-stud manufacturer (for steel framed walls), as well as in
lifts the panels from the transport trailers directly into their final accordance with the Building Code of Australia. Studwork walls
positions. The panels can be temporarily braced until a sufficient can be either constructed on site, or prefabricated in a factory.
number are installed to form a self-supporting braced structure. Construction methods are the same as for brick-veneer or other
clad homes.
Panel thicknesses usually range from 150 mm to 250 mm.
Concrete nails or masonry anchors can be used to connect
5.2 Cast On-Site Concrete Panel Walling studwork walls to concrete panel walls and to the floor slab.
Cast on-site concrete panel walling is also a quick and cost- Shear walls must be anchored with “hold-down masonry
effective method of construction. In this method, the solid anchors”, as detailed in the relevant codes.
concrete panels are cast within the formwork on a suitable level
surface at the building site (often another panel). After curing, the Internal stud walls have a number of advantages:
moulds are removed, and a mobile crane is used to lift, tilt and
move the panels directly into their final positions. The panels can • They can be constructed using standard trades.
be temporarily braced until a sufficient number are installed to • They are easy to pass services through.
form a self-supporting braced structure. • They can be altered later (if necessary) with less effort.
• They are fast and cost-effective to build.
Panel thicknesses usually range from 150 mm to 250 mm. • Their lightweight components make installing them easier.

Though this method involves more site congestion than cast 5.4.2 Concrete Block Masonry Walling
off-site walling, it also requires less equipment and expertise. Concrete blocks can be used to construct internal walls, whether
Because the panels are always at or near ground level, traditional they be shear walls, non load-bearing, or structural. These walls
techniques for finishing pavement work can be used. It requires must be designed and constructed according to the CMAA
only simple formwork, the panel reinforcement can be basic. Masonry Design Manual, as well as the Building Code of Australia.
Panels can be cast on top of one another (“stack-cast”) to For masonry wall to concrete panel wall connection details, it is
economise on space, and to use panel surfaces as casting common to use brick ties (as per the manufacturer’s and the
beds for other panels. code’s specifications). The use of concrete blocks for internal
walls offers the following advantages:
5.3 Concrete Sandwich Panel Walling
Concrete sandwich panel walling is a variation of on-site and off- • More solid construction
site cast concrete panel walling. In this method, an insulation layer • Lower maintenance
is “sandwiched” between two layers of concrete veneer. Concrete • Quieter rooms
sandwich panel walling has all the advantages of on- and off-site
cast walling, but is even more thermally efficient as it combines a 5.4.3 Concrete Panel Walling
high level of thermal insulation capacity with high thermal mass of Using concrete panels for internal walls has a number of
the concrete. advantages over other building materials:

Panels generally range from 180 mm to 280 mm in thickness. • Faster construction

• More solid construction
Concrete sandwich panels are manufactured and installed in the • Lower maintenance
much same way as on- and off-site cast concrete wall panels, • Quieter rooms
with a few differences:

C&CAA 9
 For details on fixing internal walls to base footings, refer to Figures [Link] Australian Standard AS 3600
6.5 & 6.6. For details on connecting internal wall panels to Australian Standard AS 3600 (Sections 5.11 and 5.12) describes
external walls, refer to Figures 6.9, 6.10 & 6.11. recesses and chases for services within a wall, and their effect on
the fire-resistance periods for structural adequacy, integrity and
5.5 Service Detailing insulation.
There are two groups of services to take into account when
planning a concrete panel home: plumbing, electrical/
communications and air-conditioning/[Link] reticulation of 5.5.2 Air Conditioning / HVAC
the services can become difficult if insufficient consideration and Ducted heating and cooling can be placed either internally (in
planning is not undertaken during the early stages of planning. the ceiling or roof space) or externally (adjacent to the wall panel).
Large openings in the panels may be required for the ducting.
In conventional lightweight walling systems, services can be It is best to decide the locations of the duct openings before the
treated almost as an afterthought, as they are usually installed in panels are manufactured, so that the openings can be cast into
the wall cavities of the timber stud-work frames. Large openings the panels. Although you can saw-cut or core drill openings
for air-conditioning ducts can simply be cut out of a wall once it’s through the panels later.
up. Bricks can be ‘punched-out’ to accommodate an air-
conditioning unit. These methods are possible because the If you do decide to drill openings later, you can use a diamond-
wall structure is non-load bearing, and not a solid shell as in impregnated core bit to create core holes with diameters of up
concrete panel homes. to 300 mm. Although any cutting or coring will normally be
relatively expensive.
Services can be accommodated in a concrete panel home, but
they must be planned for from the early stages. Make sure the designer or consultant engineer approves your
plans before you cut or core any panel.
5.5.1 Plumbing, Electrical and Communication Services
Services should be planned in the early stages of the design, 5.6 Opening Details (Windows and Door Openings)
before the concrete panels are cast. Plumbing, electrical and Openings for windows and doors in concrete panel walls can
communication services can be hidden within the wall without be simply detailed to accommodate either timber or aluminium
taking up much space. frames. The edge detail around the panel opening is similar to
that used with cavity brick or block walls. It is often easier to
If possible, plan the positions of these services when you plan and install window and door frames into concrete wall panels than
detail the concrete wall panels, so that blockouts and recesses into other conventional walling systems, because the panels
can be formed into them as they are cast. Polystyrene blocks can provide a uniform, solid structure onto which to fasten the frame.
be used to recess the face of the panels, or to create openings or
conduits can be cast in the panel for the services to pass Once the openings are detailed to provide the required edge
through. This method is relatively cost-effective, and will result in profiles for the heads, jambs and sills, the frames are made to
a level finish on the face of the panel onto which the internal wall- measure, either from the panel shop drawings or from on-site
lining material can be directly fixed or battened onto the panel. measurements of each of the openings. Alternatively, standard
prefabricated window and door frames can be specified, and the
Often, though, it’s impractical to plan and detail the plumbing panel openings sized to accommodate these frames. There is a
services to such a degree so early. In that case: wide variety of prefabricated window and door frames to choose
from; your supplier can help you make an appropriate choice.
• You can decide to fix the services directly onto the face of the
panels, which requires little planning until installation itself. This The remainder of this section discusses the usual processes
method is similar to what is usually done with a masonry or involved in detailing the surrounds of openings meant for
brick wall. Pipes can be concealed in the cavity formed by a aluminium or timber-framed windows and doors. (Individual frame
battened fixed internal wall lining. This cavity can be insulated types and their particular installation processes should be
to make the installation more energy-efficient. discussed with the frame supplier and installer).
• As long as only a few services are required in a particular
panel, you can chase out the face of the panel and install the 5.6.1 General Considerations for Openings
services in the cavity, leaving the surface flush. This method Detailing window or door openings begins with determining their
can be expensive and time-consuming, and should only be size and location. It’s best if an opening is located entirely within a
used if there is no other option. Typically, a diamond- single wall panel; otherwise, small differential movements between
impregnated saw blade is used to make cuts along the recess panels can later cause weatherproofing problems in nearby joints.
area, leaving thin blades of concrete to be chiselled out Keeping the openings within single panels also enables the
(though it can be very difficult to chase out a panel near its openings to be made with greater accuracy.
edges or internal corners, because of the difficulty of getting a
saw cutter into those areas). Such chasing should not exceed Whether you plan on using aluminium or timber frames, the
30 mm in depth and width. Discuss any plans for chasing out principles for detailing openings in the wall panels (including the
recesses with your designer or consultant engineer, to ensure reveal profiles for the sills, jambs and headers) are essentially
that they do not compromise cover and exposure criteria. the same.
• You can accommodate electrical or communications wiring
behind the skirting boards or doorway architraves. (This may
require larger sections, so that a recess can be provided
behind the skirting board or architrave to contain the services,
with switches and outlets fixed directly onto them). This results
in the wall panels not requiring any additional work performed
on them.

10 C&CAA
[Link] Opening Sizing • Always finish off the external and internal edges of the reveals
In determining size of the opening, take all of the following into with either a “pencil-round” detail (preferred for ease and
consideration: simplicity) or a chamfer (bevel) detail. A square sharp edge
is more likely to be chipped or damaged, and is therefore
• The size of the external window frame. not recommended.
The manufacturing tolerance in producing the opening in the
wall panel.
• The method and type of installation, which will determine the
amount of clearance that needs to be added to the overall
opening to enable the frame to be installed. Prefabricated
frames are cheaper, but require greater clearances in the
INTERNAL LINING
opening to enable installation. Made-to-fit frames provide a CONCRETE
WALL PANEL
better fit, but require on-site measurements of the opening
before the frame can be made. This is initially more expensive,
but results in a better-fitting windows and doors, and therefore
fewer problems with prefabricated frames not fitting openings.
• Whether cast off-site panels will be used, in which case it may
DRIP GROOVE
be possible to install the frames into the wall panels while they
are in storage in the factory, thereby reducing on-site
FLASHING SEALED
construction time. Some types of door frames, such as press- TO CONCRETE PANEL
AND FRAMING
metal frames, can actually serve as formwork as they’re cast
into the panel, saving the time and expense in fitting them HEAD DETAIL

afterwards. To do this, though, you will have to decide on the

final locations of the openings from the start, as it will hardly
be possible to move them later.

[Link] Reveal Profiles

Considerations for reveal profiles of the window and door openings:
SEALANT SHIMMING/PACKING

• The void former or type of formwork used to block out the

opening in the panel. The type of material and its level of finish
will directly determine the finish of the opening’s reveal surface.
If the reveal surface of the opening is to be left as off-form, or INTERIOR LINING
coated only with a flat (low build) paint, imperfections on the
reveal surface will be visible unless the forms are of good-
quality ply or steel. Joints along the void former or formwork
should be in line, not stepped. Ideally, the joints should be
sealed to keep the concrete from leaking. If the reveal is to be
JAMB DETAIL
finished with a high build coating, though, or lined with a
material like tile or timber, it may be sufficient to use formwork
with a rougher surface, and/or polystyrene void formers to
block out openings. This will reduce costs, especially for
POSITION FRAMING
openings that aren’t repeated elsewhere. TO ALLOW DRAINAGE
FROM WITHIN
• It is recommended that all surfaces of the reveals (except the
sill) are perpendicular to the main surface of the panel, so that SHIMMING/PACKING
the opening can be formed easily, and so that there will be a
square surface to attach the frame to. The sill profile should TILED SILL
FLASHING

(IF REQUIRED)
have a fall toward the external face of the panel to allow rain to
drain away. Take care to design the formwork so that it can be
stripped from the panel without damaging either the panel or
the form. That usually means that the formwork must be
INTERNAL LINING
collapsible (that is, able to be stripped from the panel in
sections). Void-formers made of cheap materials (such as
polystyrene) are dispensable; they can simply be destroyed
during stripping if need be.
• Rebates can also be cast into the reveals of the openings. It is SILL DETAIL

recommended that a “drip groove” be cast into the head of the

window or door opening to catch rain water running back into
the opening. A drip groove can easily be formed by a Figure 5.1 Typical Window Header, Jamb and Sill Details.
prefabricated timber or plastic fillet strip. The drip groove (Based on Aluminium Window Details from C&CANZ,
should be 10 to 15 mm deep, and should extend along the full Residential Concrete Detailing and Specification Guide.)
length of the head reveal. Ideally, the groove should be located
halfway between the external edge of the reveal and the
external face of the frame, but at a minimum distance of 30
mm from the external edge of the reveal. Ideally the frame
should be set back as far as possible from the external face
of the panel so as to maximise protection from the weather.

C&CAA 11
 PRESS METAL Installing a window or door frame into a concrete panel is similar
DOOR FRAME
CONCRETE CAST INTO PANEL to installing one into a brick or block-work wall. The frame is
WALL PANEL
inserted into the opening and shimmed to level, then fastened
directly to the concrete panel reveals. Proprietary flashing, seals
and trims are installed and fastened onto the frame or panel
reveals to complete the window or door arrangement. (Actual
installation procedures vary, depending on the particular window
supplier and installer.)

Avoid details that require frame-fixing inserts to be cast into the

DOOR LEAF
reveals of the panel opening. Cast-in fixings complicate the
manufacture of the panel and raise the cost, and they are difficult
to position accurately. Instead, whenever possible use connection
details that require fixings to be drilled into the panel after it has
been cast.

JAMB/HEADER DETAIL
(ALTERNATIVELY, TIMBER
TRIMMING CAN BE USED
IN LIEU OF PRESS-METAL
FRAME).

RECESSED TIMBER
FLOOR COVERING
DOOR AND SILL
REINFORCED
CONCRETE SLAB
SILL FLASHING
75 mm min.

SILL DETAIL
PAVING LEVEL

ALUMINIUM DOOR FRAME

SHAPED TIMBER ON OPC

SILL FLASHING REINFORCED
CONCRETE SLAB
75 mm min.

PAVING LEVEL

SILL DETAIL

Figure 5.2 Typical Door Header, Jamb and Sill Details. (Sill Details
are based on Aluminium and Timber Door Sill Details from
C&CANZ, Residential Concrete Detailing and Specification Guide.)

12 C&CAA
6 CONNECTIONS 6.2 Types of Fixings
There are three main types of fixings used in concrete panel
The concrete wall panels that make up a concrete panel home homes:
must be stabilised and supported so that they can carry vertical
loads and resist lateral loads. This stability and support is usually • Dowel and direct-bearing fixings
provided by the panel connections, and their associated fixings to • Bolted fixings
other panels and to external supporting members (such as • Welded fixings
footings, ground slabs, or framing/bracing supports).
6.2.1 Dowel and Direct Bearing Fixings
Connection types and their detailing should be chosen with In these fixings, steel dowels restrain and stabilise the panel,
economy in mind, but must be appropriate for its role in stabilising which bears directly onto a footing, ground slab, or lower wall
and supporting the concrete wall panels. panel (if the fixing is on an upper storey).

6.1 Design Considerations This type of fixing is used at the base of a wall panel to quickly
Connections can be fixed by grouting dowels in core holes in the position it before final alignment and grouting. The panel initially
panels, bolted connection systems, welded connection systems, bears on dense, compressible packers or shims (usually of dense
or a combination of these. plastic) to the correct levels. (Steel packers or shims should not
be used, as they do not provide suitable compression capabilities,
Welded connections systems are simpler to implement and have and may lead to future corrosion problems.) There should be only
cleaner lines, but care must be taken to avoid locking up the two bearing pads per panel, located at a minimum of 300 mm
joints and preventing further movement. Bolted systems are less from either end of the panel. These pads will carry the panel’s
likely to cause this problem, but are usually more complicated to dead and live vertical loads until the bottom edge of the panel is
implement, as tolerances must be allowed for when placing grouted up (or “dry-packed”) to provide uniform distribution of the
connection plates, brackets, bolt holes, and so on. They generally loads down to the footings, ground slab or lower panels. (Refer to
also occupy more space than welded connections. Figures 6.2, 6.4, 6.6, and 6.8 for details.)

The design and detailing of connections for a concrete panel 6.2.2 Bolted Fixings
home should ensure a good level of buildability, load capacity Bolted fixings usually consist of cast-in ferrule inserts in the
and ductility. When designing connections, take into account: panels, and steel fixing brackets or plates that can be bolted to
the ferrules (or threaded dowel bars that can be attached to
• In-service loads (such as dead, live, or wind loads). them). These fixings, depending on their particular design, can
• Construction loads (such as lifting or bracing loads). provide a panel with both lateral restraint and load-bearing (shear)
• Thermal gradients (such as expansion and contraction of the capacity. They are usually the most flexible, easiest to install, and
panel, and the degree of bowing). least costly of the three types of connections, but installing them
• Fire performance. effectively and efficiently requires good detailing. The main
• Earthquake requirements. concern with this type of connection is accommodating tolerances
• Complexity of the connection (Keeping the fixing as simple for misalignment of the insert in the panel, the panel itself and the
as possible will reduce costs.). supporting structure. The overall encroachment of the connection
(fixing plate, bracket, bolt head, etc into the living space may also
More than one level of fixing is normally required to stabilise a be a concern. This can be resolved by recessing the fixing into
panel. Typically, a panel requires two load-bearing connections the panel. (Refer to Figures 6.3, 6.4, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11,
at the base, and two lateral restraining connections at the top-but 6.12, 6.13, 6.16, 6.17, and 6.18 for details.)
these requirements may vary, depending on the panel’s design,
shape and size. 6.2.3 Welded Fixings
Welded fixings consist of cast-in steel weld plates that are welded
The dimensions of the panels, and of the structure itself, shall vary directly to other steel weld plates or brackets. While welded
within a specified tolerance, so connections should be designed fixings are perhaps the simplest to install, they are usually the
with this in mind. Connections should also allow the panel to flex most costly, because of:
or move in response to temperature fluctuations and applied loads.
• The large cast-in weld plates, which have to be purpose-made.
Permanent steel connections, especially those that are exposed to • The need for a qualified and experienced welder on-site during
the external environment, should be protected against corrosion. panel installation.
Any protective coating should be applied over the entire fixing, • The extra installation time needed to weld the fixing plate or
including those parts that are cast into the concrete. Examples bracket in place.
of such coatings are:
This type of fixing should only be used when no other type is
• Hot-dipped galvanising. suitable. (Refer to Figure 6.15 for details.) They rely on the weld
• Priming and painting with an appropriate corrosion-protective taking all the load and ensuring a quality weld has been produced
paint system. on-site may be difficult to guarantee.
• Encasing the components in concrete to an appropriate cover.
Mechanical fixings, such as drill-in mechanical expansion anchors,
Fixings may also require protection against fire. Whenever a wall should not be used to support or stabilise panels unless they have
panel must be fire-rated in accordance with the BCA, the been approved by the design or consultant engineer for the project.
supporting fixings of that panel must also be fire-rated to that
level. This requirement is usually met by encasing the fixings in the A selection of proven connections for various standard situations
panel. As per AS 3600, a minimum cover of 20 mm is required to are described in the following sections and should be used as a
provide 60 minutes of fire resistance (the normal fire resistance guide to assist with individual design and detailing of connections.
period for a class-1 residential home).

C&CAA 13
 6.3 Panel to Footing / Slab-On-Ground Connections

INTEGRAL FOOTING STRIP OR PAD FOOTINGS

AND SLAB BASE FIRST, CAST FIRST, FOLLOWED BY
FOLLOWED BY ERECTION ERECTION OF WALL PANELS. NOT LESS THAN
OF WALL PANELS FLOOR SLAB CAST LAST USING 300 MM
THE PANEL AS AN EDGE-FORM
AREA BETWEEN
PANEL AND
FOOTING TO BE
FULLY GROUTED

TWO-POINT TWO-POINT
CONNECTION CONNECTION
SEE NOTE ABOVE SEE SEE NOTE ABOVE SEE
DETAIL A DETAIL A
SHIMS OF
HARD PLASTIC
OR FIBRE CEMENT
INTEGRAL FOOTING SEPARATE FOOTING DETAIL A (NOT STEEL)

Figure 6.1 Principles of Base Connections

INTERNAL INTERNAL
LINING LINING
CONCRETE
PANEL
CONCRETE
PANEL THREADED TIE BAR
CONCRETE SCREWED INTO CAST-IN
SLAB FERRULES PRIOR TO
LAYING THE SLAB CONCRETE
SLAB
DOWEL HOLES IN
PANEL FILLED WITH
FLOWABLE GROUT

CONCRETE HOLE DRILLED

FOOTING AND DOWELLED
CONCRETE
FOOTING

Figure 6.2 External Load Bearing Base Connection. (Laterally Figure 6.3 External Load Bearing Base Connection. (Laterally
restrained by grouted dowel, preferred option) restrained by cast-in ferrule and threaded dowel into ground slab)

INTERNAL INTERNAL
LINING LINING

CONCRETE INTERNAL LOAD

PANEL BEARING CONCRETE
PANEL
THREADED TIE BAR
SCREWED INTO CAST-IN
FERRULES PRIOR TO
LAYING THE SLAB CONCRETE CONCRETE CONCRETE
SLAB SLAB SLAB
DOWEL HOLES IN
PANEL FILLED WITH
FLOWABLE GROUT

CONCRETE HOLE DRILLED CONCRETE

FOOTING AND DOWELLED FOOTING

Figure 6.4 External Load Bearing Base Connection. (Laterally Figure 6.5 Internal Load Bearing Base Connection. (Laterally
restrained by cast-in ferrule + threaded dowel into ground slab, restrained by floor slabs cast after installation of wall panel)
grouted dowel into footing.)

14 C&CAA
 INTERNAL
LINING

INTERNAL LOAD
BEARING CONCRETE
PANEL

DOWEL HOLES IN
PANEL FILLED WITH
FLOWABLE GROUT
CONCRETE
SLAB

HOLE DRILLED
AND DOWELLED

CONCRETE
FOOTING

Figure 6.6 Internal Load Bearing Base Connection. (Laterally

restrained by grouted dowel)

6.4 Panel to Panel Connections

GROUTED CORE-HOLE
WITH FLOWABLE GROUT

EXTERIOR FACE
THREADED DOWEL

BOLT THROUGH SPLICE-PLATE

INTO ANCHORED INSERT DRY-PACK MORTAR
CAST IN FERRULE MORTAR STOP
CAST IN PANEL GALVANISED WITH ANCHORING BAR
FIRE-RATED GROUT-FILLED WITH FACE SEAL
FILLER MATERIAL SPLICE PLATE
POCKET
WITH SLOTTED HOLES

NOTE: FOR VERY THIN PANELS THE SPLICE PLATE

MAY BE LOCATED ON THE SURFACE AND SUITABLY
FIRE-PROTECTED

CAST-IN FERRULE
WTH ANCHORING BAR

Figure 6.7 Plan View – Panel to Panel Top Restraint Figure 6.8 Section View – Panel to Panel Top Lateral Restraint
Connection, Without Lateral Continuity. (Bolted splice plate to Connection. (Cast-in ferrule and threaded dowel, grouted into
cast-in ferrules). From CIA, Recommended Practice – Precast top panel)
Concrete Facade Connections.

C&CAA 15
 FOR MAXIMUM TOLERANCE,
CONNECTING ANGLE SHOULD
HAVE HORIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL SLOTTED HOLES

ANGLE BOLTED TO
ANCHORED FERRULES
CAST IN THE PANELS

WHEN EITHER WHEN ONE WALL IS

WALL IS NOT TOP-BRACED (BY ROOF-TRUSSES
TOP-BRACED FOR EXAMPLE) END WALLS MAY
EACH CAN ACT BE TOP BRACED OFF THIS
INTERNAL LINING TO BRACE
THE OTHER
FILLER AND
SEALANT
(FIRE-RATED POCKET FORMED
IF REQUIRED) IN PANEL AND LATER
FILLED WITH GROUT.
ANGLE MAY BE
SURFACE-MOUNTED
DEPENDING ON
FIRE REQUIREMENTS,
ANGLE SIZE
AND THICKNESS
OF BATTENS

TYPICAL CONNECTION DETAIL EXAMPLES OF WHERE REQUIRED

Figure 6.9 Plan View – Panel to Panel Top Corner Restraint.

(Recessed angle bracket, bolted to cast-in ferrules to internal
back face of panels)

SEALANT SEALANT

FILLER
FILLER

PRE-FABRICATED PRE-FABRICATED
PLATES SITE FIXED TO PLATES SITE FIXED TO
TOP OF PANELS TOP OF PANELS

Figure 6.10 Plan View – Panel to Panel Top Corner, L-Plate Figure 6.11 Plan View – Panel to Panel Top Corner T-Plate
Restraint. (Plate bolted to cast-in ferrules to top reveal faces Restraint. (Plate bolted to cast-in ferrules to top reveal faces
of panels) of panels)

16 C&CAA
6.5 Panel to Suspended Floor Connections

INTERNAL
CONCRETE CONCRETE LINING
PANEL PANEL
INTERNAL TIE BAR INTO CONCRETE
LINING CAST-IN FERRULE TOPPING

INSITU CONCRETE
FLOOR

THREADED TIE BAR CONTINUOUS SUPPORT PRE-CAST

SCREWED INTO CAST-IN ANGLE WITH 80MM MIN CONCRETE
FERRULES PRIOR TO BEARING WIDTH, BOLTED HOLLOWCORE
CASTING THE FLOOR TO CAST-IN FERRULES FLOOR SYSTEM

NOTE: THE BARS MUST

BE DESIGNED TO CARRY
SHEAR LOAD

Figure 6.12 Panel to Suspended In-situ Concrete Floor Figure 6.13 Panel to Suspended Precast Concrete Floor
Connection. (In-situ floor is supported by wall panel via Connection. (Precast Hollowcore floor supported by shelf
cast-in ferrule and threaded tie bar) angle fixed to wall panel via cast-in ferrules)

CONCRETE
WALL PANEL
INTERNAL LINING

INTERNAL
LINING

STEEL SHELF ANGLE SITE-WELDED

TIMBER FLOOR TO CAST-IN WELD PLATE

TIMBER FLOOR

TIMBER JOIST
SUSPENDED FLOOR

TIMBER RING BEAM CEILING LINING

TIMBER JOIST
BEARER BOLTED TO BOLTED TO STEEL
CONCRETE WALL PANEL SHELF ANGLE
TO SUPPORT SUSPENDED CAST-IN WELD
CAST-IN TIMBER FLOOR SYSTEM PLATE IN
FERRULE CONCRETE
WALL PANEL

CONCRETE
WALL PANEL

Figure 6.14 Panel to Suspended Timber-Framed Floor Figure 6.15 Panel to Suspended Timber Framed Floor
Connection. (Timber floor supported by wall panel via Connection. (Timber floor supported by wall panel via shelf
timber ring beam) angle welded to cast-in weld plates in panel. Alternative option
is to use cast-in ferrules to bolt shelf angle to panel)

C&CAA 17
 6.6 Panel to Roof Connections

NOTE: ROOF CONSTRUCTION NOTE: ROOF CONSTRUCTION

IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE
TIMBER FRAMING CODE TIMBER FRAMING CODE

WALL PLATE SITE FIXED

OR BOLTED INTO
CAST-IN FERRULES
WALL PLATE SITE FIXED
OR BOLTED INTO
CAST-IN FERRULES

FIXING PLATE
SITE FIXED
CONCRETE
PANEL
CONCRETE
INTERNAL
PANEL
LINING
INTERNAL
LINING

Figure 6.16 Panel to Roof Eave Connection – Extended Eave. Figure 6.17 Panel to Roof Connection. (Roof framing is
(Roof framing is supported by top of wall panel via bolting into supported by top of wall panel via bolting into cast-in ferrules)
cast-in ferrules)

NOTE: ROOF CONSTRUCTION

COVER IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE
FLASHING TIMBER FRAMING CODE

BOX
GUTTER

CAST-IN
FERRULE

FIXING PLATE SITE

FIXED OR BOLTED
TO CAST-IN FERRULES

CONCRETE
PANEL

INTERNAL
LINING

Figure 6.18 Panel to Parapet Roof Connection. (Roof framing is

supported by wall panel via bolting into cast-in ferrules)

18 C&CAA
 TOLERANCES FROM
7 PANEL JOINTING BOTH DIRECTIONS
AFFECT WIDTH AND
POSITION OF JOINT
The joints between adjoining panels have an effect on the cost,
performance, and aesthetics of the final structure have always
been an inherent issue with concrete panel walling systems.

Panel joints divide the wall into manageable panel units for TOLERANCES IN BOTH DIRECTIONS
manufacture, transport and installation. They provide a means for
accommodating differential and temperature movements between ROTATIONAL
TOLERANCES
the panels. They can also be designed to take up any clearance, CAUSE VARIATIONS
IN JOINT WIDTH
construction or installation tolerances.

7.1 General Joint Design Considerations

The joints are usually the least weatherproof and fireproof parts of
the wall panel system. Take particular care to ensure that they are
compatible with the structural design, the erection procedures, ROTATIONAL TOLERANCES
and the fixing details. Bad joint arrangements cannot be easily
fixed by good joint detailing. Figure 7.1 Problems of Mitre Joints

The number of joints should be kept to a minimum. If a small Joints between wall panels must be weathertight. The type of
panel appearance is desired, this can be achieved by using sealant will play a large part on the joint’s performance over its
“dummy joints” (or grooves) in the panel surface to mimic extra lifetime. Sealant types and their appropriate uses are discussed
joints. Chamfers at the edges of the panels reduce the possibility in the section, 8.8.2 “Weatherproofing Joints”.
of damage to the edge, but as they soften the line of the panel
edge, they will provide greater tolerances in masking misalignment Cap flashing should always be used over the top of the panels.
in the panel joints.
7.2 Joint Types
The external corners of the building need special care. Mitred
joints (which occur exactly at the corner) are hard to produce, 7.2.1 Face-Sealed Joints (Recommended)
require smaller tolerances, create a weaker panel edge This is usually the most suitable jointing method for concrete
susceptible to damage, and will be visible on the finished house. panel housing, as it is both the simplest and the most cost-
An oversail corner joint is recommended, where the reveal of one effective. It requires only that there be a simple, clean, square-
of the panels is entirely exposed; the joint can then be set into the edge profile between the two adjoining panels that is smooth and
side of the house structure to make it less visible, or it can be dense. The sealant must be capable of adhering to the faces of
hidden behind a downpipe. the joint, and of accommodating normal movement between the
panels without splitting or coming loose. The joint should be 15
Wherever possible, highly-visible midspan joints along a straight to 20 mm wide and include a suitably-sized polyethylene backing
wall should be avoided; it’s better to restrict joints to the corners rod behind the sealant, to contain it and to give it a back profile.
of the structure where they are less noticeable. If there must be a
joint in a straight flat wall, it can be hidden by introducing a “step” To improve weatherproofing, an optional internal air seal can be
in the wall (though this will change the layout of the floor plan). created by installing another face-sealed joint, with backing rod
Another option is to hide the joint with a false downpipe. and sealant, on the other side of the joint.

Single-Storey Houses Panels are usually only one level high (that The quality of the joint and its durability are directly related to the
is, they run from footing-level to roof-level). Their lengths should quality of the sealant and its installation.
be maximised to reduce the number of vertical joints between
panels.

Multi-Storey Houses Panels should extend from corner to corner

in length, and from floor-to-floor in height. If there is an external SEALANT AND BACKING ROD (EXTERNAL FACE)

balustrade in the same plan as the external wall, then the height
of the wall panel should extend from the lower floor level to the
OPTIONAL INTERNAL AIR SEAL
top of the balustrade to minimise the number of horizontal joints (SEALANT AND BACKING ROD)
and the number of panels.

15-20 mm

INTERIOR

EXTERIOR

Figure 7.2 Typical Face-Sealed Joint

C&CAA 19
 7.2.2 Open-Drained Joints Fire-rated sealants are installed into panel joints in the same way as
Open-drained joints contain two barriers: a backing rod and other sealants, and (depending on the type of sealant) can provide up
sealant at the back of the joint, and a main weatherproofing to four hours of fire resistance. However, the BCA only requires a fire-
seal (consisting of a loose neoprene baffle installed into a vertical rating in certain circumstances and for a certain period of time (as
groove in the joint profile) on the external face of the joint. described in section 8.6, “Fire Resistance Performance”).

This jointing method provides for a very good weathertight seal, Fire-rated sealants should be supplied and installed by experienced
and is the usual method of detailing joints in the façades of high- applicators in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
rise buildings. The method is not usually suitable for concrete A sealant-specific Fire Test Certificate certifying that particular
panel homes, because the joint profiles are complicated and sealant’s fire-rating should also be attained wherever possible.
expensive to produce and install.
7.5 Concrete Sandwich Panel Corner Jointing
7.2.3 Gasket Joints In joints between concrete sandwich panels, there should be no
In this type of joint, an optional air seal is placed at the back of link between the leaves of concrete on either side of the central
the panel joint, and a neoprene gasket is installed into a vertical insulation board. A link will create a “thermal bridge” between the
groove in the joint profile. This type of joint is similar to the open- leaves, which reduces the thermal efficiency and can lead to
drained joint, but is usually used in low-rise buildings in locations cracking at the ends of the sandwich panel.
where positive pressure can deform or compress the gasket over
the lifetime of the joint. Panel and joint tolerances, as well as any To complete a corner detail without exposing the insulation board
surface defects, must be taken into account to ensure that the at the end of the panel:
joint performs sufficiently.
• Return the insulation board around the corner to the rear face of
7.2.4 Compression-Seal Joints the panel. (This may be difficult to form and further consultation
This type of joint is formed by attaching an impregnated foam is recommended with the panel supplier or manufacturer.)
seal to one of the panels, and placing the adjacent panel hard up • Extend the insulation board to the end of the panel, and hide
against it. The panel edge profile is usually ‘tongue and groove’ the joint with a corner moulding.
to make the joint more weatherproof.
INSULATION BOARD

The effectiveness of this type of jointing detail will depend on the

accuracy with which the panels are made, and the extent to which
the seal can be compressed. The method is usually used in low-rise
THERMAL
industrial buildings, where complete weathertightness is not essential. BRIDGE
RESULTING
IN CRACKING
7.3 Joint Widths
Joints must be able to accommodate rotation and variations in
width resulting from construction and erection tolerances. They
must allow the panels to move relative to each other as the
INSULATION
temperature and humidity changes. BOARD
BAD
CORNER
Joint widths for concrete wall panels are usually from 15 mm to DETAIL

20 mm wide. To determine a suitable joint width, take all of the

following into consideration:

• The manufacturing and erection tolerances. (Refer to Section

10.10, “Tolerances for Construction”, for further information.)
• The anticipated movement of the panels relative to each other
(due to shrinkage, or to changes in temperature and humidity). RETURN
INSULATION
• The ability of the sealant to accommodate movement in the BOARD TO
REAR FACE
joint. OF PANEL
• The possibility of hiding joints so as to allow joint tolerances to
be relaxed.
• The cost of sealant (the wider the joint, the greater the amount
of sealant required.) RECOMMENDED
CORNER
DETAILS
For most face-sealed joints, the width of the joint should be twice
the depth of sealant (not including the backing rod) to enable the
joint to have a suitable sealant movement capacity. DECORATIVE
CORNER
EXTEND INSULATION MOULDING
Allowances must also be made for manufacture and erection BOARD TO EDGES TO COVER
OF PANEL JOINTS
tolerances, though, which will further increase this value. (Refer to
Section 10.10, “Tolerances for Construction”, for further information).
ENDED

7.4 Fireproofing Joints

Panel joints can be fireproofed simply by using a fire-rated sealant
instead of a normal non-fire rated sealant. (Fire-rated sealants can
be used throughout the structure, but it is recommended to be
used only in areas that require a fire-rating, as they are generally
more expensive than non-fire rated sealants.)
Figure 7.3 Concrete Sandwich Panel Corner Jointing Details

20 C&CAA
8 PERFORMANCE DETAILS Piling: AS 2159 – Piling – Design
and Information.
This chapter discusses the main performance properties of
concrete panel walling construction. Masonry: AS 3700 – SAA Masonry Code.

8.1 Solid Construction Composite

The main difference between concrete panel construction and Concrete & Steel: AS 2327.1 – Composite Construction
conventional lightweight building systems is that concrete panel in Steel and Concrete.
construction is a form of “solid construction”. Solid construction
can be defined as a structure that is dense in mass and is solid Steel Construction: AS 4600 – Cold Formed Steel Structures.
through its cross section). Solid construction produces structures AS 3623 – Domestic Metal Framing.
with certain advantages over those produced by other methods, AS 4100 – Steel Structures.
that shall be discussed in the following sections.
Aluminium
8.2 Structural Performance Construction: AS/NZS 1664 – Aluminium Structures,
(Construction, Dead, Wind and Seismic Loads) Part 1 – Limit State Design.
One of the benefits of solid construction using concrete panel AS/NZS 1664 – Aluminium Structures,
walling systems is its ability to withstand the various load conditions Part 2 – Allowable Stress Design.
that a house can be expected to experience during its lifetime.
Timber Construction: AS 1720.1 – Timber Structures.
Each concrete panel is a structural component designed to
withstand the loads experienced during manufacture, Glazing: AS 1288 – Glass in Buildings –
transportation and installation, as well as any applied loads during Selection and Installation.
the lifetime of the home. Panels are designed to be connected to AS 2047 – Window in Buildings –
each other and to other building elements (such as concrete Selection and Installation.
footings, floor slabs and roofs) in such a way that they form a
strong, rigid structure. 8.2.3 Tilt-Up and Precast Concrete Codes
In addition to meeting the above requirements to comply with the
8.2.1 Structural Design BCA, concrete panel walling systems should be designed in
The same structural principles apply to the design of concrete accordance with Australian Standard AS 3850, “Tilt-Up Concrete
panel construction as to normal in-situ concrete construction. It is and Precast Concrete Elements for Use in Building”.
necessary that the design satisfy a number of criteria. Wall panels
must be designed to handle not only expected in-service load This standard deals specifically with the design, casting, and erection
conditions, but also loads during its handling and erection. of concrete wall panels. This standard should be read in
conjunction with AS 3600.
Designing for in-service loads is covered in the BCA’s
requirements (as discussed below). 8.2.4 Construction Loads
Perhaps the most severe loading experienced by a panel is that
Designing for loads incurred during lifting, handling and erection is to which it is subjected when it is stripped from its mould. The
just as critical, and in most cases will dictate the design of the design must ensure that the panel can support its own weight,
panels. that it can withstand the suction created as it is lifted from the
mould, and that it bears during handling. It’s important to take into
8.2.2 The BCA and Relevant Australian Standards account the effects of these forces both on the panel and on the
As defined by the BCA, all Class 1 and 10 buildings must be lifting inserts.
designed, manufactured and constructed:
As the lifting loads occur early in the life of the panel, the concrete
• To resist loads determined in accordance with Australian strength at the time of stripping should be specified by the design
Standards: engineer. This strength requirement may govern the grade of
AS 1170.1 – Dead and Live Loads concrete mix. The panel thickness and lifting arrangement should
and Load Combinations. be determined by limiting the extreme fibre tensile stress so that
AS 1170.2 – Wind Loads. (or AS 4055 – the section remains “uncracked” during erection. According to
Wind Loads for Housing.) Australian Standard AS 3850, this tensile stress should be limited
AS 1170.3 – Snow Loads. to 0.413√ƒcm (MPa), where ƒcm is the mean compressive strength
AS 1170.4 – Earthquake Loads* of the panel at the time of lifting.
* Most homes do not need to be designed to withstand
earthquakes, as the design for the applied wind loads are Panels produced on-site will need only to be stripped and
usually sufficient to cover earthquake loads. Though it should erected, while panels that are produced off-site will require
be stressed that earthquake loads should be at least transport from the factory to site. Panels cast on-site tend to be
considered prior to dismissal. larger, while the size of panels cast off-site is usually determined
• In accordance with the appropriate structural concrete design by the maximum ‘head height’ of the transport trailer, which in
code: turn depends on the applicable state regulations and the types of
AS 3600 – Concrete Structures trailers available. Panels up to 15 m high and 10 m wide can be
lifted, but the best size for the panels depends on whether they’re
as well as any other relevant design codes, such as: cast on- or off-site. For panels cast on-site, the optimum weight is
20 to 25 tonnes; for panels cast off-site, the optimum weight is 10
Footings: AS 2870 – Residential Slabs to 12 tonnes, as most transport trailers can carry from 20 to 24
and Footings. tonnes (or two panels) per load.

C&CAA 21
 Odd-shaped or elongated panels, or ones with large or 8.2.7 Seismic Loads
multiple openings, can be strengthened for lifting by adding Recent seismic occurrences have brought about formal
‘strongbacks’ as required. The designer should indicate requirements to be addressed in the BCA for residential homes.
when and where this is necessary. Refer to Section, 10.8.5 Solid construction, such as concrete panel construction, can
“Strongbacks” for more information. easily be designed to withstand these loads.

Grooving, profiling, texturing, or any other mechanical treatment of Not all residential structures require specific seismic design,
the panel surface reduces the net cross section area of the panel though, as long as certain criteria are met.
and the cover to the reinforcement. The design should take this
fact into account. To cater for seismic loads as required by the BCA, the design
must comply with Australian Standard AS 1170.4 – Minimum
8.2.5 Erection Loads Design Loads on Structures, Part 4: Earthquakes Loads. To meet
AS 3600 and AS 3850 contain the general design requirements the Standard’s requirements, the following must be determined:
that must be satisfied, but bracing loads should also be taken into
consideration. • The structure classification
• The acceleration coefficient
Loads incurred during temporary bracing seldom govern panel • The site factor
design, but these loads must be checked to ensure that the • The earthquake design category
bracing and inserts are adequate and that the panels will remain
stable while braced. 8.2.8 Cyclonic Loads
In northern Australia, where cyclones occur, there are obvious
Braces are usually fixed to the panel, and come in a variety of advantages to using solid concrete panel walling rather than
forms to suit different loads and panel sizes. Loads due to wind conventional lightweight building materials: greater protection from
and out-of-plumb forces must be catered for. The braces destructive winds and wind-driven projectiles.
themselves may need bracing if they are long, to prevent them
from buckling. A minimum of two braces per panel should be Concrete panel homes can be specifically designed to withstand
used to prevent the panel twisting (except if the panel, or brace the loads imposed by cyclonic winds in accordance with the
is designed to provide restraint against twisting). Australian Standards as listed in Section 8.2.2. The loads on wall
panels can be accommodated with:
8.2.6 In-Service Loads
Transverse Loads It is important that the walls provide sufficient • Additional reinforcement,
resistance to lateral loads, especially if the walls are load-bearing. • A thicker panel, or
The roof can be designed to transfer the lateral loads on the • Additional bracing with cross panels to shorten panel spans.
walls. Walls that are perpendicular to others can act as shear
walls to resist the load imposed by the first set. The panels, Cyclonic loads on panel connections can be accommodated by
and their connections to footings and to other panels, must be either:
designed to carry these induced loads.
• Increasing the number of connections to the panel, or
Vertical Loads Most downward vertical loads are due to the • Increasing the capacity (that is, size) of the connections.
weight of the structure, its contents and its occupants, while most
upward vertical loads are caused by the wind. (AS 1170, Parts 1 Because cyclones impose a large upward vertical load, wall panels
to 4, quantifies these loads, and the combinations in which they should be tied to the footings, and the roof structure should be tied
occur.) to the wall panels, as in the BCA’s requirements for reinforced
masonry (BCA, Part 3.3.2).
Downward vertical loads are usually carried down through the
walls to the footings. Wall panels must be designed to carry the Panel-to-footing tensile connections The base of a wall panel
loads imposed by the roof and any intermediate floors. The usual can be tied to the footing (or ground floor slab, if it is
method is to include corbels or cast-in connection ferrules on the appropriately reinforced back to the footing) by means of cast-in
faces of the panels to be fixed back to the roof or suspended floor. ferrules in the rear face of the panel (near the base). The ferrules
can be fixed with a threaded dowel cast back into the ground
Upward vertical loads due to the wind should be carefully floor slab (as shown in Figures 6.3 and 6.4), or they can be bolted
assessed and catered for. Both roof and walls may need to be to angle brackets which are in turn bolted to the top of
physically tied to the footings, especially in parts of Australia the footing.
where cyclones occur. (Refer to Section 8.1.8, “Cyclonic Loads”,
for more information.) Panel-to-roof connections As shown in the BCA, Part 3.3, Figure
[Link](a) (for masonry), ferrules can be cast into the tops of the
Volumetric Movements Panels in a long wall should not be fixed panels to enable them to be bolted to a capping plate over the
together rigidly, or shrinkage and thermal movement will invariably roof truss. Alternatively, a bracket can be fixed to the sides of the
lead to cracking. Long walls should contain movement joints roof truss and then bolted to the ferrules in the panels (as shown
and/or connections to permit natural movement. in Figures 6.16 and 6.17).

Consultation with a design or consultant engineer is required to

ensure that the design properly caters for cyclonic loads.

22 C&CAA
8.3 Acoustic Performance The Rw rating is increased to 50, and a requirement for insulation
Solid walling systems, such as concrete panel walling, are good from impact sound is added, for walls separating a bathroom,
acoustic insulators. There are many systems that can achieve sanitary compartment, laundry or kitchen in one unit from a
ratings of 50 dB and higher, enabling them to meet the most habitable room (other then a kitchen) in an adjoining one.
stringent requirements.
Table 8.1 Recommended Design Sound Levels for Inner-
Below are summarised the main acoustic requirements for walls Suburban Private Houses (extracted from AS 2107, Table 1)
(and floors) in residential buildings, as well as the main ways that
solid construction methods can meet those requirements easily
Recommended Design Sound Levels dB(A)
and cost-effectively.

Activity Satisfactory Maximum

8.3.1 Transmission of Sound
Noise (unwanted sound) is of two types: airborne noise (such as
Recreation areas 35 40
speech or music), and impact noise (such as footsteps, or the sound
Sleeping areas 30 35
of furniture being moved). Both cause building elements to vibrate.
Work areas 35 40
The air on the other side of the element picks up these vibrations,
and it is these secondary vibrations that are heard as “noise”.

Airborne Noise Airborne noise consists of sound transmitted According to the BCA, a sound of 70 dB–about the same as the
through the air. It can not travel through walls and floors, but it noise from a busy street or the sound of a loud argument–will be
can make them vibrate, causing noise on the other side. clearly audible through a wall with an Rw rating of 45, but it will be
heard at 25 dB, which is below the AS 2107 limit given in Table 8.1.
Impact Noise Impact noise consists of sound transmitted
directly through a wall or floor by physical contact with it. Impact Solid construction can cost-effectively perform well above the
vibrations tend to make the whole element (and elements in minimum Rw 45 rating required by the BCA. In other words,
contact with it) vibrate, causing noise in the same way as concrete homes are consistently quieter.
airborne sounds.
8.3.4 Industry Response
The more mass a wall (or floor) contains, the harder it is for a A house with a high Rw rating offers a quieter environment,
sound or impact to make it vibrate, so the less noise is heard on which makes the house more desirable, more valuable, and
the other side. Solid construction, such as concrete panel walling, more saleable. There are far fewer complaints about noise in
performs well in this way: its mass is a good acoustic insulator. neighbourhoods with high Rw ratings. For these (and other)
reasons, some local councils in Australia are already requiring
With low-mass walling systems that combine mass of the wall higher Rw ratings than the BCA.
lining and some insulation in the cavity wall, rely on the effective
jointing of numerous layers of composite materials to block every In response, many new (and cost-effective) methods have been
gap and filling every cavity; something as small as a power point developed to meet these more stringent requirements. Single-
or an unfilled joint can significantly affect the amount of noise the element walls and floors of solid construction (such as a 150-mm-
wall transmits. With solid construction, though, most of these thick concrete wall panel) can now have Rw ratings as high as 55.
problems are solved from the start.
8.3.5 Quality Issues
8.3.2 Measurement of Sound With concrete panel construction, requirements for mass can be
Decibel (dB) The loudness of a sound is expressed in decibels met just by making the wall or floor thick enough.
(dB). One dB is the softest sound detectable by the average
human ear. Gaps around edges, and at the tops and ends of walls, must be
properly grouted or sealed with an acoustic sealant.
Weighted Sound Reduction Index (Rw) All building elements
(walls, floors and ceilings, doors, windows, and so on) mask a If chasing of party walls is required, the rebate should be completely
given amount of airborne sound. The Rw rating of a building filled to maintain the mass of the wall and prevent air gaps.
element is a measure of this quality, and is equal to the number of
decibels of sound that the element is capable of blocking. An Rw In short, only a few precautions need to be taken to ensure that
rating of 45 means that the element reduces the level of sound concrete walling systems perform well acoustically. Materials are
passing through it by 45 dB. consistent, so success relies less on workmanship than it does in
lightweight walling systems.
8.3.3 Building Code of Australia
Requirements For medium density housing containing adjacent 8.3.6 Concrete Panel Walls with Rw 45 and Rw 50 Ratings
sole-occupancy units, the BCA specifies a required level of The factors that most influence the Rw rating of a particular
acoustic insulation that the separating walls (and floors) must building element are:
provide. (The requirements below are from the BCA’s 1996
standard, including Amendment 4 of January 1999). • Its mass,
• The acoustic absorbency of its surfaces, and
The BCA requires a minimum Rw rating of 45 for the following • How it abuts or is connected to adjoining building elements.
walls:
Of these factors, mass is the most important, and solid
• A wall separating sole-occupancy units. construction provides it.
• A wall between a sole-occupancy unit and a plant room,
lift shaft, stairway, public corridor, hallway or the like.
• A wall separating any habitable room (other than a kitchen)
from a soil or waste pipe serving more than one unit. (For a
kitchen, an Rw rating of 30 applies instead.)

C&CAA 23
 The BCA deems the following to have an Rw rating of 45: • Internal solid partition walls perform best. They should not be
insulated, so that their thermal mass can be exploited.
• Solid precast concrete panel 100 mm thick without joints.
• In-situ concrete 125 mm thick with a density not less that 2200 8.4.3 For Heating the Building
kg/m3, or 100 mm thick with a density not less that 2500 kg/m3. For heating the building, the findings were as follows:

If an Rw rating of 50 is required with impact reduction, the BCA Without insulation in the walls:
does offer some deem to comply solutions for concrete. For
impact-sound insulation, the usual solution is to install one of • Solid single-leaf concrete walling systems require only
the standard acoustic impact systems available from most lining- plasterboard on battens to perform as well as cavity
board manufacturers. These low-cost and easy-to-install systems construction (which outperforms all other wall types).
consist of standard wall-lining boards (a soft layer to absorb the
impact) mounted on furring channels. The furring channels are With insulation in the walls:
fixed to the wall with standard clips incorporating some form of
resilient rubber mounting to further reduce the vibration • AAC (Aerated Autoclaved Concrete) outperforms all other wall
transmitted to the wall. These linings are usually installed only on types, with the others coming equal second.
the impact side of the wall. (See Figure 8.1 for typical details.) • Concrete walls require only foil-backed board on battens to
provide effective insulation equivalent to that of other walling
systems.
CONCRETE PANEL

8.4.4 How Does Thermal Mass Work?

Figure 8.2 shows how the mass of a concrete panel reduces the
IMPACT SOURCE
SIDE OF WALL heat flowing through it. Its ability to store thermal energy offsets
DIRECT FIX LINING the peak temperature by approximately six hours, an offset called
THIS SIDE, IF REQUIRED
LINING BOARD “thermal lag”. A thermal lag of six hours means the maximum
indoor temperature will not occur until six hours after the
ACOUSTIC RESILLIENT
MOUNTS maximum outdoor temperature has been reached (usually
between noon and 2 pm). The result is that the indoor
ADHESIVE DAUBS
temperature reaches its maximum in the early evening, when
FURRING CHANNELS
the air outside is usually cooler.

In other words, thermal mass tends to ‘iron out’ the effects of

Figure 8.1 Cross-Section of Acoustic Wall System outside temperatures, reducing the maximum and minimum
temperatures inside and making the living environment more
This type of insulation is required only for rooms specified by the comfortable. Thermal mass is the reason that typically buildings
BCA. (Refer to section 8.3.3, “Building Code of Australia”.) of solid construction feel cooler in the summer and warmer in
the winter.
For further information, refer to C&CAA’s publication, “Acoustic
Benefits of Solid Construction”.

Heat flow time lag

8.4 Thermal Performance
Heat gain

A recent research project by the Cement and Concrete Actual heat flow
(Including thermal
Association of Australia (C&CAA) and the Concrete Masonry mass effect)
Association of Australia (CMAA), carried out at the CSIRO,
HEAT FLOW

assesses various combinations of wall and floor construction to Mean heat

flow
determine how thermal mass and insulation affect their energy-
efficiency. Following are points to consider.
0
Heat loss

8.4.1 Definitions
Thermal mass: A material’s ability to store thermal energy.
Thermal capacitance (“C-value”): The amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of a unit area of a material of a particular
12 12 12
thickness by 1ºC. It is calculated as the product of the material’s
midnight noon midnight
density, thickness, and specific heat, and is expressed in J/m 2K
or kJ/m2K. TIME OF DAY
Specific heat: The amount of heat required to raise one kilogram
of a material by 1ºC, expressed in J/kgK.
Thermal resistance (“R-value”): A material’s ability to insulate, Figure 8.2 Typical Heat Flow through a Concrete Panel (say
expressed in m2K/W. The higher the R-value of a material, the 200 mm thick)
more resistant it is to heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer.

8.4.2 For Cooling the Building

For cooling the building, the findings were as follows:

• Solid walls, such as concrete panel walls, require no insulation.

They outperform lightweight walls, even when the latter are
insulated.
• Insulation has little effect on the energy-efficiency of the walling
systems tested.

24 C&CAA
8.4.5 R-value and C-value Legend:
Designers use two main criteria when evaluating the thermal
efficiency of building products: the R-value and (to a lesser extent) External Wall Types Interior Finishes to Walls
the thermal mass. • 200 mm AAC (AAC) • Paint
• 140 mm and 190 mm • 10 mm render
Table 8.2 lists R-values, as well as C-values (thermal concrete masonry block • Plasterboard direct fixed
capacitances), for various building materials and thicknesses. (MB140/MB190) to wall
• 150 mm solid concrete • Plasterboard on battens
Table 8.2 R-Values and C-Values for Building Materials (C150) • Plasterboard on studs
• Cavity brick construction (BV only)
Material Building Thickness Density R-Value C-Value (CVB)
System (mm) (kg/m3) (m2K/W) Thermal
• Brick veneer (BV) Insulation Alternatives
Capacitance
(kJ/m2K) • Sandwich panel • AAC wall
(concrete + polystyrene) • Foil backed board (for
Concrete Solid Wall 150 2300 0.26 300 • (SNDW – MB and C150)
apartments/commercial) • Cavity insulation of 1.0
Concrete Solid Wall 100 2300 0.23 200
m2K/W (for CVB only)
Clay Masonry Brick Veneer 110 1600 0.18* 163* • Reflective foil over studs
Timber and
(for BV only)
Weatherboard Clad Frame 12 500 0.47 12

Glass Curtain Wall 6 2500 0.16 1 Render/Paint

* As measured by the CSIRO.

Plasterboard

As can be seen, high-density walling materials like concrete do

Plasterboard on Battens
not fare well when assessed purely on the basis of their R-values.
But R-values do not take into account thermal mass; C-values do,
Insulated/foil-backed board
and on the basis of C-values, concrete significantly outperforms
lighter-weight materials under cooling conditions.

8.4.6 Research Findings

Figure 8.3 & 8.4 display typical results for an apartment building in
a cooler climate (Melbourne), and Figures 8.4 & 8.5 display the
results in a warmer climate (Brisbane). 150

50
120
Cooling Energy (MJ/m2)

40
90
Cooling Energy (MJ/m2 )

30
60

20
30

10
0
AAC MB190 MB140 C150 BV CVB SNDW

0
MB140 C150 CVB
Wall System
AAC MB190 BV SNDW

Wall System
Figure 8.5 Annual Cooling Energy Requirement, Centre
Figure 8.3 Annual Cooling Energy Requirements, Centre Apartment, Brisbane
Apartment, Melbourne
30

350
25
300
Heating Energy (MJ/m2)

20
250
Heating Energy (MJ/m2)

200 15

150
10

100
5

50

0
0 AAC MB190 MB140 C150 BV CVB SNDW
AAC MB190 MB140 C150 BV CVB SNDW
Wall System
Wall System

Figure 8.4 Annual Heating Energy Requirements, Centre Figure 8.6 Annual Heating Energy Requirement, Centre
Apartment, Melbourne Apartment, Brisbane

C&CAA 25
 Each of these results is discussed below, followed by some 8.5.1 Types of Condensation
specific comments about apartment buildings. There are two types of condensation that cause problems in
buildings:
8.4.7 For Cooling
• In warmer climates where cooling is the predominant Surface condensation occurs on the surface of a building
requirement (as shown in Figures 8.3 and 8.5), insulated and element. When air comes in contact with any surface (such
uninsulated external walls performed alike, meaning that the as a window pane or wall) cooler than the dew-point (ie. the
cooling energy required is independent of the R-value of the temperature at which saturation occurs and any excess moisture
wall type. Specifying a minimum R-value for walls in these in the form of water vapour condenses) the air is cooled below the
climates therefore has little impact on the energy-efficiency dew-point as well, and deposits its moisture on the surface.
of the building. Alternatively, increasing the moisture content of the air beyond its
• Solid partition walls perform best internally, and should not saturation point (such as happens in a bathroom during a shower)
be insulated so their thermal mass can be exploited. causes the excess moisture to condense on any available surface.
(Note the implication: warm rooms still can be subject to a
8.4.8 For Heating condensation risk.)
• In cooler climates where heating is the predominant
requirement (as shown in Figures 8.4 and 8.6), all wall types Internal or interstitial condensation occurs inside a building
perform relatively alike once the walls are insulated, with the element. Water vapour passes with the air through any building
location of the insulation making little difference. element. If the temperature of the element falls below the dew-
• Solid (uninsulated) cavity construction outperforms all other point, the excess moisture in the air within the element will deposit
wall types in homes, regardless of climate or insulation. its moisture there. When the temperature rises, the water becomes
(For commercial buildings, though, all wall types tend to vapour again, and continues to move through the element.
perform alike).
• External concrete and concrete masonry walls, when finished Strategies to avoid condensation include:
internally with plasterboard on battens, perform about as well
as uninsulated cavity construction. • Installing a vapour barrier on the warmest side of the wall to
reduce the amount of moisture that can enter the element, and
8.4.9 Apartments: Specific comments • Designing the element so that the temperature inside it does
• Corner apartments require about twice as much heating energy not fall below the dew-point.
as centre apartments, because of their greater area of exposed
wall. They require only slightly more cooling energy, though, 8.5.2 Consequences of Condensation
because of their thermal mass. If persistent, surface condensation on walls or roofs can damage
• Brick veneer and other lightweight construction types are furnishings and fittings and cause mildew. Internal condensation
poorer than all other wall types at keeping a building cool, takes longer to show, but is potentially more damaging, as it can
mainly because they are only capable of supporting lightweight cause the fabric of the building itself to deteriorate. When
suspended floors that have a low thermal mass. condensation is worst, it can almost appear to be ‘raining’ inside
the building. Walls and roofs become mouldy, and the subsequent
8.4.10 Conclusions deterioration in air quality can cause health problems.
• The thermal mass of solid construction means that buildings
with solid walls require no insulation for cooling, and 8.5.3 Performance of Condensation Assemblies
outperform the lighter-weight walling alternatives tested. The following points are worth noting:
• For heating, insulation improves energy-efficiency-but once
the insulation is added, all the walling systems perform about • Highly effective vapour barriers like aluminium foil sheeting
the same. completely block the movement of water vapour, virtually
• A solid concrete wall with foil-backed board on battens eliminating any vapour pressure gradient. As a result,
performs about the same as walling systems with much higher pressures and dew-point temperatures are almost identical
R-values (such as AAC and insulated cavity construction). on both sides of the barrier.
• A thinner concrete wall, with plasterboard on battens, performs • The effectiveness of polythene sheeting as a vapour barrier
about the same as cavity construction. depends on its thickness, but even at 200 microns (0.2 mm)
it is far less effective than aluminium foil.
For further information, refer to C&CAA publication “Thermal • Insulation does not usually form a barrier to the movement
Benefits of Solid Construction”. of water vapour with a high vapour pressure gradient.

8.5. Condensation Performance 8.5.4 Designing for Climate

Air contains moisture in the form of water vapour. The higher the Appropriate methods of preventing condensation vary, depending
air temperature, the greater the amount of water vapour the air on the area’s climate.
can contain; the lower the temperature, the less water vapour it
can hold. In hot humid climates, if no air conditioning is used, the internal
temperature and vapour pressure will be similar to external
The main cause of condensation is a change in the temperature conditions. As long as doors and windows can be opened,
or the moisture content of the air. Such changes can occur vapour pressure can be controlled, and condensation can occur
naturally, or as a result of residential activities (such as cooking) only if the RH is near 100%.
or industrial processes.
If air conditioning is used, though, there is often a difference
With the right combination of temperature, humidity and ventilation, in temperature of 10-15ºC between the inside and the outside,
condensation problems can arise in any building. Persistent and therefore a difference in relative humidity of 50-60%. (For
conditions can result in dampness and mildew. No type of example, 35% RH at 35ºC becomes 65% RH at 22ºC, if the
construction is immune, and the problem can occur in any climate. moisture in the air remains constant.) With additional moisture
generated inside the building, the RH can rise to 85% or more.

26 C&CAA
Fortunately, the dehumidifying effect of air conditioning units will 5. Prevent moisture from moving to colder areas of the building.
reduce this considerably. Condensation within the walls is unlikely 6. Avoid thermal bridges.
unless the internal temperature falls or the RH increases, thereby 7. Install vapour barriers on internal walls in cold climates, so that
raising the dew-point temperature. condensation will occur only if the temperature of the wall falls
below the internal dew-point.
For houses in hot humid climates, you should: 8. Coat the outside surface with a permeable layer to allow water
to evaporate rather than accumulate in the wall.
• Install a vapour barrier on the warm (exterior) side of the wall to
reduce interstitial condensation as the RH approaches 100%. 8.5.6 Types of Vapour Barriers
• Avoid “thermal bridges” (connections between cool surfaces Vapour barriers come in many forms, depending on where they’re
and the exterior), which cause condensation on the outside to be used. The following types are available:
of the wall.
• Avoid over-cooling the interior, which can bring the internal • Polyethylene sheets
temperature below the dew-point and cause surface or • Reflective foil membranes (such as aluminium foil)
interstitial condensation. • Foil-backed plasterboards
• Avoid low-permeability wall coverings or coatings on the • Impermeable rigid insulation
interior, as moisture can accumulate behind the covering • Part membranes with low permeability
or coating. • Specialised external coatings

In cool climates, the difference in temperature between the inside 8.5.7 Ventilation
and outside can be as high as 20-25ºC, leading to an internal The function of ventilation in buildings is to:
RH as much as 40-50% lower than the outside one. With solid
construction, the temperature of the concrete elements can fall • Improve indoor air quality.
below the dew-point, especially if insulation is used on the internal • Reduce indoor moisture content.
surfaces (as it prevents the panels from being heated from the • Keep the indoor climate comfortable.
inside). The risk increases as the relative humidity of the outside • Cool the building structure.
air increases.
Internally-generated humidity can reduce air quality and lead to
For houses in cool climates, you should: condensation. Ventilation can help address this problem, but is
effective only if external conditions are better than interior ones.
• Reduce the amount of moisture generated in the building to If ventilation is to reduce humidity in a room, the level of humidity
minimise the vapour pressure and dew-point. must be higher inside than outside.
• Install a vapour barrier on the warm side of the wall to prevent
water vapour from reaching the cool surfaces. With a vapour The types of ventilation that can be used are as follows:
barrier installed, no condensation will occur as long as the
temperature at the barrier remains above the dew-point. Trickle Ventilation: Permanent ventilation can be provided for
• Use external insulation to heat the wall elements more spaces with consistently high humidity to keep air moving through
efficiently. Maintaining the temperature of the wall above the and to discourage hot humid air from remaining in the space.
dew-point prevents condensation, however the building is Fixed grilles in bathroom windows are a good example of this
often not heated sufficiently. technique.
• Use natural and/or mechanical ventilation to expel moisture
or water vapour. Cross-ventilation: Openings in a façade can be linked to increase
• If you cannot remove the risk of severe condensation, make the airflow through the space and move hot humid air out of the
sure cavities are drained to prevent damage to the finishes. building. The ventilation rate should be such that the entire
volume of air is replaced 0.5 to 1.5 times per hour.
8.5.5. Designing to Avoid Condensation
The easiest way to avoid condensation is simply to prevent moist Cavity Ventilation: Ventilators can be planted in wall surfaces to
air from coming into contact with cold surfaces. Doing this may enable air movement in cavities. This technique can remove
mean controlling a number of factors that can cause high levels of humidity in cavities.
condensation. As designers have little control over the use of
the building, it’s wise to include a few backup strategies for Mechanical Ventilation: Fan-assisted ventilation can be used to
minimising condensation in case it occurs. expel hot humid air by:

These are the main strategies for minimising condensation, in • Bringing in external air to replace the moist air, or
order of importance: • Expelling the moist air by extraction.

1. Provide good ventilation to reduce or control the RH and The first option (intake fans) is appropriate if external air is needed
internal vapour pressures (and thereby the dew-point to cool the interior, or if a great deal of moisture is being
temperature gradients). generated by processes inside the building.
2. Provide enough heating to increase the temperature of the
solid wall. (This can be difficult in buildings that are not always The second option (exhaust fans) is best for small areas with
occupied, or that are heated for only short periods in the localised moisture problems, such as bathrooms and kitchens.
evenings.) Heating should be throughout the building, not just The fans can be connected to hygrometers and thermostats to
in the living areas. reduce the risk of condensation. Always run the humid exhaust to
3. Install insulation (in conjunction with heating) to prevent heat the outside, not into an interior cavity or space (especially exhaust
loss through the walls and floor. from clothes driers). You will also need to ensure that an
4. Reduce the amount of moisture generated in the building, or equivalent amount of air can enter the building somewhere, to
remove it at the source, to help control the RH and vapour replace what’s expelled.
pressure.

C&CAA 27
 8.5.8 Summary termites will not enter a dwelling by a concealed route. Termite
Condensation in solid construction can be avoided by barriers will not stop termite activity from occurring on site.
understanding the processes that cause it, and designing
a strategy to cater for the causes. The solution may be a This section discusses those requirements, and how they apply
composite one, involving a combination (for instance) of to concrete panel walling (and floor slab edges).
insulation, vapour barriers and dry lining. The positioning of
vapour barriers is particularly important, as the proper locations 8.7.1 The BCA
for them depends on the area’s climate and on the type of According to the BCA, installing a termite risk management
environmental control used in the building. system* means doing both of the following:

8.6 Fire Resistance Performance • Installing a termite barrier or combination of barrier systems
All solid concrete panel walling systems have high fire resistance in accordance with AS 3660.1. (Refer to the more detailed
levels (FRL)–that is, they can withstand the effects of fire and information below on concrete slabs-on-ground and
remain structurally sound for a relatively long period of time. suspended slabs) or termite resistant materials.
• Providing a durable notice, permanently fixed to the dwelling
The Building Code of Australia (BCA) sets out the required FRL in a prominent location (such as the meter box), that states:
for various building elements. This requirement depends on the – The method of protection,
type of construction, the purpose of the building, the height in – The date the system was installed,
storeys, and proximity to the fire source. – The life expectancy of the chemical barrier (if one is used),
as displayed on a National Registration Authority label, and
8.6.1 For Residential Buildings – The installer’s or manufacturer’s recommendations as to the
For both Class 1a and 10a residential buildings, the fire resistance scope and frequency of future inspections for termite activity.
performance of the walls will determine its ability to provide fire
separation of the fire source from: * Variations and additional measures may be required for building
in Queensland and/or the Northern Territory. Refer to the BCA,
• the external surrounding of the building containing the fire Part 3.1.3 for detailed information.
source.
• the building containing the fire source from the adjoining or Concrete Slab-on-Ground A concrete slab-on-ground is the
neighbouring buildings. recommended ground floor system for a concrete panel home.
The slab can support the wall panels on a rebated edge, or else
The FRL gives the Fire-Resistance Periods (FRP) for structural the slab edge can be supported from the backs of the wall
adequacy, integrity, and insulation, respectively in minutes. Solid panels. If the former is true, then the slab can be used as part of
concrete panel walling can easily be designed to achieve FRL a termite barrier system – but only if all the following are complied
requirements, because concrete is a naturally good fire barrier. with as well:

Section 5 - Design for Fire Resistance of AS 3600 – Concrete • The slab must be designed and constructed to comply with
Structures provides methods for determining the various FRPs for AS 2870, and
concrete walls. Concrete panel systems must comply with these – For monolithic slabs, the penetrations and perimeter must
requirements. To achieve the required FRPs, certain criteria must be protected in accordance with the BCA requirements.
be met, as defined in AS 3600: – For non-monolithic slabs, the penetrations, control joints
and perimeter must be protected in accordance with the
• Structural insulation: Effective concrete wall thickness of BCA requirements.
80mm will achieve 60 minutes and a • For slabs not constructed in accordance with AS 2870, the
solid 150 mm thick panel will achieve entire area beneath the slab and the perimeter must be
180 minutes. protected in accordance with the BCA requirements.
• Structural integrity: Must comply to the same level of • If the edge of a slab-on-ground is used as a perimeter barrier,
FRP as structural insulation. then:
• Structural adequacy: Must comply to the same level of FRP – The edge of slab must be left exposed, and must be a
as structural insulation, as long as AS minimum of 75 mm inspection zone (either on the horizontal
3600, clause 5.7.4 is satisfied. or vertical face of a slab edge).
– The face of the exposed edge must not be rough,
The joints between the panels must also satisfy the appropriate honeycombed, or rippled, or contain any other
FRPs. Sealant manufacturers can provide data on the imperfections that could conceal termite activity.
performance of proprietary sealants. This topic is discussed in – It is not permitted to fix tiles to the exposed surface, or to
more depth in the section on Chapter 7, “Panel Jointing”.). render it.

8.7 Termite Resistance Termite barrier systems are designed so that if termites are
Standard concrete with a minimum strength of 20 MPa is present, they will be forced into visible areas where they can be
regarded as termite resistant-that is, termites cannot “eat” their seen during regular inspections. Inspection areas such as exposed
way through it-so termites are certainly less likely to attack edges of slabs-on-ground should always be kept clean and free of
concrete panel homes than they are brick veneer or standard debris. Attachments such as downpipes should be located so as
timber-framed homes (which is one of the advantages of concrete to permit visual inspection. A clearance of not less than 40 mm
panel walling). But termites can still enter through openings in the between fittings and the edge of the slab is usually adequate.
walls or floor (such as cracks and joints).
Cracking in concrete slabs constructed to AS 2870 is common,
Termites live in most areas of Australia, so the risk of infestation but the widths of the cracks are controlled by adequate steel
must be assessed and managed. The BCA and Australian reinforcement in the concrete. The appearance of cracks does not
Standard AS 3660.1 require that a termite risk assessment be necessarily indicate a failure of the termite barrier system; many
performed and (if required) a management system be employed. cracks do not penetrate the full thickness of the slab depth, while
The intention of a termite management system is to ensure that those that do are rarely wide enough for termites.

28 C&CAA
Suspended Floors In general, suspended floors are not used as CONCRETE WALL
PANEL
the ground floor system in concrete panel homes, as they are
more complicated to construct and connect than slabs-on-ground
(and are therefore not as cost-effective). If they are used, though,
the area beneath the suspended floor must be protected in
accordance with Clause [Link] of the BCA.

8.7.2 Australian Standard AS 3660.1 – Termite MASONRY

STUB WALL
Management, New Building Work
Australian Standards AS 3660.1 gives the various methods and
materials that can be used to provide a termite barrier system.
The main ones are discussed in the following sections: (A) FOOTING SLAB (B) FOOTING SLAB

• Concrete Slab-on-Ground Figure 8.8 Examples of Footing Systems Requiring Joint

• Sheet Materials Treatment
• Woven Stainless Steel Mesh
• Graded Stone Particles
• Chemical Soil Barriers Concrete walling systems are usually not used for suspended
ground slabs, but if they are, the slab must be designed and
8.7.3 Concrete Slab-on-Ground constructed in accordance with AS 3600. Joints and penetrations
Most concrete panel homes have a concrete slab-on-ground. that cannot be seen must be protected with termite barriers such
If the slab is to be used as a termite barrier, then all the following as stainless steel mesh, chemicals, or graded stone particles.
must be complied with:
8.7.4 Sheet Materials
• The slab must be designed and constructed in accordance Sheeting materials refers to cappings over masonry walls, piers,
with AS 2870 and/or AS 3600 so that it includes enough posts, and so on. They are not usually appropriate for concrete
reinforcement to control shrinkage and minimise the widths panel homes.
of cracks in the concrete.
• All vertical constructions, saw cuts, cold joints and 8.7.5 Woven Stainless Steel Mesh
penetrations in the slab must be protected with a termite If woven stainless-steel mesh is to be used as part of a termite
barrier, either a stainless steel mesh, a chemical, or a barrier of barrier system, then the mesh must meet the following standards:
graded stone particles. It is easiest and cheapest to have the
slab designed and built so that there are no construction joints. • The mesh must be made of woven wire of a fine loom with a
When the slab construction incorporates a joint in accordance minimum diameter of 0.18 mm.
with AS 2870 (as shown in Figure 8.7c), the slab is deemed to • The wire must be stainless steel (grade 304 or 316).
be monolithic, and the joint needs no further protection as long • The aperture of the mesh must be no larger than 0.66 mm x
as suitable reinforcement has been used to tie the footing to 0.45 mm (except in areas where Heterotermes Vagus (a very
the slab-on-ground. small species of termite) is prevalent, where an aperture of
• If the outside edge of a slab-on-ground is used as part of a 0.40 mm x 0.40 mm is required).
termite barrier, the requirements are essentially the same as for
the BCA. The surface should not be rough, and the exposed Dissimilar metals must not be used in contact with the stainless
edge must be a minimum of 75 mm above the final ground steel mesh, or they could cause electrolytic corrosion of the mesh.
level (that is, the level after landscaping and paving). This face
must not be rendered, tiled, paved, clad or concealed. The parging material (grout) used to hold the mesh to the slab or
wall consists of a dry mixture of Type GP Portland cement, a
As long as these points are complied with, there is no need for water-dispersed co-polymer, and aggregate that has been sieved
any additional protection against termites. This scheme is the so it will pass through the mesh. The hardened grout must be
recommended one for most concrete wall panel homes, as it is termite-resistant, and have a bond strength of at least 1 kN after
the most efficient and economical. 28 days. It must maintain this strength after 60 freeze-thaw cycles
CONCRETE
in saline solutions.
WALL PANEL

If the mesh must be lapped at joints, the joint should be

constructed by folding 10-15 mm of the adjoining edges of the
mesh two and a half times. If parging material is to be used to
form the lap joint, the parging area must be a minimum of 35 mm
wide along the full length of the joint.

(A) STIFLENED RAFT

(NO JOINT)
(B) WAFFLE RAFT
(NO JOINT)
The use of woven stainless steel mesh in concrete panel
housing should be measured and it is recommended that the
CONCRETE
WALL PANEL manufacturer’s advise be sort.

(C) FOOTING SLAB

CONSTRUCTION JOINT (REINFORCED)

Figure 8.7 Examples of Footing Systems Requiring No Joint

Treatment

C&CAA 29
 8.7.6 Graded Stone Particles (GSP) entry points for termites. The capping or seal can consist of
If graded stone particles (GSP) are to be used as part of a termite concrete, bituminous material, acrylics or plastics. If the capping
barrier system, they must meet the following standards: or seal is wider than the GSP beneath it, vertical termite shielding
should be cast into the capping or seal. The shielding should
• The stone particles must consist of crushed igneous or penetrate a minimum of 75 mm into the GSP to maintain a
metamorphic stone. continuous interface.
• The stone must originate from a sound source (as described
by AS 1141.22), and have a wet/dry strength that varies by Installation There is one acceptable method for installing an
less than 35%. external perimeter GSP barrier for external walls: to place it in a
• The stone must have a specific gravity of at least 2.52. perimeter trench adjoining the building’s footings or slab-on-
• The particles must have a grading and shape that will deter ground. The barrier must extend from the external ground level
termites. to no less than 100 mm below this level, and be compacted. It
• The stone particles must be handled and stored in such a way should be a minimum of 100 mm wide as well, and have a seal
that they will not be contaminated by soil or organic matter. or capping.

Seals and/or capping systems, when used with GSP systems, The vertical face of the concrete slab or footing must be smooth;
must be continuous, and able to withstand any exposure or wear honeycombing, ripples, folds, or uneven surfaces must be made
and tear they will be subjected to. The capping must always be smooth before the GSP is installed so that there will be complete
in physical contact with the GSP, so as not to provide concealed contact with the surface of the concrete.

CONCRETE
INTERNAL LINING
WALL PANEL
INTERNAL
CONCRETE LINING
WALL PANEL

CONCRETE SLAB
ON GROUND CONCRETE SLAB
ON GROUND

PROTECTIVE CAP
PROTECTIVE CAP
100 MIN
FINISHED EXTERNAL 100 MIN FINISH EXTERNAL
GROUND LEVEL GROUND LEVEL
100 MIN

100 MIN

GRADED STONE
GRADED
STONE

Figure 8.9 Typical Detail for Graded Stone External Figure 8.10 Typical Detail for Graded Stone External Perimeter
Perimeter Barrier at Slab-On-Ground Barrier at Slab with Separate Strip Footings

INTERNAL LINING
CONCRETE
WALL PANEL

PROTECTIVE
CAPPING CONCRETE SLAB
ON GROUND
TERMITE SHIELDING
(EXTENDS TO TOP
OF JOINT)

FINISH EXTERNAL GROUND LEVEL

INTERNAL
75 MIN

LINING
100 MIN

PAVERS GRADED
STONE CONCRETE SLAB
GRADED STONE ON GROUND

100 MIN
SEE (B) BELOW CONCRETE TERMITE
PATH SHIELDING

FINISH EXTERNAL GROUND LEVEL

a) External Paving
75 MIN
100 MIN

GRADED STONE 100 MIN

Figure 8.11 Typical Detail for External Trench Perimeter b) Concrete Path
Graded Stone Barrier

30 C&CAA
8.7.7 Chemical Soil Barriers
Chemical soil barriers are installed while the building is under INTERNAL LINING

construction. For effectiveness, it is essential that the whole system

be installed at one time, while the entire subfloor area is accessible.
The chemicals used in the system must be registered by the NRA
CONCRETE
and applied in accordance with the instructions on their labels. WALL PANEL
CONCRETE SLAB
ON GROUND
Areas where chemical barriers cannot be installed are:
FINISH EXTERNAL
GROUND LEVEL
• Near drains of any kind. 150 MIN

• Directly on impervious surfaces (such as concrete, timber,

50 MIN
rocks, masonry, and so on), though they can be used on 80 MIN

cracks, faults, joints and the soil in contact with their perimeter.
• On the surfaces inside cavity walls.
CHEMICAL
BARRIER
Before the application of chemical mixtures into the soil, the soil VAPOUR BARRIER CHEMICAL
must be prepared to enable the chemical to penetrate to a BARRIER

sufficient depth:

• Contaminants should be removed, such as building debris, NOTES:

timber, formwork and other waste. 1. Perimeter chemical barrier is not required if there is
75 mm min. of slab edge exposed.
• In clayey soils and on sloping sites, the chemical penetrates
2. Barrier systems will not be effective where the nest
more slowly, and the likelihood of runoff is greater. The surface is established inside the building and has no contact
of these sites should therefore be scarified along the contours with the soil.

to form furrows with a minimum depth of 50 mm to 80 mm.

Alternatively, a 50 mm layer of sand on the ground will help Figure 8.12 Typical Detail for Chemical Under-Slab Barrier and
retain the chemical. Perimeter Barrier – Slab-On-Ground
• In sandy or porous soils, where the soil is dry or loose, the
ground should be moistened with water immediately before
treatment.

Installation/Soil Application The application of the chemical CONCRETE

INTERNAL
treatment must be in accordance with the manufacturer’s LINING
WALL PANEL

instructions. It should be applied by hand or by a reticulation

system. Soil-sampling protocols and testing methods should be
in accordance with AS 3660.1 – Appendix E. SLAB ON GROUND

External perimeter barriers (for protecting the perimeter of a slab-

on-ground) can consists of: 150 MIN.
80 MIN.
50 MIN.
50 MIN.
• A barrier not less than 150 mm wide and 80 mm deep that
50 MIN.
extends not less than 50 mm below the lowest point at which
the construction could permit termites to enter.
• A barrier not less than 150 mm wide that extends not less than
FOOTING FINISHED EXTERNAL
50 mm below the top of footing. GROUND LEVEL

REINFORCEMENT BAR TO
The treatment must not be performed just before or after heavy TIE SLAB AND FOOTING TOGETHER
rain unless the barrier is physically protected as the rain may
cause leaching and run off of the chemicals from the soil. NOTES:
1. Chemical to penetrate below top of footing as indicated.
The acceptable way to place a chemical soil barrier is shown in 2. Where required, a stepdown from the top of the slab to
external weephole is to be provided.
the following figures. 3. Barrier systems will not be effective where the nest is
established inside the building and has no contact
with the soil.

Figure 8.13 Typical Detail for Chemical Under-Slab and

Perimeter Barrier – Footing Slab

C&CAA 31
 8.7.8 Conclusion • Add acrylic copolymer latex to a suitable concrete mix to
To provide an efficient and cost-effective termite barrier system for produce a polymer-modified concrete that is highly resistant
a concrete wall panel home: to penetration by water and chloride ions.

• Design and construct the slab-on-ground in accordance with Crack Control One of the easiest ways for water to penetrate a
AS 2780 or AS 3600. The perimeter slab edges should be concrete wall is through cracks that have formed in the panel.
finished smooth, and should sit at least 75 mm above the final Cracking can occur because of a variety of reasons:
ground level.
• Concrete wall panels should bear onto a rebate of (say) 40 mm • Flexural cracks are caused by excessive loads. (Widths of up
on the top edge of the slab, so that no part of the concrete to 0.3 – 0.4 mm may be acceptable in dry areas that are
wall panels is below the 75 mm inspection zone formed by the protected from the weather.)
vertical face of the concrete slab-on-ground perimeter edge. • Plastic shrinkage cracking is caused by the surface drying too
• Minimise the number of joints and penetrations in the slab, as rapidly during the first two to four hours after mixing. This type
these will be the only areas that will require additional of cracking can often occur through the full thickness of the
protection (such as woven stainless steel mesh, a chemical panel, allowing water to penetrate. Strong winds, high
barrier, or graded stone particles). temperatures and low humidity are likely to cause this kind of
cracking. To minimise plastic shrinkage cracking, protect the
The combination of the three points will provide a suitable termite surface of the concrete by spraying it with a layer of aliphatic
barrier scheme for a concrete panel home. However, the above alcohol after the final screeding, by applying a curing
scenario is for a simple case and only one of many possible membrane or sheeting after the concrete sets, or by wetting
solutions. Each individual housing situation must be examined the formwork.
thoroughly to derive the best solution to suit each case. • Shrinkage cracking is caused by drying and by temperature
changes that cause the concrete to contract, and can extend
8.8 Weatherproofing through the thickness of the wall panel. As the wall panel
Concrete panel homes are usually more weather-tight than most systems discussed in this handbook are cast flat similar to a
other types of homes simply because of the building materials and concrete floor slab and then erected into vertical position,
the construction method. Concrete panels are denser (and minimum reinforcement requirement for crack control must
therefore more impermeable) than conventional masonry, timber be addressed. AS 3600 provides such minimum requirements
and cladding. The concrete used to produce wall panels has a to satisfy this.
compressive strength of 32 to 40 MPa. The solid construction of a
concrete panel home means there are fewer entry points for water Surface Treatments It is also possible to treat the surface of a
and wind ingress. concrete panel with a sealant or to cover it with a membrane to
improve its watertightness. Mainly, though, these treatments are
The issue of weather-tightness should not be taken lightly, though. used on below-ground concrete panels (such as those in
Making a concrete panel home suitably weather-tight still requires basements). Most concrete panel homes will not need a surface
good planning, design and construction methods. treatment any more complicated than a coat of paint or render,
as concrete panels are already sufficiently watertight under normal
Water can penetrate through concrete wall panels in two ways: environmental conditions.

• Through the concrete itself (though this is rare), or • Waterproofing membranes. Available types of membranes
• Through the joints between panels and other panels, the include:
footings, or the roof. – Cement-based render (with or without chemical admixtures
to make the concrete more water-repellent)
8.8.1 Water Permeability in Concrete – Resin-based render (for resistance to chemicals)
The watertightness of concrete is its level of impermeability to – Continuous vapour-proof membranes (such as in-situ
water under ambient (normal) pressure. (The term “waterproof” membranes of rubber, asphalt or plastic, or liquid
cannot strictly be applied to concrete, as it is a porous material and membranes applied by roller-coating)
can therefore be penetrated by water under high enough pressure.) • Concrete impregnation sealants can be used to make concrete
watertight. These include:
To increase the watertightness of concrete: – Silicates (usually sodium silicate) reacts with the calcium
ions in the concrete to form a calcium-silicate gel. The
• Keep the water-to-cement ratio as low as reasonably possible, material is sprayed or brushed into the surface of the
while maintaining satisfactory workability, good compaction concrete, and penetrates dense, well hydrated concrete to
and adequate hydration. Blended cements can help make the a depth of 5mm. The reaction hardens the surface, but in
concrete more impermeable. Silica fume can reduce the size dry conditions the gel can eventually dry out completely,
of the pores in the cement paste. allowing water to enter through the spaces it occupied.
• Use chemical admixtures, such as: There are products available for inhibiting the dehydration
– Water-reducing admixtures to increase the workability of of silicates in dry conditions.
concrete and reduce the water-cement ratio. – Silanes and siloxanes are low-viscosity liquid sealants that
– Superplasticisers (high-range water reducers) to allow a are applied to the surface of the finished concrete. They
more flowable concrete with a low water-cement ratio and create a barrier to moisture by covering the pore surfaces
to promote efficient compaction of the concrete. with hydrocarbon chains that repel water.
– Air-entraining agents to increase the durability of concrete – Crystalline sealers block water by causing crystals to grow
where freeze thaw environments are encountered. inside the pores and seal them. Temperature fluctuations
– Permeability-reducing admixtures (waterproofing agents) after application of the sealer can cause uneven crystal
that minimise moisture uptake by the concrete surface growth, so these sealers are best suited to interior or
under normal environmental conditions. below-ground applications where the temperature will
remain fairly constant.

32 C&CAA
• Surface coatings protect the concrete with a relatively thick 9 CONCRETE SURFACE FINISHES
surface film. They usually consist of a polymer binder, as well
as pigments and fillers. Polymers used in these coatings One of the reasons that concrete wall panelling is becoming more
include chlorinated rubber, epoxies, polyurethanes and acrylics. accepted across all sectors of the building industry is that it no
– Chlorinated rubber coatings resist moisture well and are longer has to appear flat and grey. A wide variety of both external
flexible, but resist UV poorly and tend to collect dirt. and internal finishes are available for the concrete panel home.
– Epoxies are tough and resist water very well, but resist
UV poorly and are not very flexible. They also do not allow External finishes can include chamfers, grooving, and rebates, as
water vapour to escape freely from the concrete. well as various surface coatings and textures that can be used to
– Polyurethane paints can be formulated to produce flexible create an individual design for each home. These finishes can be
waterproof coatings with good UV resistance. Water vapour continued internally, or more conventional wall finishes (such as
does not pass through them easily, though, so they cannot battens and plasterboard) can be used instead.
be used on damp concrete.
– Acrylic and methacrylate coatings can be pigmented, are 9.1 General Design Considerations
good at resisting water, carbon dioxide and UV, and do not Simplicity of finish should be the primary objective.
collect dirt. Most of these polymers are not very flexible, but
some flexible acrylic formulations are available. The concrete mix design should be appropriate for the quality of
surface finish required. It should be cohesive and rich enough to
8.8.2 Weatherproofing Jointing reproduce any fine textures that have been specified. To ensure
All joints in a concrete panel home must be sealed properly to a uniform colour on concrete surfaces, it is necessary to maintain
prevent water and wind from entering the structure. This section a consistent supply of cement, aggregate and sand. Good mix
discusses available weatherproofing materials that can be used in design, including controlling of the water-cement ratio and
these joints. (For further information on joints and their detailing, minimum cement content, will also help maintain colour
refer to Chapter 7, “Panel Jointing”.) consistency. (Note it is these considerations, rather than structural
ones, which may determine the specification of the concrete.)
In selecting the sealant material, take into account the width of
the joints, the depth of the sealant, and the anticipated movement Simple surface treatments are:
between the panels.
• Rebating and grooving
The most commonly-used sealant types are silicones and • Surface coatings
polyurethanes, as they have the best properties for coping with • Cement-based renders
both external conditions and movement between panels.
Other more complex treatments can also be used, such as:
• Silicones (organopolysiloxane with a curing agent). Advantages
include a transparent finish, excellent resistance to UV and • Formliners
high temperatures, ease of application, and excellent adhesion • Oxide colouring
to the parent material. Disadvantages include a low tensile • Exposed aggregate
strength and resistance to abrasion, non-paintability, an
inability to bond to themselves, and the uneven quality of the To ensure that a particular surface treatment or combination of
products currently on the market. Silicones are most suitable treatments meets with the specified requirements, it may be
for expansion joints. necessary to construct one or more test panels prior to the
• Polyurethanes (reaction products of isocyanates and polyols). casting and treatment of all the panels.
Advantages include a fast curing time, ease of application,
a wide choice of products, and a wide range of uses. 9.1.1 Casting Surface
Disadvantages include sensitivity to moisture, moderate UV In most cases, the casting surface will have a direct bearing of
resistance, and low temperature resistance. These are the the finish quality of the panel, as any imperfections on the casting
most commonly-used type of sealant for concrete panel surface will be reflected on the panel surface. Care should be
construction and expansion joints. taken that its finish is uniform over the casting area, and that
its flatness is controlled.
Paintability The chemical composition of the sealant, and of its
solvents and curing agents, will determine its paintability and the For cast on-site panels, to reduce the risk of a joint on the
types of paint that can be used on it. As a general rule, an elastic casting bed being reflected in the panel, restrict the location
sealant should not be painted over, as the paint is not as elastic of contraction and construction joints in the area of the casting.
as the sealant and may crack over time. If this is not possible, the joints should be filled with plaster
(which can be removed after casting) and the surface smoothed
over to match the texture of the surrounding floor. Any surface
penetrations should be filled and inspected for smoothness
before pouring.

9.1.2 Surface Flatness

Surface flatness affects the final appearance of concrete wall
panels. In large unbroken walls, for example, strong glancing
light can accentuate any unevenness in the panel surface.

Texturing purposely provides relief from large expanses of flatness

by creating shadows. The greater the depth of texturing, the less
noticeable will be the shadows created by glancing light.

C&CAA 33
 Surface coatings can diffuse light over the surface. The less gloss guidance to defining both satisfactory surface colour and texture
the coating, and the greater the degree of texturing, the more the which subsequent production panels can be matched.
effect is enhanced. Textured coatings are usually more costly than
traditional paint systems, so the final selection of finish may need It is recommended that these panels are produced at full size and
to balance desired degree of texturing against cost. ideally they would be the first few panels produced. Small sample
panels (that can range from 150 x 150 mm tiles to 1 x 1 metre
9.2 Surface Finishes Under Australian Standards panels) will only provide a guide to the overall visual effect of a
Australian Standard AS 3610, Formwork for Concrete, covers surface finish and it will be difficult to compare a small sample
only off-form surfaces and does not apply to unformed or panel over a full size wall panel. A full size panel may fall within
subsequently-treated surfaces (including pigment-coloured the range of the sample panels when compared in isolated areas
concrete). It would be inappropriate, for instance, to specify over the whole wall panel, but an overall visual effect may be
AS 3610 as the standard for an exposed aggregate finish that is patchy when examining the wall as a whole.
both unformed and surface treated.
The construction of the prototype or sample panels should
Australian Standard AS 3600, Concrete Structures, makes replicate the conditions and materials that will exist during panel
mention of a S-Class concrete that can be used to specify production, including:
colour concrete applications, as well as any other non-standard
concrete mixes. • Consistency of mix, water/cement ratio, and dosage rate of
oxide pigments.
9.2.1 Applied Low-Build Finishes • Type of formwork and its absorption rates.
For applied low-build finishes, such as paint, the concrete panel • Types and application of release agents and curing compounds
should comply with good concreting practices. AS 3610 may • Methods and rates of curing.
require treatment of air holes or other minor imperfections in • Methods of panel storage.
the surface of the panel before application of the surface coating.
Unless otherwise agreed, this treatment is usually the client’s The constructed prototype or sample panel should be stored near
responsibility. the panels that will be compared against it, but in a place where
it will not be damaged during the duration of the project. Panels
9.2.2 Surface Classes from AS 3610 should be compared to each other when they are standing side
Class 1 This is the highest standard with the most rigorous by side in the same light, and the comparison should be made
specification of off-form surface finish available. It should be from a few metres away. Panels should be inspected while
used only for “very special features of buildings of a monumental they are dry, as minor imperfections, colour variations, and
nature” that can be cast in a single pour. A Class 1 off-form even “hairline” cracks may be masked when the surface of
surface finish is not suitable for concrete wall panels, and the panel is wet.
should never be specified in domestic construction.
9.3 Rebating and Grooving
Class 2 This class is specified for most high-quality architectural One of the cheapest and easiest ways of making a flat panel
concrete finishes. The resulting finish should be uniform in quality visually interesting is to include grooves or rebates into the
and texture over large areas. It is intended to to have a superior surface of the panel. Timber, steel, polystyrene or polyethylene
appearance when viewed at close quarters. This is the highest strips can be used to form the grooves, chamfers or rebates.
level that should be specified for concrete wall panels (though it Such blockouts can be spot-fixed to the casting bed or formwork
may still be too high a level for what is required for most houses). with contact adhesive or anchors, and should have stripping
Producing this level of finish may cost more than producing a tapers on their vertical faces for easy removal.
Class 3 finish.

Class 3 This class of finish has a good appearance when viewed

DUMMY GROOVE FORM-STRIP FIXED TO CASTING BED
at close quarters. For concrete wall panels meant for a home, this
level of finish is usually the most suitable and cost-effective one. DESIRABLE STRIPPING TAPER
This level of off-form surface finish should usually be the lowest
one specified for concrete wall panels. 1 CASTING BED

4
Classes 4 and 5 These classes of finish are for concrete elements
whose appearance is not important, such as those that will be
concealed from view. These finishes can be specified for visible
surfaces that will later be surface-coated-but as Class 4 and 5
finishes can be quite rough, you will need to ensure that the
surface doesn’t end up too rough to take the surface coating.
Figure 9.1 Typical Groove Formers
9.2.3 Prototype and Sample Panels
As the current Australian Standards do not specifically cover The depth of any groove or rebate will reduce the structural
coloured or textured concrete, it is prudent to include prototype section of the panel, so this must be considered in the design of
or sample panels in any specification agreement. the panel. Grooves and rebates should never be more than 20 mm
deep; 10 mm is usually sufficient to achieve the desired effect.
The principle purpose of prototype or sample panels is to define
what is achievable and satisfactory for a particular project. 9.4 Applied Surface Coatings
Defining the colour and texture range over a panel or panels for a Surface coatings are the easiest way to improve the appearance
whole project is difficult and at times can be very subjective to all of a smooth flat concrete panel. Coatings help mask minor
parties involved. The provision for sample or prototype panels that imperfections and colour variations in the concrete surface and
have been approved by all parties and thus become the controls can also be used to give an identity to the building.
for an acceptable range of variation will provide assistance and

34 C&CAA
Table 9.1 Surface Coating Treatments

Coating Type Coating Thickness Method of Application Colour Range

Paint 100% acrylic, matt or flat Up to 50 microns (2 coats) Brush, roller or spray Extensive

Paint 100% acrylic, gloss Up to 50 microns (2 coats) Brush, roller or spray Extensive

Paint Chlorinated rubber, satin Up to 50 microns (2 coats) Brush, broom or roller Extensive

Low texture coating Acrylic base with texture 250-500 microns Spray, roller or trowel Extensive – some products
building filler may require over-coating

High texture coating Acrylic base with texture 500 microns to 4 mm Spray, roller or trowel Extensive – can be
including small building filler, (experienced applicator over-coated to produce
exposed aggregate one or two part system recommended) matt or gloss finishes

High texture coating Acrylic based system Up to 25 mm aggregate size Specialised applicator Aggregate as selected
including large required
exposed aggregate

The surface preparation, the required class of concrete finish, and 9.4.2 Renders
the extent to which imperfections can be masked will all depend Cement-based renders can be used to coat the surfaces of
on the product chosen. The manufacturer’s recommendations for concrete wall panels to create a decorative coloured and textured
application rates and methods should always be followed. finish. Renders are becoming more popular, as they are very good
at giving the panel a naturally-coloured and textured surface that
9.4.1 Parent Surface Preparation and Surface Coatings is cost-effective to produce and easy to maintain.
Before using surface coatings, it is very important to remove
all traces of bond breaker, release agent, or curing compound, A cement-based render is usually made up of the following
because if they are not compatible with the coating, the coating materials:
may not adhere. Most bond breakers and curing compounds will
break down when exposed to ultraviolet light, but this may take • Cement – General purpose grey cement is normally used, but
some time; meanwhile, some traces may remain even after high if a light-coloured finish is required, an off-white cement can be
pressure or hydrochloric acid washes. The simplest method of used instead.
checking for residual traces of these compounds is to splash • Lime – Hydrated lime is added to the mix to give the render a
an area of the panel with water. The water should be immediately creamier, more workable consistency. It also helps to minimise
absorbed, and darken the concrete, and not bead on the surface. cracking.
If a slippery, shiny or oily film forms, then there is still residual • Sand – The sand should be a good quality one. A coarsely
compound on the panel. graded sand is suitable for the undercoats, while a finer-graded
sand should be used for the finishing coat.
The environment that the coating will be exposed to should be • Water – The water should be clean and free from impurities.
taken into account, and the manufacturer’s advice sought. The Mains water or drinkable water is usually suitable.
coatings should be carried under flashings and parapets, to • Pigments – A variety of colours are available (as discussed
prevent raw edges where water can penetrate. The surface should later in this chapter) that can be added to the render. They
be carefully prepared as required for the selected coating, paying should not exceed 5% of the weight of cement in the mix, and
particular attention to cleaning, patching and filling. All loose they must be thoroughly mixed with the other materials before
surface contaminants should be removed. the water is added. It is a good idea to produce a sample of
the coloured render and allow it to dry before starting the job,
The moisture level and temperature of the concrete at the time of to ensure that the colour is correct.
application should also be taken into consideration. The surface of
the panel must have a moisture content of no more than 5% when Renders can be either individually mixed or purchased in pre-
the surface coating is applied; excess moisture in the panel may mixed bags. If they are individually mixed, the proportions of the
prevent the coating from adhering. The panels should be left for mix will vary depending on the type of background surface and
a minimum of 28 days to cure, and then their moisture content the type of exposure it will receive.
should be checked. Moisture meters can be used to measure the
moisture level of a panel, but a simpler method is to attaching a Table 9.2 Render Mixes
one-metre-square sheet of impermeable thick plastic onto the
panel surface, sealing it around all its edges, and leaving it for Mix Exposure Application
24 hours. If after this time there is visible moisture on the inside (cement : lime : sand) conditions
of the plastic, then the panel’s moisture content is still too high
1 : 1/4 : 3 Internal Single coat, undercoat
to apply the coating.
work (2 part)

Any concrete surface that is meant to receive a “low-build” paint 1 : 1/4 : 5 Internal Finish-coat work (2 part)
coating and then be seen at close quarters should have a skim 1 : / : 4/
14 12 External Strong mix for strong
coat specified under the paint system. background surfaces

[Link] External Moderate strength mix

Table 9.1 briefly summarises the most commonly-used surface for porous and weaker
coatings. This information is meant to be used as a guide, background surfaces
and should be supplemented with your manufacturer’s
[Link] External Final coat for weak
recommendations.
background surfaces
in shelter conditions

C&CAA 35
 Parent Surface Preparation The surface should be clean, and 9.5 Integral Colouring and Texturing Concrete
free of release agents, bond breakers, loose materials, and so on. Another way of colouring or texturing a concrete panel is to
Purpose-made bonding agents, applied in accordance with colour or texture the concrete itself. Specific types of cement,
manufacturer’s instructions, can improve adhesion. After initial aggregates and pigments can be used to give the panel a
preparation, the parent surface should be dampened and allowed particular colour or texture. Formliners or stamps can create
to dry immediately before rendering. patterns on the surface of the panel. Colours and textures can
be used in combination to create further variations.
Table 9.3 Parent Surface Preparation
The main constituents of concrete – the cement and the
Parent surface Building material Treatment aggregates – play a large part in determining the final colour and
texture of the concrete. The colour can, if necessary, be modified
Smooth, strong High-strength concrete Scabble surface and
apply dash coat * further with mineral oxides.

Strong, porous Standard concrete Rake joints and

Cement Cement is produced in grey, off-white, and white, and
apply dash coat *
the colour you choose will have a direct effect on the colour of the
Weak, porous Lightweight concrete, Dampen surface surface finish. Shades vary from manufacturer to manufacturer,
render undercoat so all the cement should come from one source to ensure a
consistent colour. White and off-white cements are more
* Dash coats are used to provide a high-strength bond between consistent in colour–but are also more expensive.
the parent surface and render coat. Dash coats contain one
part cement to one or two parts sand. The coat is flicked and Aggregates In exposed aggregate finishes, the aggregates will
splattered over the parent surface to produce a rough finish to influence the colour. The colour of the sand or fine aggregate
‘key’ with the render coat. will tend to dominate in lightly-exposed aggregate finishes (like
abrasive blasting, acid etching, or surface set retarders), while
Number of Coats One or two coats are usually required for most the colour of the coarse aggregates will dominate in more heavily-
concrete panels. A minimum of three days should be allowed exposed finishes (such as water washing, heavy abrasive blasting,
between coats. Undercoats are usually applied by trowel to a or honing and polishing).
thickness of 10 to 15 mm, and when firm should be raked or
scratched to provide a key for the next coat. The final coat should Mineral Oxide Pigments Mineral oxides occur naturally in soil
be no more than 10 mm thick. and rock, but they are also made synthetically. Synthetic oxides
are more widely-used because they are purer, more uniform,
Decorative Textured Finishes A variety of decorative textured and better colouring agents. They are suitable for concrete
finishes can be produced on the final coat with different finishing because of their chemical inertness: they do not react with
techniques. The application of these finishes can be difficult, so a the alkalies in cement, and they resist fading under exposure to
competent tradesperson should do the job. Some of the finishes weather and UV light.
that can be created include:
Unlike dyes, which colour by staining, mineral oxides are insoluble
• Trowelled Finish – Created by skimming the final coat with a in water and colour the concrete by masking the cement matrix.
wood float to produce a dense surface that can appear either They come in either powder or liquid, and are available in a wide
smooth or notched in texture. range of colours.
• Bagged – Created by rubbing damp hessian into the final coat.
• Sponged – Created by mopping or sponging the unhardened 9.5.1 Colouring
surface with a damp sponge. (Excess water from the sponge Integral Colouring Integrally coloured (or “colour-through”)
should not be allowed to run down the wall.) concrete is concrete whose entire mass is coloured. If used
• Roughcast – The final coat is thrown or flicked onto the wall in the correct proportions, the colouring oxides do not have a
with no additional rework. significant effect on the strength of concrete. The amount of
oxide required is usually no more than 5% of the weight of the
Control Joints Cement-based renders can crack as a result cement, and must be thoroughly mixed into the concrete mix
of shrinkage or movement in the parent material. To minimise to ensure consistency of colour.
cracking, control joints should be placed to coincide with all
joints in the parent material and with all locations where Coloured Topping Slabs A monolithic topping is a layer of
movement is likely to occur. concrete that is placed on top a structural panel while the
concrete is still plastic, allowing the two to bond as they set
Curing All render coats (undercoats, dash coats, and final coats) and harden together into a single (or “monolithic”) element. This
should be kept damp for the first three days, or until the next process reduces costs, as only the topping is coloured. The
coat is applied. Render should not be allowed to dry out quickly. concrete topping usually consists of a 10 mm aggregate mix in
Don’t render in direct sunlight or in exposed windy areas, as a layer from 25 to 40 mm thick.
these conditions will dry out the render too quickly and reduce its
strength. Fresh render should be protected for the first three days Dry Shake Toppings These toppings are created by hand-
after application. If plastic sheeting is used for protection, ensure broadcasting a coloured dry-shake mixture over the surface of the
that the sheeting does not touch the render, as this may lead to panel, following the evaporation of the bleed water. The surface is
discolouration. Internal render should not require any additional floated (ideally by hand, though this may not be practical for large
protection, as long as the building itself provides enough. areas). If a power float is used, care must be taken not to work
the coloured mixture into the surface of the panel–but even then,
up to three coats may be required to produce a uniform finish.
The coloured dry-shake toppings can be supplied pre-bagged;
they contain mineral oxides, cement, sand, and a surface
hardener to strengthen the coloured surface.

36 C&CAA
9.5.2 Off-form Texturing and Stamping • Light Blasting – Exposes the fine aggregates (sand). The
Off-form finishes are produced by casting concrete against a dominating colour is from the sand, while the colour of the
mould, formliner, or form-face, which imparts its texture or pattern cement paste and coarse aggregates are secondary. This type
to the surface of the concrete. The most common example of this of abrasion can be performed when the panel is between 7
technique is the standard smooth off-form finish. Off-form finishes and 45 days old.
are usually created on the lower face of the panel (the side on the • Medium Blasting – Exposes the coarse aggregates so that they
casting bed). project approximately 3 to 6 mm proud of the surface. The
coarse aggregates should be hard enough not to be eroded
Stamping is a method of imprinting the concrete surface by during the blasting. This type of abrasion should be performed
pressing a stamping-mould or tool into it. Metal dies or rollers with before the panels are 7 days old, and the use of a chemical
textured rubber mats can be used to replicate stonework. This kind retarder is recommended.
of texturing is carried out on the upper (trowelled) face of the panel. • Heavy Blasting – Results in the coarse aggregates projecting
by up to a third of their diameters from the surface. To achieve
If you plan to use these types of finishes, keep the following uniformity, a higher-than-usual proportion of coarse aggregates
points in mind: is usually required in the mix. The colour is dominated by the
coarse aggregates. This type of abrasion should be performed
• Textured or replicated surface finishes can hide imperfections within 24 hours after casting, before the concrete has reached
in the concrete surfaces. full hardness. The use of a chemical retarder is recommended.
• Good formliner materials include polystyrene, rigid plastics,
fibreglass, polyurethane rubber, silicone rubber, steel plates Key points to consider for abrasive blasting:
and timber battens.
• The choice of formliner material should take into account the • An experienced operator is necessary if the finish is to be
complexity of the formliner, the required surface texture, and uniform.
the number of times the liner is to be reused. Undercut • The concrete must be placed and compacted well, as sand
surfaces should be formed with flexible liners, such as blasting will reveal any air pockets or uneven compaction.
polyurethane or silicone rubber, so they can be stripped • All panels must be abrasive-blasted at the same age, so that
without damaging the panel. the finish will be uniform.
• Joints created by abutting liners must be sealed well, as • After sand blasting, a light acid wash should be used to clean
leakage can cause discrepancies in both the texture and the the surface.
colour of the rest of the panel.
• High temperatures can degrade the liner material. Prolonged Acid Etching In this method, a diluted acid is applied to the
exposure to direct sunlight can also damage formliners. concrete panel to remove the surface and expose the underlying
• Formliners should be cleaned thoroughly and coated with a aggregates. The resulting textures usually resembles fine
compatible release agent before they’re reused. sandpaper (though deeper etches are possible if it’s necessary
to expose the coarse aggregate).
9.5.3 Exposed Aggregate Finishes
Exposed aggregate finishes by definition reveal the aggregates Key points to consider for acid-etching:
(sand and stones) near the surface of the panel, which are
otherwise hidden by a thin layer of cement paste (matrix). This • An experienced applicator should always be used.
can be produced by various techniques that result in different • The concrete must be high-density, well-compacted, free from
depths of exposure and texture. Techniques include abrasive cracks, and of sufficient thickness above the reinforcement.
blasting, acid etching, bush hammering, water washing, honing • The panel should be inclined during etching to prevent the acid
and polishing. from pooling and etching some areas more than others.
• After etching, the surface must be thoroughly washed with
The type of aggregate used will affect both the density of water to remove residual acid.
exposure and the colour of the final finish. Coarse aggregates are
available in a wide range of colours, including white, black, green Water Washing This technique is performed on the panel once it
quartz, dark grey basalt, brown and red gravels. Sands are also has stiffened, but while it is still plastic. The top surface of the
available in a range of colours. The cement matrix can also be panel is sprayed with water to wash away the cement paste and
coloured, using mineral oxide pigments that either complement exposing the coarse aggregates underneath, so that they project
or contrast with the aggregate. from the surface by up to a third of their diameters. The exposed
aggregates are non-absorbent, so this finish is good at resisting
Grading As defined by Australian Standard AS 2758.1 – staining from air-borne grime, and is therefore low-maintenance.
Aggregates and Rock for Engineering Purposes – Concrete
Aggregates, a coarse aggregate has a nominal size of not less Key points to consider for water washing:
than 5 mm, and a fine aggregate is smaller than 5 mm.
• Aggregates should be 10-14 mm in diameter. Dense stones
Abrasive Blasting Also called sandblasting or grit-blasting, this (such as river gravels, crushed granites, and rounded or cubic
technique involves blasting the surface of the panel with sand, quartz) are the most suitable types.
boiler slag or carborundum to remove a specified amount of the • A gap-graded mix (a mix with just one size of aggregate)
surface. It produces a cost-effective finish with good weathering produces a more uniform surface than one with different sizes
characteristics. of aggregate.
• Stock piling specified aggregates will help maintain colour
There are four grades of abrasion: consistency.
• The cement matrix can be coloured with mineral oxides that
• Brush Blasting – A light surface texture, similar to sandpaper, either complement or contrast with the aggregates.
that does not reveal the coarse aggregates. The dominating
colour is from the cement paste. This type of abrasion can be
performed after the panel is seven days old.

C&CAA 37
 • Panels are usually cast face up so that they can be washed Lightweight column façades can also be used to clad supporting
while the concrete is still plastic. If the panels are cast face timber or steel columns. These column façades can be installed
down, then a surface set retarder is used, and the panels are on both load-and non-load-bearing columns. Again, installation
washed immediately after they have been stripped. should be in accordance with the supplier’s instructions to ensure
• If the panels are cast face down, you can lay split rock, a long-lasting façade.
cobbles or thin brick tiles onto the casting bed after it has
been lined with surface set retarder (but before pouring).
After the panel is stripped, the surface of the concrete can
be washed away, exposing the rock, cobbles or tiles.

Honing and Polishing Honed or polished concrete is produced by

grinding the surface to expose the underlying aggregates. The
resulting finish can range from a dull honed finish to a high-lustre
polished finish. The type of aggregate determines the possible
level of polish. Most commercial quartzites, limestone and basalt
can be honed, but not highly polished. Granites (of various
colours), quartz and river gravels composed primarily of quartz
can be highly polished. Keep in mind that this technique is usually
much more expensive than any of the others.

Key points to consider for honing and polishing:

• A gap-graded mix (a mix with just one size of aggregate)

produces a more uniform surface than one with different sizes
of aggregate.
• Some aggregates contain silica, which will react with the
alkalies in the cement. This reaction produces an alkali-silica
gel that swells with moisture and causes the concrete to crack.
Common aggregates of this type that should be avoided are
chert, chalcedony, common opal, acidic or vitreous volcanic Figure 9.2 Decorative External Façade Mouldings: Window
stone (such as obsidian), and mica. Mouldings. Image supplied by [Link].
• Other aggregates (such as ironstone) can contain enough iron
content to produce a rusty stain when exposed to the
atmosphere, and should be avoided.
• Aggregates should be stock piled to better maintain colour
consistency. It is a good idea to produce test samples or
prototypes of the specified finish for inspection to maintain
quality.
• The cement paste can also be coloured using mineral oxides.
(For details, refer to Section 9.5.1, “Colouring”.)
• Small, awkward areas, such as reveals and internal corners,
can be polished using small hand tools.
• Care should be taken when polishing the edges or corners of
the panel, as they are vulnerable to chipping. A chamfer or
bevel should be provided along these edges if possible.

9.6 Decorative Exterior Façade Mouldings

Decorative exterior façade mouldings can be used to add interest
to the exterior of a concrete panel home. A large range of these
products is available for improving the appearance of a plain,
flat wall: Figure 9.3 Decorative External Façade Mouldings. Image
supplied by [Link].
• Window mouldings (heads, sills, and reveals)
• Door mouldings
• Stringer, keystone and quoin profiles
• Parapet profiles
• Corbel mouldings
• Arch mouldings

The particular product range and profiles will vary with the supplier,
but these products are usually made of a lightweight core material
reinforced with a hard coating of resin and/or cementicious
material. They are typically mechanically fixed to the concrete
panels, and their joints are sealed. The assembly can then be
painted, or a coating applied to match the rest of the wall.

Preparation of the panel surface and installation of the mouldings

or profiles should be in accordance with the supplier’s instructions Figure 9.4 Decorative External Façade Mouldings: Column
to ensure a long-lasting façade detail. Mouldings. Image supplied by [Link].

38 C&CAA