CHEMISTRY FORM THREE & FOUR

1. CHEMICAL EQUATION
2. HARDNESS OF WATER
3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALT
4. MOLE CONCEPT
5. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS AND VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
6. IONIC THEORY AND ELECTROLYSIS
7. CHEMICAL KINETICS, EQUILIBRIUM AND ENERGETICS
8. EXTRACTION OF METALS
9. COMPOUNDS OF METAL
10. NON METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
11. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
12. SOIL CHEMISTRY
13. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
14. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

SUBJECT HANDOUT
Prepared by Sr. Donny
Phone: 0652980744/0683397380/0756306037
Mail:tarimodionis@[Link]
 1. CHEMICAL EQUATION
A chemical equation is a short way of describing exactly what happens during a chemical reaction.
Chemical equations must;
1. Tell the truth or represent the facts
2. Show symbols of elements and formula of products and reactants
3. Be balanced
4. Bear state symbols (s), (1), (g) and (aq) for substances dissolved in water (aqueous - water).
A state symbols s, 1, g and aq that appear in chemical equation described as:-
s - Solid state of chemical component.
1 - Liquid state of chemical component,
g - gaseous state of chemical component,
aq - a dissolved chemical component in water.
NB: Reactants and products are separated using an arrow →

BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATION

Balancing of the chemical equations is done so as to obey the law of conversation of matter which states;
“Matter can never be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction “.
When balancing the chemical equation we change the coefficient only.
Examples;

The coefficient of chemical symbol describe single molecule of component A component of single molecule,
its coefficient does not written on chemical symbol and considered as single molecule e.g. 02 in an equation
above. And all units multiple coefficients are written on chemical symbol e.g. 2H2 in equation above.

 When balancing don't consider anything which is above or below the line
 When balancing statement or equations like this find the 1 cm of the two numbers 2. 3 to get 6
5. KNO3 KNO2 + o2
 If oxygen is alone then reduce the oxygen atoms

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KNO3 → KNO2+ 1/2 o2
 Eliminate denominator by multiplying 2 throughout

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS INCLUDE,

1) Decomposition reactions.
Decomposition reaction is that reaction, where by giant molecules of chemical component break-up into simple
molecules. Decomposition can be influenced by heating or catalysis.
Examples;
By heating

There are two types of decomposition by heating.

2) Thermal decomposition.
Is the type of decomposition reactions which are irreversible.
Example;

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NOTE;

Δ is a symbol for decomposition

3) Thermal dissociation
Is a type of decomposition reaction which is reversible.

4) Synthesis (combination) reactions

Simpler compounds combine to form one compound (opposite of decomposition)
Examples:

5) Displacement reactions
In these reactions one element displaces another element from a compound
Example;

6) Double decomposition reactions

The compound exchange their radicals
AB + CD → AD + CB
B and D are only to be interchanged. The reactants are always aqueous
AgN03(aq) + NaCl(aq) -» AgCl(s) + NaN03(aq)
The reactant must be soluble in water and one of the product must be either solid or a gas or liquid
7) Neutralization.
This is the type of reaction which involves acid and base which react to produce salt and water only.
All metal oxide is basic in nature.
Base + Water = Alkali.
Not all bases are alkalis but all alkalis are bases because not all bases form alkalis.
Examples

QUESTION;
Complete and balance;
Classify the following chemical reactions;

o 2Mg 4 + 02 → 2MgO

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Synthesis reaction
o N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
Synthesis reaction
o 2H2 02 → 2H20 + 02
Decomposition reaction
o CuS02 + H2S → CuS + H2S04
Double decomposition
o Zn + CuS04 → ZnS04 + Cu
Displacement reaction

Writing a balanced chemical equation for the following:

 Iron + Sulphur → Iron sulphide

 Decomposition of calcium carbonate
 Magnesium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid -» Magnesium chloride +Sodium chloride
 Silver nitrate + Sodium chloride → Silver chloride + Sodium nitrate
 Potassium + Sulphuric acid -> Potassium sulphate + Hydrogen gas

IONIC EQUATIONS
These are reactions equations written by omitting the spectator ions (ions remaining even after the reaction.
STEPS OF WRITING IONIC EQUATION
1. Balance the equation;

2. Split all solid and soluble ionic compound on the reactants side and only the soluble ionic compounds
on the product side into individual ions

3. Omit the ions found on both side of the equation

4. Write the equation for remaining species (ionic equation)

.QUESTION;

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 2. HARDNESS OF WATER
INTRODUCTION
Water is very essential substance for all living things. Over 70% of the earth is water and there are different
sources of water for daily use. These sources include rivers, lakes, wells, ponds, springs, and streams.
Water can also be obtained from taps that are supplied with treated from the local or nearest water works.
In some places, water lathers easily with soap, this water is said to be soft. In other places, the same amount of
soap would give scum and very little lather. This water is said to be hard. Scum is an insoluble layer of
impurities that accumulates at the surface of a liquid, especially water.
Hardness of water is caused by dissolved calcium and magnesium compounds. They include calcium, calcium
hydrogen carbonate, magnesium sulphate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate.
For example

The soap and the hardness join to form scum. The other compound sodium sulphate which is formed dissolves
in water.
Calcium hydrogen carbonate is the most common cause of hardness of water. It forms when rain falls on the
rocks of limestone and chalk, which are mainly composed of the insoluble calcium carbonate. As the rain falls
through the air, it dissolves carbon dioxide to form weak acidic solution. This solution is able to attack the
calcium carbonate to form the soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate.
Water + carbon dioxide + calcium carbonate → calcium hydrogen carbonate
H20(1) + C02(g) + CaC03(s) → Ca (HC03)2(aq)
Dolomite and gypsum are other rocks that are sources of hard water.

TYPES OF HARDNESS OF WATER,

There are two types of hardness of water, namely Temporary and Permanent hardness of water.
Hardness caused by calcium hydrogen carbonate is called temporary hardness because it can be removed by
boiling the water.
Ca(HC03)2 (aq) → H20 + C02+ CaC03 (s)
Hardness caused by other calcium and magnesium compounds is called Permanent Hardness. This is because
boiling does not affect it.
HOW TO REMOVE PERMANENT HARDNESS OF WATER
Permanent hardness of water can be removed by:
i) Distillation; This gets rid of both temporary and permanent hardness.
ii) Adding sodium carbonate (washing soda); This is added to the water to precipitate calcium
carbonate. It removes both types of hardness of water for example, its reaction with sodium
sulphate is;

iii) Ion exchangers; These can remove both types of water hardness by removing all the calcium and
magnesium ions in the water.
An ion exchanger is a container full of small beads. These are made of special plastic called ion exchanger
resin. This has ions for example, sodium ions that are weakly attached to it.

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When hard water is passed through the ion exchanger, the calcium and magnesium ions in the water change
places with the sodium ions and attach themselves to the resin. The calcium and magnesium ions are therefore
left behind in the resin as the soft water flows out with the sodium ions.
After some time, all the sodium ions will have been replaced and the exchanger cannot remove hardness
anymore. This is resolved by regeneration of the resin by pouring a concentrated solution of sodium chloride
into the exchanger.
The sodium ion pushes the calcium and magnesium ions off the resin, making the ion exchanger ready for use
again.

The Ca2+ from the hard water replaces the Na+ ions in the ions exchanger; softened water (with Na ions) leaves
the ion exchanger to be used in the household.
The samples of water that do not lather easily are of hard water. These include the sea water and sometimes the
tap water. The boiled, distilled and rain water easily form lather with soap and are therefore soft water.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER,

 ADVANTAGES:
 It tastes better due to dissolved compounds.
 It provides useful calcium for the growth of bones and teeth.
 The formation of lime scale in pipes forms a sort of insulation which prevents the water in the tap from
coming into contact with the metal of the pipe. This prevents pipe corrosion and poisonous metal salts from
getting dissolved in the water.
 DISADVANTAGES:
• The temporary hardness of water causes lime scale in water boilers, hot water pipes, kettles and other
appliances, this makes them less efficient.
Scaling can also cause blockage in the appliances and has to be removed from time to time.
• Hard water needs more soap than soft water, so it means a lot of soap is wasted.
• Hard water leaves scum deposits that are difficult to wash out and causes damage various articles.

WATER TREATMENT
Before water is used in the public water supply, it has to be treated, not to make it pure but to make it safe to
drink.
The various stages include:
o Filtration to remove any large objects such as algae or parasites.

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o Precipitation of mineral salts such as iron salts using alum (calcium hydroxide).
o Filtration through a sand bed- this is a biological process. A gelatinous layer is used for trap unwanted
particles.
o Chlorination. Treating with chlorine kills harmful bacteria in the water- this is a disinfectant.
o Fluoridation. Adding sodium fluoride in small quantities. Fluorides harden the enamel on teeth and
reduce dental problems. Not all water is treated in this way.
As much as a supply of clean, safe water is essential to ensure good health, we must not forget that safe
disposal of used water is of equal importance. This becomes especially important when people live close
together in towns and cities.
In a city it is essential to have a system for the disposal of used water. We call this a sewage system.

The processes involved in sewage treatment plants are outlined below.

 The sewage that enters a treatment plant contains debris that might damage the pumps and machinery
such materials are removed by screens or vertical bars. After removal, this debris is burned or buried.
 The waste water then passes through a grinder where leaves and other organic materials are reduced in
size for efficient treatment and removal later.
 Next, grit is removed in grit chambers. The grit is removed and the disposed of as sanitary landfill.
 With grit removed, the water passes into a sedimentation tank, in which organic materials settle out and
are drawn off for disposal. An alternative to sedimentation that is used in the treatment of some waste water is
flotation, in which air is forced into the waste water under pressure of 1.75 to 3.5kg/ms2. The waste water,
supersaturated with air, is then discharged into an open tank, there the rising air bubbles cause the suspended
solid to rise to the surface, where they are removed.

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 3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALT
BASE
A base is a substance which contains the oxide ion or hydroxide ion and reacts with acid to give salt and water
only
Example;
Ca(OH)2 + HC1 → CaCl2 + H20
CaO + HC1 -> CaCl2 + H20
Or
A base is a soluble substance which accepts a proton
Example; H+ + NH3 -> NH4+
A soluble base is called Alkali
The Alkali's are
Potassium hydroxide → KOH
Sodium hydroxide → Na OH
Ammonium hydroxide (Ammonia solution) = NH4OH
Calcium hydroxide (slacked line) → Ca(OH)2
The solution of Ca(0H)2 in water is called lime water
Ca(OH)2 = sparingly soluble
Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia ……… Mg(OH)2
It‘s also sparingly soluble
The soluble bases when in solution produce OH- as their only negative ion
Example;
NaOH(aq)-> Na++ 0H-
NH4+ + OH- -> NH40H(aq)

PROPERTIES OF BASES
1. Alkalis have a soapy feeling (slippery)
2. Alkalis have bitter taste
3. Alkalis turn red to blue litmus paper
4. They react with acids and water only Question: which bases combine to form NaCl?
5. Alkalis yield ammonia when warmed with ammonium salts
Example;
NH4CI + KOH → NH3 + H20 + KCI

Examples;
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
USES OF BASES
 Softening water. Example; Calcium hydroxide
 Making fertilizers. Example; (NH4)2S04 as sulphate of Ammonia
 Used as antacids in stomach. Example; Mg (OH}, CaO
 For manufacturing of paper soap etc especially in industries

QUESTION;
Calculate percentage of hydrogen in compound (HCL)
H + Cl
1 + 35.5 = 36.5 (atomic masses)

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H% = 1/36.5 x 100%
Cl% = 35.5/36.5 x 100%
What kind of equation is?
NH4CI+ KOH→ NH3 + H2O + KCI
Answer: Special case reaction

ACIDS
These are the substances which when in solution produce hydrogen ions as their only positive ions
Example;

An acid is a substance which turns blue litmus to red and which contains hydrogen replaceable by a metal
Example;

TYPES OF ACIDS
There are two types of acids
i) Mineral acids
ii) Organic acids
A; Mineral Acids
These are derived from substances formed from minerals, for example; from minerals
Acid Formula Source Formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl Common salt NaCl
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Sulphur S
Nitric acid HNO3 Chilean salt petre NaNO3
Carbonic acid H2CO3 Limestone CaCO3
The mineral salts that can be derived from the oxides are called oxy - acids (from the acidic/ non - metal
oxides)
B. ORGANIC ACIDS
These are derived from plants and animals source animal source (organic sources)
Example:
Acid Source
Lactic acid Sour milk
Acetic acid Vinegar
Tartaric acids Grapes
Citric acid Citreous fruits

STRENGTH QF ACIDS
Strength of acids are classified into two
i) Strong acids
ii) Weak acids

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STRONG ACIDS
These are acids which ionize completely in aqueous solution
Example;

WEAK ACIDS
These are acids which ionize partially in aqueous solution

All organic acids are weak

QUESTION;
Is phosphoric acid a strong or weak acid? What are strong bases or weak bases?

PROPERTIES QF ACIDS
• Have sour taste
• Action on indicators
Indicator is a substance which changes color in acids or bases
Example; litmus, methyl orange, phenolphthalein etc
Indicators Color in acids Color in alkali
Methyl orange Pink Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink
Bromothymol blue Yellow Blue
Litmus Red blue
• Corrosive action
A concentrated acid is a water molecule aspires. Acid dries any substance of water content in vigorous action,
thus bums skin of animals, leaves and stems of plants.
Example; concentrated H2S04, HCI etc
• Action with metal
Any metal which is above hydrogen in the activity series will replace hydrogen from the acid. The products of
these reactions are salt and hydrogen gas
Example;

• Action with metal oxides and hydroxides to form salt and water only
Example;
a) with metal oxides
ZnO + 2HC1 → ZnCl2 + H20
CuO + H2S04 -> CuS04 + H2O

b)With hydroxides
NaOH + HCI → NaCl + H20

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KOH + HN03 → KN03 + H20
• Action with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates (bicarbonates)
Acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates producing salt, water and CO2
Example;

• Action with sulphates

When acids react with sulphates, SO2, water and salts are produced
Example;
Na2S03 + 2HC1 -> 2NaCl + H20 + S02

BASICITY OF ACIDS
The basicity of an acid is the numbers of hydrogen ions (H+) produced by one mole of an acid in aqueous
solution
Example;

NB: All organic acids are monobasic

PH SCALE;-
It isn‘t possible to know exactly how strong an acid or base is by using an indicators. The term PH is used to
describe or show the exact strength of an acid or base. It shows the number of hydrogen ion concentration
The pH scale can be represented diagrammatically as show below;

1-4 Strong acid

5-6 Weak acid

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7 Neutral
8-9 Weak alkali
10-14 Strong alkali

USES OF ACIDS
Acids have the following uses;
a) Preparation of salts,
for example; from fertilizers
From bases/metals.

b) Preparation of other acids;

e.g.(N03)2 + H2S04 -> PbS04 + 2HN03
Example;
c) Manufacture of artificial silk
d) Clearing of metals, acids can combine with them to form salts can be easily removed out
e) Necessary for digestion of protein in the stomach.

SALTS
Definition: A salt is a compound consisting of a positive metallic ion (or) and negative ion derived from an
acid Types of salts;
 Acidic salts
 Normal salts
 Basic salts

- Acidic salts
This is the salt which contains part of the hydrogen ions of an acid
Example; Sodium hydrogen - sulphate Calcium hydrogen carbonate
- Normal salts
These are the salts which contain neither H+ ions from the acid nor O2- or OH+ ions from the base
Example; NaCl, MgCl2, MgS04, FeCl2, CaC03
- Basic salts
These are salts containing or ions from the base
Example; MgOHCl, ZnOHCl
Magnesium hydroxyl chloride and zinc hydroxyl chloride
O is incorrect because oxygen exists in molecule state but not in atomic
In previous salts was classified according to the nature of salts but in terms of solubility there are two types of
salts (i) Soluble salt (ii) Insoluble salt.

SOLUBILITY RULE states;

Soluble salts are;-
(i) All salts of (made of) K, Na and NH4+
Example; KN03, KC1, K2S04, K3P04, K2C03, NaHC03
This is an acidic salt (because it gives out 2 positive ions of Na and H)
i) All nitrates
Example; KN03
ii) All hydrogen carbonates

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 Example; NaHC03
(ii) All chlorides except
 Silver chloride (AgCl)
 Mercury (I) Chloride (HgCl)
 Lead (II) chloride (PbCl2) which is soluble in hot water
N.B: In reactions the compound above are considered as solids (s)
(iii) All sulphates except
- Barium sulphate.
- Lead (II) sulphate.
- Calcium sulphate is slightly soluble in water.
Insoluble salt are;
 All carbonates except those of K, Na, NH4
 All hydroxyl except those of K, Na, and Ca (which is slightly soluble in water)
Salt of strong acid and bases do not react with water
Solubility rule (summary)
o All salts of K, Na and are soluble
o All nitrates are soluble
o All sulphates are soluble except those Ba, lead (II) and Ca
o All chlorides are soluble except those Ag, lead (ii) and mercury (x)
o All carbonates and hydroxides are insoluble except those of K, Na,
NB: - All acids are soluble unless when concentrated (aq)
- All oxides are labeled by solids (s)

METHODS OF PREPARING SALTS

A: SOLUBLE SALTS
i) Direct combination of elements
Example; Burning Mg in chlorine gas
Mg + CI2 —► Mg Cl2
Pass hot A1 in Chlorine gas.
2Al(hot) + 3Cl -> 2A1C13
ii) Addition of a metal to a dilute acid. But this method is restricted to metals above hydrogen in the
reactivity series.
A metal below hydrogen cannot displace hydrogen
Example:
Zn + 2HC12 + H2(g)
Na + H2S04 → Na2S04 + H2(g)
iii) Addition of carbonates to a dilute acid.
Products = salt, water and carbon dioxide.
CaC03(s) + 2HC1 —> CaCl2(aq) + H20(l) + C02(g)
iv) Addition of an oxide to a dilute acid.
CaO + H2S04 → CaS04 + H20(l) + H20
v) The general method for preparing soluble salts is called crystallization,
for example; Preparation of ZnS04
Procedure;
1. Add excess Zn to dilute in a beaker Add few crystals of and few drops of concentrated to speed up the
reaction rate
a. If the reaction is still slow warm the mixture
b. When the reaction is over, filter and put the filtrate in an evaporating dish

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2. Crystallization
The filtrate is evaporated and cooled. Check if the crystals are formed. If they are formed stop evaporating and
leave it for clay.
The water attached or associated to the crystals is called water of crystallization.
ZnS04.7H20 is called zinc sulphate hepta hydrate.

B. INSOLUBLE SALTS
The insoluble salts are prepared by ionic precipitation also called double decomposition
Here two soluble salts are mixed and react by interchanging their radicals ion forming both soluble and
insoluble salts.
BaCl2(aq) + Na2S04(aq) —> BaS04(s) +2NaCl

QUESTION;
Ions to get solid, what is the name of the reaction? It‘s a double decomposition reaction or ionic precipitation.
PROPERTIES OF SALTS
1. COLOUR
Some salts are coloured
For example;
1. Iron (ii) salts are green
2. Iron (ii) salts are yellow
3. Iron (ii) salts are pale blue
4. Nickel (ii) salts are green
5. Cobalt (ii) salts are pink
The colours of the above mentioned salts are due to the color of hydrated ion
Coloured salts are formed only in the group of transition elements. All elements in first 20 elements are not
colored.
Other salts are not colored, for example; salts of Na, K, Ca, Pb, Zn, Al, Mg
2. HYDROLYSIS
This is the reaction of salts and water giving an acid or alkaline solution Example:
NH4Cl(aq) + H20 -»NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
Na2C03(aq) + H20(L) —> NaOH(aq) + H2C03(aq)
 All salts of weak bases and strong acids hydrolyze to give acid solution
Example; NH4, Cl, FeCl2, CuCl2, Al2(S04) etc
 All salts of strong bases and weak acids are hydrolyzed to give an alkaline solution
Example; Na2C03 ,CH3COONa, etc.
N.B: Salts of strong bases and strong acids are not undergoing hydrolysis. They only ionize when in solution:
Example; NaCl + H2O → There's no reaction.
3. EXPOSURE TO AIR
When salts are exposed to air they either lose water of crystallization or absorb water from the atmosphere
a) Hygroscopic
Is the action of absorbing water from the atmosphere without changing into solution NaCl, anhydrous copper II
sulphate (CuS04) and NaN03 others are concentrated and copper II sulphate
b) Deliquescent

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This is the action of absorbing water from the atmosphere by a solid to form a solution
Example; MgCl2, CaCl2, FeCl3, Ca(N03)2 Others are the hydroxides of K and Na
c) Fluorescence
This is the action of giving up water of crystallization of the solid to the atmosphere
Examples;
i) Hydrate sodium carbonate Na2CO3.10H2O → Na2C03.H20 + 9H20
ii) Hydrated sodium sulphate
Na2SO4.10H2O — Na2S04 + 10H2O
iii) Hydrated magnesium sulphate
MgS04.7H20 → MgS04.H20 + 6H20
4. HEAT EFFECTS ON SALTS
Different salts behave differently on heating. Most of the hydrated salts loose water of crystallization when
heated. The anhydrous salts undergo chemical change when heated
I. Sulphates
 Hydrated copper (ii) sulphate [CuS04.5H20]- changes colour from blue to white when heated

• If white copper (ii) sulphate (CuS04) is heated more strongly it becomes to black copper (ii) oxide (CuO)

 Hydrated iron (ii) sulphate loose all its water of crystallization on heating and changes from green to
white

 When iron (ii) sulphate is heated strongly it decomposes to form black iron (iii) oxide, and S0 3 and
S02(g)

 Iron (iii) sulphate when heated strongly it decomposes to form black iron (iii) oxide and S03 only.
Fe2(S04)3(s) —► Fe203(s) + 3S03(g)
White black
II. Chlorides
All chlorides of metals are hydrated except those of K, Na, Pb, Hg and Ag when heated, chlorides undergo a
chemical change called hydrolysis (i.e. they don‘t form anhydrous chlorides) in which hydrogen chloride gas
(and water involve and a basic salts of chloride or oxide are formed
Example;

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 III. Carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
Carbonates of sodium and potassium are unaffected by heat (even at very high temperature)
Ammonium carbonate decomposes readily on heating to form NH3(g), C02(g) and H20(g)

All hydrogen carbonates decompose to give metal carbonates water and C02 on heating
Mg(HC03)2 -» MgC03 + H20 + C02
2NaHC03 -> Na2C03 +H20 + C02
IV. Nitrates
Na and K nitrates decompose when heated to give corresponding nitrite and oxygen

1. Ammonium nitrate decomposes on heating to give dinitrogen oxide and water

NH4N03 → N20 + H2O
2. While the nitrite gives nitrogen and water
NH4N02 → N2 + H2O
3. The metal nitrates (i.e. those of Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu) decompose on heating to give the
corresponding oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen
Ca(N03)2(s) → CaO(s) + N02(g) + 02(g)
Mg(N03)2(s) → MgO(s) + N02(g) + 02(g)
4. Nitrates of heavy metals (Ag and Hg) decompose to give a metal, N02 and 02 on heating.
AgN03 → Ag + N02 + 02
Hg(N03)2 → Hg + 2N02 + 02

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 V. Hydroxides
The hydroxide of Na and K are stable to heat i.e. Don‘t decompose on heat even at very high temperature.
All other metal hydroxides decompose on heating to give the corresponding oxides and water vapor

5. SOLUBILITY AND SOLUBILITY CURVES

Solubility of a salt in a liquid is the maximum amount of the salt that will dissolve in l00cm3 of a liquid at any
given temperature
Solubility Curve
These are the graphs which show the variation of solubility with temperature Solubility of a salt increases with
the increase in temperature.
The steeper the solubility curve the more soluble the salt and the easier it is to crystallize that salt

SOLUBILITY AND SOLUBILITY CURVES.

The diagram above is a graph of solubility against temperature. The vertical component is a solubility of
substance in gram per dm3, where by horizontal component is temperature of a substance. The graph drawn in
the plane is analysis of two related variables (solubility and temperature). The change of solubility related to
change of temperature.
From the accumulated data due to the test of salts NaCl, KCI and KN03 analyzed in the graph as drawn above.
(a) A graph of NaCl interpret that, it has a constant solubility at any temperature. The increase or decrease
of temperature does not affect its solubility.
(b) A graph of KCI is a smooth linear graph which interprets that for every change of temperature gives the
effect change of solubility. Therefore KCI is more soluble than NaCl.
(c) A graph of KN03 is a curved graph interpret that the change of temperature gives a rapid solubility.
Therefore a salt KN03 is more soluble than NaCl and KCl.
Assignment;
Take a salt of NaN03(g) to examine its solubility.
Procedure

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(i) Measure 1 litre of distilled water and pour it into the beaker.
(ii) Measure lg of NaN03 by electronic balance and pour into the beaker.
(iii) By heat source, tripod stand, wire gauze, retort stand and thermometer make connection and heat both
water and sample salt.

(iv) Watch a disappearance of salt particles until all finish and record the temperature as follows;
Salt(g) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Temperature
(oC)
v. Repeat procedure (ii) for except 2,3,4,5,6,7 and 8
vi. Draw a graph of solubility against temperature.

USES OF SALT IN DAILY LIFE

Salt is essential for life, because it has more than 14000 users in daily. But the common uses categorized into
Food, Agriculture, Water conditioning, High way Deicing and Industrial chemicals.
1. FOOD
i) A salt of sodium chloride is mixed with food as flavoring, (common salt).
ii) A salt of sodium chloride (NaCl) is mixed in the food industrial product as both flavoring and
preservative.
iii) A salt of sodium bicarbonate (NaHC03) 'bicarb' is used in cooking as raising agent for cakes, bread
e.t.c.
Baking powder
Is a mixture of sodium hydrogen carbonate and tartaric acid, The mixture helps to keep the PH neutral.
2. AGRICULTURE
A salt is very important in agriculture since used as land additive nutrients. Fertilizers of Ammonium sulphate
(NH4S04(s)) and Sodium nitrate (NaN03) salt are used to make land fertility to help healthier growing of crops.
3. WATER CONDITIONING
i) In the purification of urban water (Permutit process), the salt of Aluminum silicate is used to remove
permanent hardness of water (Al(Si03)3).
ii) Sodium carbonate (Na2C03(s)) called washing soda, is used to make water soft by replacing calcium
ions by sodium ions.
iii) Sodium chloride is used in a water softener to generate the ion exchange column.
4. HIGH WAY DEICING

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A salt of sodium chloride (NaCl) is mixed with grit and spread on roads to prevent road freezing in cold
condition.
5. INDUSTRIAL USES
1. The salt of potassium Iodide (KI) is added to sodium chloride (common salt) to prevent a lack of Iodine
in the diet.
2. The salt of sodium carbonate is used in the manufacture of glass.

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 4. MOLE CONCEPT
What is mole?
Mole is a unit of measurements as any other units.
Example Pair, dozen, gross etc
1mole = 6.02 x 1023 particles
Definition;
A mole is the amount of a substance as many as particles of elementary entities contained in 12g of carbon-12
isotopes. The particles can be atoms, molecules, electrons or ions. This is a unit mole which was introduced by
Avogadro as 6.02 x 1023 particles
Example;
1 mole of water (H20) contains 6.02 x 1023molecules
1 mole of sodium (Na) contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms
1 mole of CuCl2 contains 6.02 x 1023 ions
1 mole of Fe contains6.02 x 1023electrons

MOLAR MASS OF A SUBSTANCE

Molar mass: is the mass of 1 mole of any element or compound.
Its SI unit is g/mol.
It is denoted by M
For example;
Na = its molar mass = 23 g/mol
NaCl = its molar mass = 58.5g/mole
Xa2S04 = its molar mass = (23 x 2) + (32) + (16 x 4) = 142gmol
NB: Molar masses and relative molecular mass of a substance are calculated from the formula of that
substance.
QUESTION:
1. Calculate the molar of the following
1. Na2C03. 10H2O
2. Al2(S04)3
A1 = 27, S = 32, O = 16, Na= 23, C = 12, H = 1
2. Calculate the number of molecules in
i. 8g of oxygen gas
ii. 1lg of C02
3. If the number of ions in CuCl2 is 3.02 x 1023, what was the mass of CuCl2

ANSWERS:

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iii). 8g of oxygen gas
02 =16x2 = 32 = 6.02 x 1023
8 =?

RELATIVE MOLAR MASS (Mr.)

This is the mass of one molecule of a compound compared with the mass of one atom of carbon - 12.

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It has no units
Molar mass (M) = Relative molecular mass (Mr)
Molar mass of an element = relative atomic mass (Ar)
Example;

Example;
1. Calculating the molar mass of (NH4)2C03 given that N= 14, H= 1, C= 12, O= 16.
Solution

MOLAR MASS OF A COMPOUND

This is the sum of constituent atoms (elements)
AMOUNT OF A SUBSTANCE OR NUMBER OF MOLES (n)
Number of moles, n is the mass of the sample of a substance divided by the molar mass of that substance

Where by
m = mass of a sample
M = Molar mass of substance
N = number of moles (amount of substance)
Example;
What is the amount of substance in

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N = 4.09mol
QUESTIONS:
Finding the mass of each of the following substance
a) 2.4 mol of NaOH
b) 3.2 x 10-3 mol of N
c) 0.780 mol of Ca(CN)2
d) 7.00 mol of H202
How many moles are in each of the following?
- 0.800g of Ca
- 79.3g of Cl2
- 5.96g of KOH
- 937g of Ca(C2H3O2)2

NUMBER OF PARTICLES (N) IN A GIVEN AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE

(a) To find the number of particles in a given amount of substance we use the expression
N = nL
Where:
n = number of moles
N = number of particles in a substance
L = Avogadro's no = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1

QUESTION:
1. How many particles are there in 20g of Ca?
Solution
Find n in 20g of Ca

2. How many molecules are there in 80g of the NaOH?

MOLAR VOLUME (Vm)

MOLAR GAS VOLUME
This is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas at standard temperature and pressure and is 22.4 dm or 22.4L
ldm3 = 1L= 1000cm3 Standard temp = 00C (273K)
Standard pressure = 1atm (760mmHg)
Avogadro's law states “At the same temperature and pressure volumes of all gases contain the same number
of particles”
In calculating the amount of substance n, using molar volume (vm), the expression used is

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Substituting the volume in the expression
18.8
22.4
n = 0.839 mol

THE MOLE IN STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS

A balance chemical equation tells us a great of quantitative information.
Consider the following equation us a great deal of quantitative information
Consider the following balanced equation

Stoichiometry- is the quantitative relationship of reacting substances

Stoichiometric coefficients = moles
A balanced equation is used in calculating different quantities
Example; CaC03 → CaO + C02

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From the above balanced equation, calculate the weight of CaO and Volume of C02 at s.t.p which will be
produced by heating 75g of CaC03

QUESTION

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SOLUTION AND MOLAR CONCENTRATION
Solution is a mixture of solvent and solute.
Solute - Is a solid crystal component which dissolved into solvent.
Solvent - Is a liquid component which dissolves solute, (water is a common universal solvent).
So that when we prepare a standard solution, we must measure both two components.
A solute measured in grams of weight and solvent in liter, dm3 or cm3 of its volume.
The quantities of solute that may dissolve by l liter of solvent make a standard solution.

STANDARD SOLUTION
Is a solution of known concentration. Standard solution has been prepared by accurate measurement and the
concentration of solute in the solution is described into two ways.
 Weight concentration in grams.
 Particles concentration in mole.

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WEIGHT CONCENTRATION
This concentration abbreviated as cone, of a gram dissolved in one liter (2dm3 or g/L). e.g. 30gL or 15g dm3
Example;
Allen dissolved two spoons of sugar into the tea drink. If capacity of cup is 200cm and a spoon carries 25g,
what is the concentration of sugar in the tea?
Solution
carrying capacity = 25g
25 x 2 = 50g
Therefore, weight of solute = 50g
Volume of solvent = 200cm3
But,

Therefore, conc. = 250g/L

MOLARITY (MOLAR CONCENTRATION)

This is a concentration of particles contained in one liter of the solution. (mol/L or M)
Example;
The Allen spin a common salt in the bowl filled by 320cm of water to make a solution. If the same spoon used,
determine a molarity of salt in the solution.
Solution
Volume of water = 320cm3
Weigh of salt = 25g
But,
Moles = weight of component Molar mass (W/Mr)

RELATIONSHIP OF WEIGHT AND MOLAR CONCENTRATION

From,
Molarity = moles Volume in liter

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Molarity = Conc./Molar mass
Whereby,
n= no of moles
V = Volume in liter
Mr.= Molar mass
W = Weight of component in grams
Assignment
Find the molarity of each component if both had a concentration of 72gdm3.
1. H2S04
2. Na2C03
3. NaHC03
4. KC1

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 5. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS AND VOLUMETRIC
ANALYSIS
Definition;
Volumetric analysis, is the process of determining the amount of substance in term of volume and
concentration of reacting solutions.
Concentration;
This is the amount of substance per one dm3(litre) of solution
Units are g/dm3, mole/dm3
Types of concentration
1. Molar concentration (morality) is the amount of substance in moles per one dm3 of solution (moldm-3) it is
denoted by M
For example; 0.1M H2S04, 2M H2SO4 etc
Mass concentration is the amount of substance in games per one dm' of solution (g dm')
Question:
a) Define (i) concentration (ii) molarity
b) Calculate mass concentration of the following
i. 4g of NaOH in 400cm3 of solution
ii. 10g of H2SO4 in 2dm3
iii. 2g of HC1 in 4L
Solution

a. Give the meaning and SI units of molarity

b. What is the molarity of a solution containing?
i) 0.05mole in 80 cm3
ii) 0.25mole in 2dm3
iii) 0.5mole in 4L
Solution

STANDARD VOLUMETRIC APPARATUS

The apparatus needed in volumetric analysis include

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  Retort stand and clamps
 White tiles
 Burette - This is calibrated from 0 to 50 cm3 it measures volume of an acid
 Pipette - common capacity volumes are 25cm3 or 20cm3. It measures volume of a base.
 Conical flask
 Filter funnel
 Reagent bottles
 Volumetric flask
 Wash bottle
 Measuring cylinder
 Beakers
 Watch glass
STANDARD SOLUTION
A standard solution is the one whose concentration is exactly known
For example; l0g of NaOH in 1dm3 of solution
l0g of KOH in 2dm3 of solution
The molarity of the above substance can be calculated because their concentration (in gdm-3) and formulae are
known

MOLAR SOLUTION
A molar solution is the solution which contains one mole of a solute dissolve in one dm-3 of solution
Example; 40g of NaOH dissolved in 1dm3 of solution
98g of H2SO4 dissolved in 1 litre of solution
132g of (NH4) 2SO4 dissolved in 1L of solution
TITRATION OF ACIDS AND BASES
Titration; is the process of adding an acid to a base until an indicator shows that the reaction is complete
What is acid base titration?
What is titration?
This is a process of adding one solution to another until an indicator shows that the reaction is complete
CHOICE OF INDICATORS IN ACID - BASE TITRATION
ACID/ BASE EXAMPLE SUITABLE INDICATOR
Strong acid/ strong base HCl / NaOH Any indicator
Acetic acid/CH3COOH KOH
Weak acid/ strong Phenolphthalein p.o.p

Strong acid/ weak base H2S04/NH3 /(NH4 OH) Methyl orange

Weak acid/weak base CH3COOH NH4OH No satisfactory indicator

In an acid - base titration, the solution of the known concentration is added gradually to a solution of unknown
concentration. When the unknown solution is exactly neutralized as shown by the color change of the indicator
then at this point the number of moles of the solution with known concentration,
for example; acid is equal to the number of moles of solution with unknown concentration, for example; Base.
This point is known as End - point of titration

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MOLAR RATIO
The amount of moles present in the two different solutions A and B can be symbolized as nA and nB

But the moles in standard solution,

n=MxV
Whereby,
M = Molarity
V = Volume taken
Therefore,
nA = MA x VA
nB = MB x VB
So that.

This is called molar ratio formula which can be used in titration to determine any unknown, if five items are
known. But always nA and nB identified from the balanced chemical equation of compound A and B.

QUESTION
1. 24cm3 of a solution of 0.1M KOH were exactly neutralized by 30cm3 of solution of sulphuric acid, calculate
the conc. Of acid in i) mol/dm3 ii) g/dm3
Solution;
i) Make the equation;
2K0H + H2S04 → K2S04 + 2H20

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MA = 0.04moldm-3
ii) Concentration of acid in g/dm3 mass concentration

.
ASSIGNMENT:
LAMBAT GENERAL QUESTION29 ONWARDS
QUESTION
25cm3 of X2CO3 contains 10.6gdm-3 required 23.00 cm3 and 0.217M of HCL for complete neutralization
calculating
a) The molarity of X2CO3 solution
b) The molar mass of X2CO3
c) The atomic mass of X
d) Name of element X
Solution

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The name of element X is Sodium (Na)
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITIONS OF PURE AND IMPURE COMPONENTS
The pure substance may be composed in pure substances without affecting its chemical properties. Through
volumetric analysis a percentage composition may be determined.
i. Percentage purity
ii. Percentage impurity.
Whereby,

Density = mass concentration per cm3

Examples;
3g of impure Na2CO3 were made up to 250 cm3 of solution; 25cm3 of this solution required 21.0 cm3 of
0.105M HC1 for complete neutralization
i. Write down the balanced equation for the reaction
ii. Calculate the molarity of pure Na2CO3
iii. Calculate concentration of pure Na2CO3
iv. Calculate % purity of Na2CO3
v. Calculate % impurity of Na2CO3
Solution i and ii
Na2C03 + 2HC1 → 2NaCl + C02 + H20

nB = 1 nA = 2
Mb=? MA = 0.105
VB = 25cm3 VA = 21cm3

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It‘s pure because sand wouldn't react with the acid
(iii) Concentration = molarity x molar mass = 0.0441 M x 106g mol = 4.67g/dm3
iv) 3.0g=250cm3
x = 1000cm3

DILUTION LAW
Is the law that describe or direct how to change and decrease molar concentration of the solution.
The law states that “The product of initial concentration and its volume is equal to the product of final
concentration and its volume”
M 1 V 1 = M 2V2
Where,
M1 = initial concentration
M2 = final concentration
V1 = initial volume
V2 = final volume

Example
1. To what volume must 300cm3 of 6.0M NaOH be diluted to give a 0.40M solution?
Solution

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DETERMINING WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION
Water of crystallization is the water that is bound within the crystals of substances. This water can be removed
by heating, titration reaction are used to determine the amount of water of crystallization in a substance.
QUESTIONS
1. Determine the number of molecules of water of crystallization in the sample (Na2C03. XH20). If R.M.M is
286g/mol.
Solution
Na2C03 . XH20
2(Na) + C + 3(0) + X(H20) = 286
2(23) + 12 + 3(16) + X(18) = 286
106 + X(18) = 286
18X = 286 - 106
18X= 180
X = 180/18
X= 10
Therefore, the number of moles of water = 10
2. a) How many grams of concentrated HBr should be used to prepare 500ml of 0.6 M HBr solution?
b) Find the volume of stored solution.
Solution
a) Given purity = 48%
D = 1.5g
V = 500ml
M = 0.6M
n=MxV
= 0.51 x 0.6mol/L
n = 0.3mol

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3. 1.5g of an acid Hx was dissolved in water and its solution made to 250cm3. If 30.2cm3 of this acid solution
neutralized 25cm3 of 0.115M KOH, Calculate,
i) Molarity of Hx
ii) Molecule weight of Hx
iii) Name of radical x
Solution
i) VA = 30.2cm3
VB = 25cm3
MB = 0.115M
MA=?
Mass of HX =1.5g
KOH + HX KX + H20
nB = 1
nA= 1 thus MA VA = MBVB

iii) x must be a radical and the common ones are HCl, HNO3, H2S04, H3PO4, so it‘s either HNO3 or HC1.
But HNO3 = 63g/mol
Thus, x is nitrate (v) ion (NO3-)

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 6. IONIC THEORY AND ELECTROLYSIS
ELECTROLYSIS.
Definition: is the decomposition of electrolytes by the passage of an electric current through it.
ELECTROLYTE:
This is the substance which either in solution or in molten state conducts electric current to undergo
decomposition due to its passage.
For example;
H2S04 - Sulphuric acid
HNO3 - Nitric acid
NaCl - Sodium chloride
Salts, acids and bases
A NON — ELECTROLYTE
This is a substance which either in solution or molten state doesn't conduct an electric current.
Example Sugar, ethanol, urea etc.
TYPES OF ELECTROLYTES
There are two types of electrolytes
(a) Strong electrolyte

These are electrolytes which ionize completely in solution example H2S04, HC1, NaCl, and NaOH
b) Weak electrolytes
These are electrolytes which ionize partially in solution.
Examples are.
Weak acids such as CH3COOH, H2C02
Water
Weak bases such NH3 solution or NH4OH
MECHANISM OF ELECTROLYSIS
When an electrolyte is dissolved in water it dissociates to form ions thus the aqueous solution of electrolyte
contains positive and negative ions. Example strong electrolyte

IONS:
Ion is a charged particle

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It‘s either positively charged or negatively charged
i. Anions - are negatively charged ions
ii. Cations - are positively charged ions
THE ELECTRODES:
These are the two poles of metals rods or carbon by which the electrons leave or enter the electrolyte
Types of electrodes
a. The Anode (+)
This is the positive electrode by which the electrons leave the electrolyte
b. The cathode (-)
This is the negative electrode by which electrons enter the electrolyte
When an electric current passes through an electrolyte, the ions move to the oppositely charged electrodes.
The Cations (positive ions) move to cathode. The anions (negative ions) move to anode

ELECTRODE REACTIONS
1. Anode reaction
Anions carry negative charges due to extra electrons they have.
On arrival at the surface of anode they surrender the extra electron. By so doing they become discharged.

Any process involving the loss of electrons is called oxidation. In electrolysis the reaction at the anode is called
oxidation.
Therefore, another definition of oxidation;
This is the process whereby the substance looses electrons.
2. Cathode reaction
Cations have positive charges because they have deficiency of electrons. On arrival at the surface of cathode,
they receive electrons from the cathode.
By so doing they become discharged

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Example; i) Univalent cations discharged as

j) Divalent Cations discharge as

k) Trivalent Cations discharge as

Any process involving the gain of electrons is called reduction. The cathode reaction is reduction process.
Therefore, reduction is the process whereby the substance gains electrons.

PREFERENTIAL DISCHARGE OF IONS;

When two or more ions of similar charge are present under similar conditions in a solution.
2gH+ and Na+ or OH- and S042- one of them is preferentially selected for discharge.

The selection of ion to discharge depends on the following factors;

(a) Position of the metal or radical in the electrochemical series
(b) Concentration
(c) Nature of the electrode
A POSITION OF THE METAL GROUP IN ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES
The electrochemical series is an arrangement of metal ions in the order which can be reduced (discharged).
Those which can be reduced (discharged) with difficult are placed at the top of the series example K+, Ca2+ and
Na+ may accept electrons with great difficulty. Ag+ and Cu2+ can accept electrons readily/easily.

The ion tower in electrochemical series is discharged in preference, to those above it Example; electrolysis of
dilute hydrochloric acid using platinum electrode ions present

Cathode reaction

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H+ will migrate to the cathode and be discharged

H2 gas will evolve at the cathode

Anode reaction
Cl- and OH- will migrate to and OH- will be preferentially discharged because it is lower than Cl- in
electrochemical series

02 gas will evolve at the anode

Conclusion: The electrolyte concentration will be increasing as the elements of water are the ones coming out
as gases
ELECTROLYSIS OF DILUTE SULPHURIC ACID (using platinum electrode)

ELECTOLYSIS OF WATER

Anode reaction
SO42- and OH- will migrate to the anode and OH- will be preferentially selected to discharge

O2 will evolve at the anode

Cathode reaction
H- will migrate to the cathode and discharge

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Hydrogen will evolve at the cathode Overall effect
The concentration of the electrolyte will increase because during electrolysis the elements of water comes out
as gases
CONCENTRATION OF THE IONS
Increase in concentration of an ion(s) tends to promote its discharge
Example Electrolysis of concentrated hydrochloric acid.

Anode reaction
Cl- and OH- will migrate to the anode and Cl- will be discharged in preference to the OH- because it‘s available
in higher concentration.

Chlorine gas will evolve at the anode

Cathode reaction

Hydrogen gas will evolve at the cathode

Overall effect.
-Concentration of electrolyte will be decreasing because elements of HCl are moving out as gases.
NB: whenever a halogen (Cl-, Br-, I-) is involved in competition for discharge, the concentration factor holds
an upper hand especially chloride salts, salts of Halogens e g. PbBr2
NATURE OF THE ELECTRODE
In some reactions of electrolysis the type of electrode used will determine the products of electrolysis.
Consider the following examples
1. a) Electrolysis of sodium chloride by using carbon.

At the cathode both Na+ and H+ will migrate to the cathode. H+ will be selected to discharge in the preference
to Na+ due to Na+ position in electrochemical series
Cathode reaction

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At the anode
Both Cl- and OH- will migrate to the anode and Cl- will be discharged due to the concentration factor

H2 (g) will evolve at the cathode and Cl2

Cl(g) will evolve at the anode
b) Electrolysis of sodium chloride by using mercury cathode Ions present;

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Because Cu2+ is lower in e.c.s copper metal will be deposited at the cathode At the anode.
Ions present are S042- and OH-
Anode reaction
40H+ → 2H20+ 02 + 4e-
Oxygen gas will be produced at the anode.
Overall effect
i. Reddish brown copper metal is deposited on cathode
ii. 02 (g) is liberated at the anode
iii. Concentration of CuS04 decrease i.e. blue colour of CuS04 turns to colourless since the copper II
sulphate is converted to form sulphuric acid or the number of Cu2- in the solution decreases
2(b) Electrolysis of CuS04 using copper electrodes

At the cathode

Copper metal is produced at the cathode

At the anode
Ions moved here are S042- and OH-
Anode reaction
When copper anode is used there are 3 possibilities
I) Discharged of S042-
II) Discharge of OH-
III) Conversion of Cu atoms to Cu2+
The conversion of Cu to Cu2+ occurs most readily
Anode reaction therefore is
Cu + Cu2+ + 2e-
Copper ions are released into the solution
Overall effect

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- Reddish brown copper metal is deposited at the cathode
- Copper ions released into the solution from anode
- Concentration of CUSO4 remains constant since the number of Cu2+ discharged at the cathode are
replaced by the released Cu2+ from the anode. Hence no colour change.
- Anode decreases in weight
This electrolysis is only the transfer of copper from anode to cathode.

LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS;
A man called faraday put forward two laws expressing results of experiments of electrolysis. These laws they
assert that the amount of an element liberated during electrolysis depends on
a. The time of passing the steady current
b. The magnitude of the steady current
c. The charge on the ion of the element
FARADAY’S FIRST LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS
It states that;
“The mass of a substance liberated at or absorbed from an electrode during electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte”
If symbols are used the first law can be stated mathematically as

Where;
m = mass of the substance liberated
t = time in seconds
I = current in Amperes.
To replace the symbol of proportionality by an equal sign we must introduce a proportionality constant Z
M = zIt
But It = Q, where Q = quantity of electricity
M = ZQ
Z = is known as electrochemical equivalent of an element
Definition;
The electrochemical equivalent of a substance is the mass of a substance that can be liberated by passage of
one coulomb.
Its SI unit is g/c
Every element has its own value of electrochemical equivalent of an element
To calculate the value of Z of an element we use the formula

Where;
Ar = relative atomic mass of an element
V = valency of the element
F = faraday‘s constant (96500c)
Examples;

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NB: Faraday‘s constant is the quantity of electric charge carried by electrons (It is 96500 C) per mole

FARADAY’S SECOND LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS

It states that
“When the same quantity of electricity is passed through solutions of different electrolytes, the amounts of
elements deposited are proportional to the chemical equivalent of the element’
Chemical equivalent of the element is obtained by dividing its relative atomic mass by the charge of its ion
Example Chemical equivalent

MATHEMATICAL STATEMENT OF FARADAY’S 2ND LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS

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QUESTION;
In an experiment, 1930c liberated 0.64g copper. When the same quantity of electricity was passed through a
solution containing silver ions (Ag+), what amount of Ag was deposited. Explain the results

Mass of silver is large than of copper because silver has a small chemical equivalent than that of copper.

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Mathematically Faraday’s second law;

QUESTIONS:
1. A silver voltmeter is connected in series with copper voltmeter. What weight of Ag will be
deposited in one voltmeter while 0.16g of copper is deposited in the other?
2. The same current passes through solution of same concentration of PgNO3 and CuS04 liberated 0.23
of Ag of the same current Chemical equivalent of Cu = 3.18 and Ag = 108.
3. A current was passed through a voltammeter arranged in series. If the weight of copper on the
electrode of cells no 1 was [Link] the weight of Ag deposited on the cathode of cell number 2, if
same quantity of electricity is passed through Chemical equivalent of Ag = 108, Cu = 31.75
4. An electric current was passed in series through solutions of calcium chloride and CuS04. Carbon
electrodes were used in both electrolytes. If 2.51 of chlorine measured at S.T.P were produced,
what volume of oxygen would also be produced? What mass of copper was produced?
Solution

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MAg = 0.54g
lkg = l000g ?

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APPLICATION QF ELECTROLYSIS
1. PURIFICATION OF METALS
In the method blocks of the impure metal are made at the anode and sheets of extremely pure metal are made at
the cathode
Example; Copper is industrially purified by the electrolysis of aqueous copper II sulphate using copper
electrodes where anode is impure and cathode is pure.
Also Zn is purified by electrolysis of Zn sulphate

2. MANUFACTURE (EXTRACTION) OF ELEMENTS

Very reactive elements are extracted by electrolysis of their molten chlorides e.g. Al, Mg, Na, K (Details in
extraction of metals)
There is chemical combination
Example Au is less reactive this can be extracted without electrolysis is process
3. ELECTROPLATING

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This is the process of covering the corroding material (metals) by the unreactive metals using electrolysis to
prevent corrosion and improve their appearance.
The article to be plated is made the cathode and the anode is made of the planting material

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 7. CHEMICAL KINETICS, EQUILIBRIUM AND ENERGETICS
RATE OF REACTION EQUILIBRIUM AND ENERGETICS
1. RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION
This is the speed at which reaction is proceeding per unit time

It will be positive because product is increasing. The slope gives the rate of reaction
The SI unit = mol dm-3 S-1
If the plot is reactant concentration against time the slope will be negative
NB: The units of rate depend on the units of reactant or products used
Example; In an experiment of determining rate, the following volumes of gas in the syringe were recorded in
every 10 seconds.
Time (sec) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Volume (cm3) 0 18 30 40 48 53 57 58 58
i. Plot a graph of the volume shown on the syringe against time
iii. Determine the rate of reaction
2. FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF REACTION
a) Temperature
b) Concentration
c) Catalyst
d) Surface area
e) Pressure (gases)
f) Light
a) TEMPERATURE
The increase in temperature increases the rate of chemical reaction. This is because when temperature
increases the particles acquire kinetic energy, hence move faster.
For this matter the collision of the reacting particles also increases.
For every 10°c rise the reaction rate doubles
b) CONCENTRATION
The reaction occurs when the reacting substances are allowed to come into contact. The rate of reaction
therefore depends on collision frequency which in turn depends on how crowded (concentrated) the particles
are
c) SURFACE AREA
The size of particles in heterogeneous reaction influences the rate of chemical reactions. The smaller the
particles, the larger the surface area and thus faster rate of reaction
Example; lumps of marble chips (CaCO3) react slowly with dilute hydrochloric acid while the powder of
CaCO3 reacts fast with dilute HC1
Aluminium foil slowly reacts with aqueous solution of NaOH when warmed together compared to aluminium
powder
D) LIGHT
Light energies some of the reacting molecules (particles). In such reactions, molecules absorb energy in form
of light energy rather than heat energy and so they are called photochemical reactions
Examples are;
 Photosynthesis

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  Decomposition of silver halides on exposure to light
 Photography
Silver bromide (AgBr) is used in photographic film. It decomposes an exposure to light as light

When light falls on the film, it causes the decomposition of AgBr as shown above. The extent of
decomposition depends on the brightness of sun light.
Different amounts of light reflected from the dark and light surfaces darken the AgBr film to different degrees
producing a photograph.
E) CATALYST
A catalyst can either slow down or speedup the rate of reaction.
HOW DO CATALYSTS SPEED UP THE RATE OF REACTION?
For the substance to react they must overcome the energy barrier (Activation energy, EA)
If EA is too great, the substances cannot react at room temperature because the particles don't process enough
energy to surmount the barrier. In such cases, the supply energy in form of heat enables the reaction to proceed

i) Exothermic reactions - release heat to the surrounding

ii) Endothermic reaction - Absorb heat from the surrounding

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EXPLANATIONS
 The energy relationship between reactants and products of a chemical reaction.
A catalyst increases reaction rate by lowering activation energy which is a sort of "Energy hump‖, thus
providing an easier path from reactants to products.
F. PRESSURE
(For reactants in gaseous phase)
The increase in pressure brings the gaseous particles closer and closer together. This in turn increases the
collision frequency. The latter increases the rate of reactions.

REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Reversible reactions are reactions which proceed in both directions (background)

IRREVERSIBLE reactions are the reactions which proceed to forward direction only regardless of
conditions applied

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Chemical equilibrium is the state at which the forward and backward reactions are proceeding at the same
rate.
That is there's some sort of balance between the reactants and products Chemical equilibrium occurs in a
CLOSED SYSTEM.

Consider the analogous system of compounds in the same phase

As soon as little C and D are formed a reverse reaction will begin. At the beginning the forward reaction will
predominate but as C and D accumulate the reverse reaction builds up until an equilibrium is reached (The
forward and reserve reaction proceed at the same rate)

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The point at which the rate of forward reaction = the rate of backward reaction is called the equilibrium point
or position.

Le Chatelier’s Principle
States that: “If a chemical system is in equilibrium and one of the factors involved in the equilibrium is
changed, the equilibrium will shift so as to minimize the effect of the change”

FACTORS AFFECTING CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

a. TEMPERATURE
The effects of temperature in chemical equilibrium depends on whether chemical reaction is exothermic or
endothermic
1. Exothermic reaction give out heat to the surrounding (ΔH = -ve)
2. Endothermic absorbed heat from the surrounding (ΔH = +ve)
In exothermic reactions

When heat is supplied the equilibrium will shift to the direction that requires more heat i.e. backward reaction
In other words, the effect of heat will be on the forward reaction, thus to minimize the effect the equilibrium
must shift backwards.
In endothermic reaction

The increase in temperature will pose stress on the backward reaction (LHS). So to minimize the effect, the
equilibrium must shift to the forward reaction
b. PRESSURE
Pressure affects the equilibrium of reversible reactions involving gases. The increase in pressure causes the
equilibrium to shift so as to produce substances occupying less volume or (moles)
Example;

Increase in pressure will favour the forward reaction (position of equilibrium will shift to right) as it is
accompanied by a decrease in volume. Decrease in pressure will favour backward reaction
i.e. position of equilibrium will shift to the left
For the gaseous reaction in which there is no change in volume, pressure has no effect on position of
equilibrium
Example;

Hence if pressure is increased, the position of equilibrium will shift in such a way as to reduce the number of
moles present.
The pressure exerted by gases is directly proportional to the number of moles present
c. CONCENTRATION
If concentration of one substance is increased, the reaction will move in a direction to use up the substance
whose concentration is increased
Example;

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What will be the effect of adding more steam to the POE - position of equilibrium of this reaction?
Adding more steam will pose an effect in the equilibrium of the backward reaction. Thus to minimize the
effects the reaction must proceed forward therefore the POE will shift to the RHS.
NB: A reaction in which a gas is evolved and allowed to escape or in which a precipitate is formed will
proceed in one direction only, even though a reversible reaction might be expected
Example

S(s) precipitate; it's almost completely removed from the system. Backward reaction is then not possible.
There is complete conversation of reactants to product
Example

H- are removed as H2 (s) Thus water dissociation has to keep going on

The forward reactions will continue without the backward reactions thus equilibrium is affected
d. CATALYST
A catalyst doesn't upset the equilibrium of the system because both reactions will proceed at a faster rate
A catalyst doesn't affect the POE

Exercise
1. Define the following i) Exothermic reaction ii) Endothermic reaction
 State the Le Chatalier's principle
 The equation for dissociation of calcium carbonate is

What will be the effect on the proportion of calcium carbonate in the equilibrium mixture if
i. Temperature is increased
ii. Pressure is increased
What are the necessary conditions for manufacture of calcium oxide from calcium carbonate in large scale?
-Increase in temperature the forward reaction is favoured, that is CaCO3 will be splitting to form CaO and 02
thus the effect on the proportion of CaCO3 in the equilibrium will be the decrease of CaCO3.
-Increase in pressure
Pressure only affects substances in equilibrium in gaseous phase. Thus, CaC03 and CaO are considered to have
zero volume since they do not react with pressure, but since C02 reacts with pressure its volume is considered
to be 1. Therefore, backward reaction will be favoured thus the effect on the proportion will be the increase in
CaC02
Conditions
o High temperature
o Low pressure
o Large surface area means CaCO3 should be in powdered form
o Concentration
By removing C02 from the reaction, the concentration of CaO in the products side will favour more quicker
forward reaction to replace the lost C02 thus more CaO will be manufactured.
2. (i) Define the following;
a) Reversible reaction
b) Rate of chemical reaction
c) Catalyst
(ii) Bahati attempted to prepare hydrogen gas by reaction between Zn metal with H2SO4 .In this experiment,
Zn metal of about 0.5cm diameter was used and 0.2 moles of acid. The rate of formation of hydrogen gas was
found to be slow. Explain 3 ways in which the rate of formation of hydrogen could be increased.

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(iii) If bahati wanted 36dm3 of hydrogen at S.T.P. What amount of zinc would be required if 0.2moles of acid
were used. The equation for the reaction is;
Zn(S) + H2S04(-aq) -> ZnS04(aq) + H2(g)
b) Answer;
i. Decreasing the diameter of zinc so as to increase the surface area.
A large diameter of zinc (0.5cm) yields less amount of hydrogen, thus in order for large amount of
hydrogen to be produced, the zinc diameter has to be reduced
ii. Introduce catalyst
iii. Increase concentration of H2SO4 Thus faster reaction and rate.
iv. Increase temperature
Thus increase K.E of the particles so as to taste up the reaction.

ENDOTHERMIC AND EXOTHERMIC REACTION.

Exothermic and endothermic reactions are the types of reactions which associate internal energy change to
external energy of surrounding environment.
A coldness and hotness in the environmental surrounding after stopping reaction is a result of internal change
of energy for reactant to product.
Internal Energy
Internal energy is that energy stored by molecules of chemical substances. When chemical reaction takes place
of course influenced by energy changes. The internal energy decreased as a result of giving out, and also the
internal energy increases as a result of inlet.
EXOTHERMIC
An exothermic reaction is one during which heat is liberated to the surrounding.
Example; Combustion reaction
The heat change notation represented by change in heat. If quantity heat mentioned in (-ve) sign. Internal
energy decreased and that is exothermic reaction.

ENDOTHERMIC
An endothermic reaction is one during which heat is absorbed from the surrounding.
Example;
A reaction to form liquid of carbon disulphide which used to manufacture Acetylene gas. Acetylene gas
applied in the welding cylinders.
If the quantity heat mentioned by (+ve) sign that is increasing of internal energy. The increasing of internal
energy is Endothermic reaction.

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS

i. EXOTHERMIC

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ii. ENDOTHERMIC

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 8. EXTRACTION OF METALS
OCCURRENCE OF METALS.
The metals which are most in reactivity are extracted from the sea : for example; calcium is extracted from
limestone, chalk and marble in the sea.
 Metals of medium reactivity are found in the form of oxides and sulphides
 Example; Aluminium, Zinc, Iron and Tin
 Least reactive metals are found as free uncombined elements, for example; Gold, Silver etc.

Main natural/forms of metals,

Metals in order of reactivity Main form in nature
Potassium Potassium chloride
Sodium sodium chloride
Calcium calcium carbonate which is limestone /chalk
Aluminium aluminium oxide

LOCATION OF METALS IN TANZANIA

Tanzania is a country of mineral rich land. A variety of metals investigated to exist in many parts of Tanzania.
A mass Medias of Tanzania are very familiar to some important places like Nyamongo, Buzwagi, and
Bulyanhulu etc. Those places are very important for the economical fluctuation and personal financial
enhancement. Many people migrate there, as a means solving their way of life.

EXTRACTION OF METALS

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Extraction is the process whereby metals are obtained from their ores. The ores are reduced to respective
metals in the process. The metallic ions gain electrons and become the corresponding atom

-The extraction can be done in two methods;

i. Electrolytic reduction
ii. Chemical reduction
Table shows some metals and their methods of extraction

STAGES OF EXTRACTION OF METALS

There are two stages in the process of extraction of metals from their ores:
a. Ore purification
b. Extraction of the metal
c. Refining of the metal
1. ORE PURIFICATION
After mining the ore from particular process, the ore should be purified. There are almost three methods that
can be used to purify the ore.
a. Dressing
b. Calcinations
c. Roasting
a) Dressing
Is the method used to remove impurities without decomposing any component within the ore. Impurities like
sand, limestone, quartz and silicate should be removed by;
i. Hand picking
ii. Blowing
iii. Filtrating solids
iv. Sedimentation and Decaution
- Dressing also known as concentration.
b) Calcinations
Calcinations are a process in which ore is heated in the absence of air (to avoid oxide product) below its
melting point to expel water from a hydrated oxide or expel carbondioxide from a carbonate.

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 c) Roasting
Roasting is a method used to purify ore by heating in the presence of air. Some time the ore may be mixed with
other chemicals. The roasting needed to make great change to oxide or chlorination.

2. REDUCTION OF OXIDES TO METALS

Carbon reduces oxides of zinc (Zn) and all metals below Zinc (Zn) in the E.C.S metals above Zinc (Zn) in the
E.C.S require very high temperature for reduction. So many metals are obtained through electrolysis.

EXTRACTION OF SODIUM
Sodium is extracted by electrolysis of a mixture of molten sodium chloride and calcium chloride.
The calcium chloride is added in order to reduce the temperature from over 800°c to 600°c.
The cell used is Down's cell, sodium is liberated as the cathode, while chlorine is liberate at the anode
At the cathode Na+ + e- →Na
At the anode 2C1 -> Cl2 + 2e-
The two elements are separated from each other by cylindrical iron gauze

EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM
Aluminium is extracted by electrolysis from its ore (oxide Al2O3) which occur as hydrated aluminium oxide
(bauxite) Al2O3.2H2O. The purified bauxite is dissolved in molten cryolite (Na3AlF6) and is electrolyzed.
The anode and cathode are both carbon
At cathode
Al3+ + 3e- -> Al
At anode
202 → 02 + 4e-

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USES OF ALUMINIUM
i) it's used for making kitchen vessels such as pots, pans etc.
ii) it's used in moving parts of machines and in engines example; pistons and cylinders.
iii) it's used for making objects that must be as light as possible
Example parts of aero planes, railways trains and truck, buses, lorries, tankers, furniture and car
etc
iv) in over head tension cables for distribution of electric power
v) Other uses are packing materials for cigarette, sweets, biscuits etc.
EXTRACTION OF IRON AND STEEL
The main ores of iron are hematite, Fe203 and Magnetite Fe304, iron II carbonate, FeC03 also occurs.
The ore is heated to expel water. It is then loaded into the top of blast of furnace together with coke and
limestone

Iron is extracted from its ore by reduction in a blast furnace

STAGE 1;
Near the base of the furnace where a hot air blast enters by the buyers, coke burns in air to produce carbon
dioxide, providing the main source of heat for the process
C(S) + 02(g) -> C02(g)
STAGE 2;
A little higher in the furnace the carbon dioxide is reduced by hot coke to carbon monoxide
STAGE 3;

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At higher stage still carbon monoxide reduces the ore to iron, some reduction may also occur directly by
carbon

As it settles in the furnace the iron melts and drops into the bottom of the funnel
THE FUNCTION OF THE LIMESTONE (CaCO3)
The limestone is heated and decomposes quick lime (CaO) and C02
CaC03(S) → CaO(S) + C02(g)
The quicklime (CaO) reacts with acid impurities in the ore to form molten slag
CaO(s) → Si02(s) + CaSi03(s)
Slag and iron are tapped off separately at frequent intervals. The iron being cast into 'pigs" and is known as pig
iron, or cast iron. It contains many impurities like C, P, Si, Mn, and S and thus it is brittle. It can however be
cast by pouring into moulds as liquid to produce many articles in which great strength is necessary. Si, Mn, S
and thus it is brittle. It can however be cast by pouring into moulds as liquid to produce many articles in which
great strength is necessary.
Example; Railings, water pipes, bases of Bunsen, cookers, stoves etc
WROUGHT IRON:
It is the purest form of commercial iron. It contains 99% iron and less than 0.25% of carbon, to make wrought
iron, cast iron is melted and stirred in a furnace carbon in the cast iron is oxidized away of gas (CO and C02)
while other impurities
Example; Mn and Si are oxidized to a slag
Fe2O3(s) + 3C(S) -> 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)
Function of limestone- to remove impurities
i. The wrought iron is strong and malleable. It can be shaped by hammering at very high temperature,
1000°c.
ii. It is used for making nails, sheets, chains, gates, farm machines etc.
STEEL
This is an alloy of iron with 0.15% to 0.17% or carbon. Steel is obtained by oxidizing the impurities in molten
pig iron using a jet or '‗tonnage oxygen" directly vertically downs the metal; after removing of impurities a
calculated mass of carbon and (Ni, Co, Cs, Mn, It needed) is added.
PROPERTIES OF METALS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS AS COMPARED TO NON-METALS
PROPERTY METALS NON-METALS
Thermal or electrical High Low
conductivity
Luster High Low
Sonority High Low
Ductility High Low
Tensile strength High Low
Malleability High Low
 Metals are lustrous
Can be polished and also can be rolled into different shapes. That is why they are useful in manufacture of
light weight cans.
Example; Aluminium can be rolled into very thin foils which can be used even for rapping sweets.

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Lead is soft and bendable. It's useful in protecting underground cables. Because of its ductility and malleability
steel can be brought into different shapes
NB: Malleable substance can be hammered into different shapes. It can be flattened into sheets
-Ductile substance can be drawn into a wire
-A lustrous substance is shiny and can be polished by a steel wool to make it shine.
-A sonorous substance can make noise when hit
 Metals conduct heat
Metals are used to make cooking utensils like kettles and saucepans because they are good conductors.
Heat can be conducted from source to the food being cooked through them.
 Metals have high melting points
Although not all metals have high melting points (example Na and K have low densities and float on water and
their melting points are low; Na 98°C K 63°C and also mercury which is a liquid metal mp -39°C) most metals
do.
The use of tungsten in filaments; alloys of chromium and nickel in heating elements of electric fires and engine
in cars and aero planes do utilize this property.
 Metals have high tensile strength
Metals can support heavy loads steel is useful in making girders, hawsers and chains because of this property
the head of hammer is useful because it's hard and tough.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

1. Physical strength and chemical strength
-Physical strength results from the way atoms are arranged in a substance, example; Metals of high tensile
strength like Fe, Cu and Al and low tensile strength like Na and K.
-Chemical strength, we look in reactivity of the element. This depends on how the electrons are arranged in
atom. K and Na have got very low tensile strength but chemically they are the strongest metals.
2. Reducing power of metals
-The reactivity depends on the easiness to donate electrons i.e. reducing power. A more reactive metal can
displace a less reactive metal from its compound.
For example; when we roast copper (i) sulphide we get Cu while when we roast lead sulphide, no lead is made
I) Cu2S + 02(g) → 2CU(s) + S02(g)
ii) 2PbS(s) + 302(g) -> 2PbS(s) +2S02(g)
NB: The more reactive a metal is, the more difficult it is to extract it from its ore
3. Displacement reactions of metals and reactivity
A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from an aqueous solution or its oxide.
For example; i) Mg + ZnO → Mg0+ Zn
Magnesium + zinc oxide
ii) Zn(s) + PbN03(aq) → ZnN03(aq)+ Pb(s)
Zinc + Lead nitrate
4. Reaction of metals with water
- As reducing agents, metals react with water to liberate H2(g), K and Na react violently with water while Ca
and Mg react violently with steam and Al, Zn, Fe, Pb and Cu have no action on water
5. Reaction of metals with dilute HC1.
- The reaction between K, Na and Ca and dilute HC1 to liberate H2(g) is violent and dangerous, while Mg, Al,
Zn, Fe, Sn and Pb give off H2(g) very slowly. -The acid needs to be warmed up Cu, Ag and Au are not attached
at all.

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 9. COMPOUNDS OF METALS
A. METAL OXIDE
An oxide is a compound of oxygen with another element.
Preparation of oxides:
There are two ways of preparing metal oxides

a) DIRECT METHOD
It involves direct combination of metal with oxygen
Example; 2Ca(s) + 02(g) → 2CaO(s)
2MG(s) + 02(g) → 2MgO(s)
4Na(s) + 02(g) → 2Na20(s)
1. INDIRECT METHOD
It involves thermal decomposition of a salt of carbonate, hydroxide (I) nitrates
Example;

CLASSIFICATION OF METAL OXIDES

1. BASIC OXIDES
Are oxides of metal when reacts with acid forms salts

2. ACIDIC OXIDES
Are oxides of non metals and when dissolved in water form solution

3. AMPHOTERIC OXIDES
These are oxides which have both basic and acidic properties (H neutralize both acidic and Alkali to form salt)
Examples are ZnO, A1203 and PbO
4. NEUTRAL OXIDES
Are oxides which do not react with either acid or base (Have no basic/acidic properties)
Examples are H20, CO, NO, N2C1
5. PEROXIDES
When elements burn in excess air, peroxides are formed
Examples are N202, H202

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 6. MIXED OXIDES
These are oxides of two simple oxides
Examples are Fe304 - Tri iron tetra oxide
(Mixture of FeO and Fe203)

SOLUBILITY

USES OF OXIDES
I. Used in preparation of salts in the laboratory
i.e. CaO + H2S04 -> CaS04 + H20
II. Used in formation of slag
III. Used as a drying agent
IV. Used in manufacture of motors
V. Oxides react with acid to form salt and water
Example; ZnO + 2HCI → H20 + ZnCl2
The following are the reaction equations when the following oxides react with hydroxides

B. METAL HYDROXIDE
Very active metals (K, Na and Ca) dissolves in water forming hydroxide soluble oxides dissolves in water to
form hydroxide (Alkali) Soluble oxides dissolve in water to form hydroxide (alkali)

Caustic soda and caustic potash are used in the manufacture of SOAP.
Lime water is used to detect C02 gas. The rest of the hydroxides are insoluble.
PREPARATION OF IN SOLUBLE HYDROXIDES
i. Dissolve a soluble salt in water i.e. CU(N03)2
ii. Dissolve a soluble hydroxide in water i.e. Ca(OH)2
iii. Mix them together
CU (N03)2 + Ca(OH)2 → Cu(OH)2 + Ca(N03)2

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 iv) Separate the two by filtration.
NB: The filtrate is Ca(N03)2 and the residue is Cu(OH)2
PROPERTIES OF HYDROXIDE
a. Have bitter taste
b. Neutralize acids to form salt and water
HN03 + NaOH → NaN03 + H20
Solubility of hydroxide in water
• The nature of hydroxide of metals varies according to position of the metal in the reactivity series.

The hydroxide of sodium, calcium and potassium are the strongest because they dissociate completely in water
Example; KOH -> K + + OH-
Ammonium hydroxide is weak base because it does not dissociate completely in water
+
NH4OH → NH4 + OH

QUESTION:
By using diagram and details explain: show how you would prepare
a. Zinc hydroxide
b. Magnesium hydroxide
Solution:
i) Zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2)
ii) Dissolve soluble salt in water (Zn(N03)2).
iii) Dissolve soluble hydroxide in water (NaOH).
iv) Mix them together.
Zn(N03)2 + 2NaOH → Zn(OH)2(s) + NaN03(aq)
Separate by filtration
CARBONATE AND HYDROGEN CARBONATE
• Carbonates occur in many natural forms examples are chalk, limestone and marbles.
Examples of carbonates that occur naturally are the carbonates of Zinc, iron, lead and Manganese.
• Sea animals have carbonates in their shells in the forms of calcium carbonates. The remains of these animals
sink to the bottom of sea leading to chalk formation after thousands of years, through pressure the chalk
hardens to form limestone
General properties of carbonates:

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 1. All carbonates are insoluble in water except those of sodium, potassium and ammonium.
2. All carbonates give carbon dioxide on heating except those of sodium and potassium
For example; CuC03 → CuO + C02
(Green) (Black)
3. All carbonates give carbon dioxide with dilute acids
For example; ZnC03 + H2S04 -> ZnS04 + C02 + H20
PREPARATION OF SODIUM/POTASSIUM CARBONATES AND SODIUM/ POTASSIUM
HYDROGEN CARBONATES;
a) A solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) is saturated with carbon dioxide, giving a solution of sodium
bicarbonates NaOH + C02 → NaHC03
If a solution of potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) is saturated with carbon dioxide, a solution of potassium
bicarbonate is formed KOH + C02 → KHC03
b) This solution is divided into two equal portions, one portion is allowed to evaporate at room temperature,
when crystals of sodium hydrogen carbonate (sodium bicarbonate) or potassium hydrogen carbonate
(potassium bicarbonate) are obtained which are be filtered and dried.
c) An equal volume of the original sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide solution is added to the second
portion. Sodium carbonate or potassium carbonate is formed
NaHC03 + NaOH → Na2C03 + H20
KHC03+ KOH → K2C03 + H20
The solution is evaporated down and allowed to cool crystals of sodium carbonate is formed
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SODIUM CARBONATE AND SODIUM BICARBONATE

All carbonates and hydrogen carbonates react with acids to form carbon dioxide, water and salt.
For example; K2C03 + H2S03 → K2S04 + C02 4- H20
Dilute sulphuric acid react very little with calcium carbonate because the product calcium sulphate is insoluble,
form a layer on the outside of the carbonates and stop further reaction.

Also dilute sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid react little with lead II Carbonate because the product, the lead
sulphate and lead II Chloride are insoluble, they form layer on the outside of the carbonates which cause to
stop further reaction

• Nitric acid react readily with all carbonates because all nitric are soluble.
TEST FOR CARBONATES AND HYDROGEN CARBONATE.

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a) Add dilute nitric acid to a solution of a substance. Carbon dioxide gas is evolved, water and salts are
formed.
Examples; i) CaC03 + 2HN03 → C02 + H20 + Ca(N03)2
ii) NaHC03 + HN03 → C02 + H20 + NaN03
b) i) Add magnesium sulphate to a substance, if carbonates are present white precipitates are formed.
Examples; Na2C03 + MgS04 → MgC03 + Na2S04
ii) If hydrogen carbonates are present no precipitates are formed
c) Action of heat
Potassium carbonate and sodium carbonate do not decompose when heated. Other carbonate decompose to
form an oxide and carbon dioxide

Preparation of sodium carbonate by SOLVARY PROCESS

1. Calcium carbonate is heated in a limekiln

2. The calcium oxide is dissolved in water

3. The carbon dioxide is reacted with ammonia brine

2NaCl(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H20(1) + 2C02 -> 2NH4Cl(aq) + 2NaHC03(aq)
As the solution cools, sodium hydrogen carbonates the least soluble combination of ions, precipitates out and
removed
4. The sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated

5. The Ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide are reacted

Ca(OH)3(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) -> CaCl(aq) + 2NH3{g) + 2H20(l)

NITRATES
Nitrates are important chemicals for industries purpose
Examples:
 potassium nitrate is used in gun powder
 Sodium nitrates occur in nature as salt petres
 Aluminium nitrate is useful in the manufacture of sulphuric acid as a fertilizer.
PREPARATION OF NITRATES
a. By neutralizing nitric acid with an alkali or base
b. by the action of nitric acid on a carbonate
c. by the action of metal on nitric acid copper
(Only for magnesium, zinc, lead and copper)

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 - NaOH + HN03 → NaN03 + H20
- CaC03 + HN03 → Ca(N03)2 + H20 + C02
- Mg + 2HN03 → Mg(N03)2+ H2
PREPARATION OF NITRATES
o All nitrates are soluble and form crystalline solids
o Action of heat on nitrates
a) Sodium and potassium nitrates give nitrites

b) Many metal nitrates give the oxide

Example; i) Effect of heat on copper nitrate crystals when the blue crystals of copper nitrates are heated in a
boiling tube they dissolve in their water of crystallization, prolonged heating gives brown fumes of nitrogen
dioxide and the residue, copper oxide is a black.

ii) Effect of heat on lead nitric crystals

• When heated they decrepitate (expand with a crackling noise) and melt. Prolonged heating gives brown
fumes of nitrogen dioxide and a yellow residue of lead monoxide (litharge)

c) Silver and mercury nitrates give the metal

2AgN03 → 2Ag + 2N02 + 02
Hg(N03)2 → Hg + 2N02 + 02
d) Ammonium nitrates give nitrous oxide
NH4N03 → N20(nitrous oxide) + 2H20
3. The action of concentrated sulphuric acid
- Concentrated sulphuric acid, heated with a nitrate liberates nitric acid
4. All nitrates except those of sodium and potassium are hydrated, sodium nitrate and calcium nitrates are
deliquescent, and other nitrates are not. Summary of chemical properties of Nitrates

TEST FOR NITRATES

 Add concentrated sulphuric acid to the solid nitrate and warm Acid fumes (nitric acid) are involved.
Add 3 — 4 copper turning and arm the mixture, the colour of the gas turns to deep brown.
 The brown ring test is normally used to confirm the nitrates.
To a solution of nitrates are added a few drops of freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution.
A few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid are added carefully and brown ring obtained at the junction
between the liquid.
It is nitrate ferrous sulphate (FeSO4NO) formed that
6FeS04 + 2HN03+ 3H2S04 → 3Fe2(S04)3 + 4H20 + 2N0

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The nitrogen monoxide then reacts with more iron (II) sulphate to give the brown compound, which appears as
a brown ring
USES OF NITRATES
a. Potassium nitrate is used as a food preservative; it is also used to make slow burning fuses.
b. Sodium nitrate is mainly used as a fertilizer
c. Ammonium nitrate is mixed with chalk, the mixture is known as NITROCHALK, widely used as
fertilizer.
It is also used in manufacturing explosives.
d. Silver nitrate is used to make silver bromide and silver iodides chemicals used to make photographic
film.
CHLORIDES
Chlorine can react with all metals to form chloride. Most common metals are attacked by dil. Hydrochloric
acid to form chlorides
Example is Mg, Ca, Al, Zn, and Fe.
Mg + 2HC1 → MgCl2 + H2
Those elements (metals) which are not attached by dilute carbonates or oxides of these metals react with
[Link] hydrochloric acid to produce chloride
PREPARATION OF CHLORIDE
• Metallic chlorides can be prepared by direct or indirect or indirect methods.
1 BY DIRECT METHOD
- Chloride can be prepared by direct action of chlorine on metals
i.e. Fe + Cl2 → FeCl2
2Fe + 3C12 → FeCl3
Iron (iii) chloride can be prepared by passing Cl2 over a heated metal.
An iron wire is placed in hand glass tube and a steam of dry Cl2 passes over it.
The reaction continues without further application of heat source and iron (iii) chlorides collect in a bottle as
shown.
PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE CHLORIDE:
Soluble chlorides can be prepared by mixing dilute hydrochloric acid ([Link])
 Oxides
 Hydroxides
 Carbonates
 Metals

Methods for preparation of soluble chloride are summarized below

K prepared by action of the oxide, hydroxide or carbonate
Na dilute hydrochloric acid
Ca
Mg Prepared by Action of the metal, oxide or carbonate on
Al Dilute hydrochloric acid
Zn
Fe
NB: Lead and silver chloride are only common insoluble chlorides

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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CHLORIDES
• To identify a chlorine in a liquid mixture add nitrates or silver nitrate (A white precipitate formed)
Pb(N03 )2 + HC1 → PbCl2 + 2HN03
(White precipitate)
 To identify a chloride from solid mixture, add concentrated sulphuric acid
The gas that produces thick white fumes with ammonium solution is produced

 Mix chloride with oxidizing agent (Mn02)

A green wish yellow gas is involved

METAL SULPHATES
1) Preparation of soluble metal sulphates
Soluble sulphates can be prepared in the laboratory by dissolving a metal, a carbonate, a hydroxide or an oxide
in dilute H2S04
Examples;

2. Preparation of insoluble sulphates

Insoluble sulphates can be prepared by adding dilute sulphuric acid to lead or barium ions Examples;

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. All sulphates react with barium chloride to give a white precipitate which is insoluble in dilute HC1
NOTE. Sulphites and carbonates give precipitate which is soluble in dilute HCl.
2. The sulphates or iron (II), copper (II) and zinc (called green, blue and white vitriol respectively) decompose
when heated strongly to give the oxide of the metal, sulphur dioxide, sulphur trioxide and water

NOTE. In case of copper (II) and Zinc Sulphates, no sulphur dioxide is produced
CuS04.5H20 → CuO + S03 + 5H20
3. The sulphates of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium don‘t decompose on heating

USES OF SULPHATES
1. Sodium sulphate
Is used to treat wood pulp in the manufacture of paper
2. Anhydrous (CaS04) is used as a source of sulphur dioxide for the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
3. Ammonium sulphate is an important fertilizer
4. Aluminium sulphate

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Is used in the purification of sewage as it precipitates proteins
5. CuS04 (copper (II) sulphate) is used as fungicide i.e. destroyer of fungi on plants
Also it is used as an electrolyte for electroplating copper.

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Sr. Donny Company Resourceful Learning Centre; Tell: 0652980744/0683397380/0756306037 75
 10. NON METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
Non-metals- these are elements which react with the electrons by gaining to form negatively charged ions
Example
M + e-→M-
Where e- = electron.
Example

There are only 17 non-metals (excluded H) arranged at right in the periodic table. They are electronegative
elements with high electro negativity and ionization energy. They have a tendency to accept electron and form
anions.

Characteristics of non-metals
1. They are oxidizing agents. This is because they are electron acceptor or they gain electrons. The substance
which gains electrons is said to be oxidizing agent.
2. They have lore melting point and boiling point.
3. They have lore density.
4. They gain electrons during chemical reactions.
5. They have lore physical strength.
6. Their oxides are acidic in nature.
Chemical Properties of non-metals
1. Non-metals react with oxygen to form non-metallic oxides, which are acidic in nature. Hence non-metallic
oxides form an acidic solution often dissolved in water and turn litmus solution red. For example, carbon
is oxidized to form carbon dioxide, which is acidic in nature.

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• Most of non-metal oxides form gas with acidic, the neutral or basic
Common properties of gases
GASES SMELL NATURE SOLUBILITY COLOUR

Basie or
Ammonia NH3 Urine smell Soluble Colorless
alkaline

Carbon dioxide CO2 Odorless Acidic Soluble Colorless

Carbon monoxide CO Odorless Neutral Insoluble Colorless

Irritating chocking
Sulphur dioxide SO2 Acidic Soluble Colorless
smell

Irritating chocking
Chlorine Cl2 Acidic Soluble Greenish yellow
smell

Rotten eggs or
Hydrogen sulphide H2S Acidic Soluble Colorless
cabbage"

Irritating chocking Reddish brown

Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Acidic Soluble
smell yellow

Nitrogen monoxide NO Odorless neutral Insoluble Colorless

Irritating chocking
Hydrogen chloride HCI acidic Soluble Colorless
smell
2. Non-metals are good oxidizing agents and are oxidized in almost all of their reactions. Like aluminum is
oxidized with bromine to form aluminum bromide.

3. Non-metals have a tendency to oxidize metals

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4. They can easily oxidize those compounds with which they react.

5. Less electronegative non-metals like carbon & hydrogen can act as a reducing agent for some compounds
like ferric oxide and copper (II) oxide.

6. Generally, no reaction takes place between non-metals and acids. But non-metals react with based to form
salts.
For example, chlorine reacts with calcium hydroxide to form bleaching powder
OXDIZING PROPERTY OF NON METAL
An oxidizing agent is a substance which accepts electrons: a reducing agent is a substance which donates
electrons. Oxidizing and reducing agents can be identified in redox reactions The elements with lose electro
negativity (metals) tend to form ions by losing electrons (oxidation) and so can act as reducing agents: the
elements with high electro negativity (non-metals) tend to form ions by gaining electrons (reduction) and so
can act as oxidizing agents. The strongest reducing agents are found in Group 1 whilst the strongest oxidizing
agents come from Group 7. The electrochemical series indicates the effectiveness of oxidizing and reducing
agents.
One of the main properties of non metal is to gain electron. None metal have 4 to 6 electron in outer most
shell.
Example
• Nitrogen:2:5
• Oxygen :2:6
• Chrolin[Link]
To become stable the outer most shell must be filled. Hence it is for non metal to gain an electron to become
stable example
• Nitrogen gain 3 electron = 2:8
• Oxygen gain 2 electron = 2:8
• Chlorine gain 1 electron = 2: 8: 8
Any chemical substance gain electron is oxidizing agent. Also all non metal is OXIDIZING AGENT
The number of electron gained per atom signifies a valency. A Cl gain 1 and oxygen gain 2 hence valency of
Cl is 1 and for oxygen is 2.
o OXIDIZING POWER OF HALOGENS
These are elements found in the group VII of the periodic table and are salt producers.
Oxidizing power of halogens decrease as one move down the group, this is because of tendency of electro
negativity decrease.
Examples of halogens are; chlorine, bromine, fluorine and Iodine All halogens name end with suffix -ine
Properties of halogens
1. Are salt producers
2. Are most electronegative elements. With fluorine being the most electronegative and Iodine the least in the
group. The electro negativity decreases downwards the group
3. Some of them are gases, solids and others liquids at room temperature
Halogen state at room temperature
Fluorine Gas
Chlorine Gas
Bromine Liquid

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 Iodine Solid
4. They are colored.
Halogen Color
Chlorine Greenish-yellow
Fluorine Purple
Bromine Brown-reddish.
Iodide Brown
5. They are strong oxidizing strong oxidizing agents i.e. they gain or accept electrons.
DISPLACEMENT REACTION INVOLVING HALOGENS
In displacement reach on one element take part of another in a compound. A more reactive non metal
displace a less reactive non metal from a solution of one of its salt
In group VII are more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive halogen from another halide salt.
For example : chlorine displaces bromine or iodine

Chlorine
Chlorine is the greenish yellow gas which turns dump blue litmus red and bleaches it. Chlorine is a chemical
element with symbol Cl and atomic number 17. Chlorine is in the halogen group (17) and is the second lightest
halogen following fluorine. The element is a yellow-green gas under standard conditions, where it forms
diatomic molecules. Chlorine has the highest electron affinity and the fourth highest electro negativity of all
the reactive elements. For this reason, chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent. Free chlorine is rare on Earth, and is
usually a result of direct or indirect oxidation by oxygen.
The most common compound of chlorine, sodium chloride (common salt), has been known since ancient
times. Around 1030 chlorine gas yeas first synthesized in a chemical reaction, but not recognized as a
fundamentally important substance.
Preparation of chlorine from potassium permanganate KMnO4 and hydrochloric acid
When potassium permanganate reacted with concentrated HCI, chlorine gas is formed, which is collected by
the downward displacement.
Consider the diagram below.

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Preparation of the chlorine gas, hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon monoxide in the fume chamber/
cupboard
Normally these gases are prepared in the fume chamber for the following reasons.
Because some of them are toxic and poisonous this can cause death to occur. So when the gases are prepared
into the laboratory: windows and doors should be left open to allow good ventilation of the air in the
laboratory, when the poisonous toxic gases are produced, they can escape freely from the laboratory to the
atmosphere to allow' the leaked gaseous molecules to accumulate in the laboratory.
The Test for Chlorine Gas, Cl2
 Chlorine gas is green-yellow in color.
 Chlorine gas has a pungent choking smell
 Chlorine gas turns moist litmus paper from blue to red and moist universal indicator paper to red - it is
acidic. After turning red both papers are then bleached white.
 Chlorine gas will put out a lit splint.
Specific Test for Chlorine Gas
Chlorine is the only gas that has a bleaching affect
Properties of chlorine
1. It is a greenish-yellow gas.
2. It has an irritating shocking smell
3. It is soluble in water.
4. It is slight denser than air.
5. It turns blue litmus red then bleach
 Chlorine gas is soluble in water.
When chlorine gas is dissolved in water, it dissolves to form hydrochloric acid (HC1) and hypochlorous acid
(HOC1)

HOC1 - hypochlorous acid

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HC1 - hydrochloric acid
• Where HC1 can kill bacteria and HOC1 can bleach or decolorize.
The acid decomposes to form oxygen and hydrochloric acid
(The HOCI acid is unstable)
 Chlorine gas is the bleaching agent.
Bleaching agent- is the substance which can decolorize or bleach or remove the original color of another
substance. E.g.
• Blue into colorless
• Red into colorless
• Yellow to colorless
Host chlorine bleaches colored matter such as water, clothes, litmus.
E.g. when the chlorine gas is dissolved in water it forms two acids Hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid,
hypochlorous acid is unstable so it decomposes slowly to form hydrochloric acid and oxygen.
The formed oxygen combines with the colored matter to such that they undergo oxidation then bleaching
occurs such that the substance becomes colorless.

Chlorine gas or compounds added to the swimming pool and drinking water.
This is because chlorine gas dissolves in the swimming pool or drinking water to form HC1 which kills
bacteria and pathogens and at the same time decolorizes water thus makes water to become safe for using for
human beings.
The addition of chlorine in water is called chlorination of water. The aim is to kill bacteria and decolorize
water.
Water can be clean but not safe for drinking.
Because it may contain bacteria and microorganisms which cause diseases and can't be seen by our naked eves
and so water should be boiled or chlorinated
Chemical properties of chlorine gas
Chlorine shows the following chemical properties.

KOC1 is sodium hypochlorous.

(b)Reaction with hot concentrated alkali

NaClO3 is sodium chlorate

4. Reaction with ammonia gas

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DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS OF CHLORINE
Chlorine gas can shore the displacement reaction such that those elements below, it would displace.

The potassium iodide solution turns to brown due to the formation of iodine gas.
Effects of sunlight into chlorine water
Chlorine water is the unstable compound, when the heat or sunlight become into contact with chlorine water
(HOCL), the chlorine water decomposes then produces oxygen and hydrochloric acid. Oxygen gas produced
escape to atmosphere.

Commercial uses of chlorine gas

1. It is used in the production of common salt. E.g. NaCl.
2. Used in the chlorination of water, this is the addition of chlorine in water so as to kill the micro-
organisms in water.
3. Used in the bleaching action. E.g. Bleaching of water, some of the clothes can be bleached using
chemical compounds made up of chlorine. Such as water guard.
4. Used to make compounds used in the preparation of oxygen gas. E.g. potassium chlorate KCLO3, can
be prepared from chlorine gas
5. (PVC)- materials used to make water pipes and plastics
(PVC - polyvinyl chloride)
 Used in disinfecting
 Used to bleach wood pulp in paper making.
 Used to make chemical such as carbon tetrachloride used in dry cleaning.
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS
This is the compound hydrogen chloride has the chemical formula HC1. At room temperature, it is a colorless
gas, which forms white fumes of hydrochloric acid upon contact with atmospheric humidity.
Hydrogen chloride gas and hydrochloric acid are important in technology and industry. Hydrochloric acid, the
aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride, is also commonly given the formula HC1 has the chemical formula
HC1.
At room temperature, it is a colorless gas, which forms white fumes of hydrochloric acid upon contact with
atmospheric humidity. Hydrogen chloride gas and hydrochloric acid are important in technology and industry.
Hydrochloric acid, the aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride, is also commonly given the formula HC1

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Preparation of hydrogen chloride gas

A balanced chemical equation for the reaction

The gas cannot be collected over water because it is soluble in water. Thus, it is collected by downward
delivery method.
Test of hydrogen chloride gas
The gas forms white denser fumes of ammonium chloride with ammonium gas.
The physical properties of chlorine
1. It is soluble in water

2. It is colorless
3. It has a pungent smell
4. It is denser than air
5. It turns blue litmus to red since it is addle.
Uses of hydrogen chloride gas
These are some of the uses for hydrogen chloride gas
 Most hydrogen chloride is used in the production of hydrochloric acid
 Hydro chlorination of lubber
 Production of vinyl and alkyl chlorides
 Chemical intermediate in other chemical production
 Used in toilet bowl cleaner (The Works)
 Used as abetting flux
 Treatment of cotton

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 o Delinking
o Separation from wool
 Used in semiconductor industry (in pure grade)
o Etching semiconductor crystal
o Converting silicon to SiHCl3 tor purification of silicon
Sulphur and sulphur extraction
o Sulphur ( S= [Link])
Sulphur is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is an abundant, multivalent non-
metal. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8.
Sulphur element is a bright yellow crystalline solid when at room temperature. Chemically, sulphur can react
as either an oxidizing or a reducing agent. It oxidizes most metals and several nonmetals, including carbon,
which leads to its negative charge in most organic sulphur compounds, but it reduces several strong oxidants,
such as oxygen and fluorine.
Sulphur is the solid yellow powdered non metal, yellowish in color. Sulphur is found within the soil in the
place called Sulphur bed The following countries lead in the extraction of sulphur: Mexico, Italy, Japan, France
and USA.
Sulphur can be found combined with ores such as:
a. Galena – Pbs
b. Iron Pyrite-FeS2
c. Zinc blend - ZnS
Some compounds of sulphur have unpleasant smell (odors). Sulphur compounds are responsible for the smell
such as that of onion, cabbage. The substance which causes tears during cutting of onions, also the smell
associated with rotten eggs is caused by the sulphur compounds
Compounds of sulphur
They include;
1. Sulphur dioxide. (SO2 )
2. Sulphuric acid.( H2 SO4 )
3. Sulphur dioxide. (SO3)
4. Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S
Hydrogen sulphide gas has smell of the rotten eggs or cabbages. At the same time the gas is poisonous and
toxic.
Allotropy and allotropes of sulphur
Allotropy is the existence of an element in various different forms with different physical properties but same
chemical properties.
Allotropes are the different forms of the same element with the same chemical properties but different
physical properties e.g. rhombic, monoclinic, plastic, amorphous are all allotropes of sulphur.

Rhombic sulphur
a. Exists at 96°C

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b. Transparent white crystal
c. Stable at 96°C
d. Has shape of octahedral
e. Prepared by heating sulphur With methyl benzene (toluene)
Monoclinic sulphur
 exists above 96°C
 yellow translucent
 stable above 960C
 has octahedral shape
 prepared by heating sulphur
Relationship between rhombic and monoclinic sulphur (at transition temperature)
Transition temperature is the temperature which one allotrope can change to another allotrope either by raising
or lowering the temperature
Rhombic and monoclinic sulphur are related to the temperature

Preparation of plastic sulphur

Plastic sulphur- is the allotrope of sulphur prepared by heating sulphur then cooling it and mixing it with cold
water. Sulphur heated then melts and becomes molten after that mixed with cold water. sulphur contact
becomes very hard than any allotrope.
NB: plastic sulphur is not considered to be actual allotrope of sulphur because it is harder than others.
Amorphous sulphur prepared from chemical compound
Amorphous sulphur is the sulphur allotrope of sulphur produced from the chemical reaction of compounds
containing sulphur.

Commercial uses of plastic sulphur

Used in the synthesis of plastic materials such as jars, trough, plastic water pipes, basin, pen- tubes containing
ink.
EXTRACTION OF SULPHUR BY FRASCH PROCESS
The Frasch process is a method to extract sulphur from underground deposits. It is the only economic method
of recovering sulphur from elemental deposits. [l] Most of the world‘s sulphur was obtained in this wav until
the late 20 thcentury, when sulphur was recovered from petroleum and gas sources (recovered sulphur) became
more commonplace (see Claus process).
In the Frasch process, superheated water is pumped into the sulphur deposit: the sulphur melts and is extracted.
The Frasch process is able to produce high purity sulphur.
As from 2011, the only operating Frasch mines worldwide are in Poland and since 2010 in Mexico. The last
mine operating in the United States was closed in 2000. A Frasch mine in Iraq was closed in 2003 due to the
U.S invasion of Iraq
Process

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In the Frasch process, three concentric tubes are introduced into the sulphur deposit. Superheated water (1650
C. 2.5-3MPa) is injected into the deposit via the outermost tube. Sulphur (melting point 1150C) melts and
flows into the middle tube. Water pressure alone is unable to force the sulphur into the surface due to the
molten sulphur's greater density, so hot air is introduced via the innermost tube to froth the sulphur, making it
less dense, and pushing it to the surface.

The sulfur obtained can be very pure (99.7 - 99.8%). In this form, it is light yellow in color. If contaminated by
organic compounds, it can be dark-colored: further purification is not economic, and usually unnecessary.
Using this method, the Linked States produced 3.89 million tonnes of sulfur in 1989, and Mexico produced
1.02 million tonnes of sulfur in 1991.
The Frasch process can be used for deposits 50-800 meters deep. 3-38 cubic meters of superheated water are
required to produce every tonne of sulfur, and the associated energy cost is significant. A working
demonstration model of the Frasch process suitable for the classroom has been described.
CHANGES WHICH OCCUR WHEN SULPHUR IS HEATED IN THE ABSENCE OF AIR
When sulphur is heated in the absence of air. it undergoes changes as shown below,
(a) Sulphur at 160°C
Sulphur melts and becomes mobile yellow liquid
(b) Sulphur at 200°C
Sulphur becomes dark, viscous and the mobility of sulphur increases more.
(c) Sulphur at 444°C
Sulphur boils to become into vapour or gaseous form.
1. Chemical properties of sulphur
Consider the reactions below.

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Commercial uses of sulphur
 Manufacture of gun powder.
 Manufacture of sulphuric acid through contact process
 Manufacture of matches
 Manufacture of plastic flower.
 Manufacture of detergents e.g. powder soap, puff.
 Manufacture of rubber through vulcanization
Vulcanization is the hardening of rubber or is the process of heating sulphur with rubber to make it hard.
 Manufacture of drugs and skin ointment
 Production of bleaching compound
Sulphuric acid and contact process
E.g. concentrated sulphuric acid - is the acid containing few (small) amounts of water molecules.
Sulphuric acid, its industrial manufacture, uses and reactions
Sulphuric acid is made in large quantity industrial because it has many important uses. The production of
sulphuric acid takes place in four stages.
Stage 1
Production of sulphur dioxide
Sulphur dioxide gas can be produced by three methods
 Burning sulphur in air. The sulphur from Frasch process is burned in air. The equation is

 Hydrogen sulphide from crude oil is burned in air. The equation is:

 Sulphide ores are roasted in air to extract metals from the ores. Sulphur dioxide is also produced, the
equation is ;

Stage 2
The contact process
The sulphur dioxide gas produced in stage 1 is mixed with air. The air and sulphur dioxide pass through a dust
precipitate to remove any dust impurities and then the gases are passed through a drier. It is essential that this
purification process takes place because impure gases will poison the vanadium (V) oxide catalyst.
The sulphur dioxide gas produced in stage one is mixed with air. Sulphur dioxide is converted into sulphur
trioxide in a converter. Like the Haber process, this is an equilibrium reaction and goes in both directions. A
yield of 95% is obtained by using the following conditions
• Catalyst vanadium (V) oxide (vanadium pentaoxide)

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• Temperature — 450°C
• Pressure 1 atmosphere

This reaction is exothermic, which means that as sulphur tri oxide is formed energy is released.
If the temperature rises above 4 5 0 0 C the yield of sulphur tri oxide decreases. The heat exchanger maintains
the temperature at 4500C
Stage 3
Production of oleum
If sulphur tri oxide is dissolved in water. sulphuric acid is formed.

Definition: is the heavy yellow liquid fanned when sulphur trioxide gas – SO3 reacts with acid H2SO4
NOTE: Oleum have strong affinity to water, so absorbs a lot of water than concentrated sulphuric acid formed.

Diagrammatic representation of the contact process

NB: Do not add water to an acid but acid to water for safe dilution.
Because heat absorbed from the surrounding environment which cause water spray to boil which scatter.
Then it can burn at the same time with denser fumes that will be formed. Normally acids have strong affinity to
water. Reaction with water is endothermic.
Reactions of dilute sulphuric acid

Reaction of sulphuric acid with marble chips – CaCO3 (egg shell)

Insoluble calcium sulphate formed, this cover acid to the top hence prevent further (more) reaction to occur or
continue, then the reaction stops. This is why we can't prepare CO3 by reacting marble chips and acid.
Commercial uses of sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
1. Used to make detergents for washing.

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2. Used to make paints for house painting
3. Used to make dyes for making clothes
4. Used in the synthesis of solvents. E.g. thinner for diluting paints.
5. Used in pickling - the removal of the oxide laver on the metal surface e.g. before galvanization.
6. Used in the lead accumulator battery as the electrolyte.
7. Used to manufacture fertilizers e.g. SA (ammonium sulphate)

8. Used to make plastic materials

NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Nitrogen, symbol N. is the chemical element of atomic number seven and electronic configuration (2:5).
At room temperature, it is a gas of diatomic molecules and is colorless and odorless. Nitrogen is a common
element in the universe, estimated at about seventh in total abundance in our galaxy and the Solar System.
On Earth, the element is primarily found as the gas molecule: it forms about 78% of Earth's atmosphere.
The element nitrogen was discovered as a separable component of air, by Scottish physician Daniel
Rutherford, in 1772.
Nitrogen gas as the diluents gas
Nitrogen gas is said to be the diluents gas. This is because it reacts with oxygen gas supporting combustion, the
reaction between oxygen and nitrogen help to reduce the rate of combustion, rusting. This shows that if
nitrogen in the atmosphere yeas absent, then rusting and combustion could occur faster on the Earth's surface.
Inert/ unreactive noble property of nitrogen
Nitrogen gas – N2 is unreactive gas and can resemble or be similar to noble gas due to the truth that covalent
bond in nitrogen is long and strong to break down hence nitrogen becomes unreactive gas. The bond is triple
covalent bond. E.g. N2

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF NITROGEN

Apparatus - delivery tubes, furnace, beaker, trough, Bunsen burner, 2 wash bottles
Chemicals - Air. water, sodium hydroxide
Procedure Either: Nitrogen is prepared from the air by removing oxygen and carbon dioxide. Water is used to
push air through sodium hydroxide solution (caustic soda solution) which removes carbon dioxide.

The remaining gas is passed over heated copper turnings to remove Oxygen.

Nitrogen is collected over water as it is insoluble in water

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PROPERTIES OF NITROGEN
Physical properties
(a) it is colorless gas without smell
(b) it is a reactive gas
(c) it does not bum doesn't support combustion
(d) it is neither acidic nor basic
(e) It is less denser than air
(f) It is insoluble in air
Chemical properties
Nitrogen is inert unlike Oxygen: it reacts under special conditions for example
1. It reacts with some metals at very high temperatures forming nitrides e.g. Calcium and magnesium.

2. It reacts with Hydrogen to form ammonia I Haber's process)

Commercial uses of nitrogen

i) Used in the storage of petrol cum to avoid the exploding of petrol.
ii) Used in the preparation of ammonia gas

Common drying agent in laboratory for gas

 Concentration of sulphuric acid
 Anhydrous calcium chloride
 Calcium oxide (CaO)
Ammonia gas
Ammonia, or ozone is a compound of nitrogen and Hydrogen with the formula NH, It is a colorless gas with a
characteristic of pungent smell. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial
organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia in both directly or indirectly is also a
building-block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals and is used in many commercial cleaning products.
Although in wide use ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. The gas form white denser fumes with
Hydrogen chloride gas
PREPATION OF AMMONIA
Ammonia is prepared by heating a mixture of calcium hydroxide and ammonium chloride.

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The tube in which ammonia is generated is fixed in a slanting position to prevent the water formed from
running back and crack the whole tube. Concentrated sulphuric acid and anhydrous calcium chloride are not
used to dry ammonia because. They react with it. The gas is passed through fresh quicklime (solid calcium
oxide lumps) to effectively div it. Ammonia is collected by upward delivery as it is lighter than air

Compound of nitrogen

Physical properties, chemical properties and uses of ammonia

Physical Properties of Ammonia
 Ammonia is a colorless gas
 It has a pungent odor with and an alkaline or soapy taste. When inhaled suddenly, it brings tears into the
eyes.
 It is lighter than air and is therefore collected by the downward displacement of air.
 It is highly soluble in water: One volume of water dissolves about 1300 volumes of ammonia gas. It is due
to its high solubility in water that the gas cannot be collected over water.
 It can be easily liquefied at room temperature by applying a pressure of about 8-10 atmosphere.
 Liquid ammonia boils at 239.6K (-33.50C) under one atmosphere pressure. It has a high latent heat of
vaporization (1370 J per gram) and is therefore used in refrigeration plants of ice making machines.
 Liquid ammonia freezes at 195.3 K (-77.80C) to give a white crystalline solid
Chemical properties of ammonia
They include;
1. The combustion of ammonia proceeds with difficulty but yields nitrogen gas and water.

3. Ammonia readily dissolves in water with the liberation of heat

4. Ammonia gets oxidized to nitrogen, when passed over heated metal oxides.

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Uses of ammonia
 In the manufacture of rayon and urea
 In the manufacture of fertilizers such as urea diammonium phosphate, ammonium nitrate, ammonium
sulphate etc.
 In ice plants, as a refrigerant
 In furniture industry. as a cleansing agent for furniture and glass surfaces,
 In the manufacture of nitric acid by Ostwald's process
 In the manufacture of sodium carbonate by Solvay‘s process
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE REDUCING PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA TO COPPER OXIDE
Consider the diagram below.

Chemical equation for the reaction

Fountain experiment to demonstrate solubility of the gases e.g. NH3, HCI

Fountain experiment this is an experiment used to show the solubility of the gases.

The ammonia fountain is a type of chemical demonstration. The experiment consists of introducing water
through an inlet to a container filled with ammonia gas. Ammonia dissolves into the water and the pressure in
the container drops. As a result more water is forced into the container from another inlet creating a fountain
effect. The demonstration introduces concepts like solubility and the gas laws at entry level.
A different gas of comparable solubility in water, such as Hydrogen chloride, can be used instead of ammonia.
If the ammonia is replaced by a liquid vapor, such as water vapor, at a pressure higher than its room-
temperature vapor pressure, a similar effect is produced. In this case, the reduction in pressure in the container
is due to condensation of the vapor as the container cools to room temperature
Nitric acid

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Nitric acid (UNO), also known as aqua Fortis and spirit of niter, is a highly corrosive strong mineral acid. The
pure compound is colorless, but older samples tend to acquire a yellow cast due to decomposition into oxides
of nitrogen and water. Most commercially available nitric acid has a concentration of 68%.
When the solution contains more than 86% HN03, It is referred to as firming nitric acid. Depending on the
amount of nitrogen dioxide present, fuming nitric acid is further characterized as white fuming nitric acid or
red fuming nitric acid, at concentrations above 95%.
Nitric acid is the primary reagent used for nitration - the addition of a nitro group, typically to an organic
molecule. While some resulting nitro compounds are shock- and thermally-sensitive explosives, a few are
stable enough to be used in munitions and demolition, while others are still more stable and used as pigments
in inks and dyes. Nitric acid is also commonly used as a strong oxidizing agent
Preparation of Nitric Acid
Laboratory preparation
Nitric acid is usually prepared by heating potassium nitrate with concentrated sulphuric acid. This heating is
done in a glass retort and vapors of nitric acid are condensed in a receiver, which is cooled by water.
The reaction is:

Chemical
1. Potassium nitrate: 30 g
2. Sulfuric acid: 98%. 35mL
Procedure
1. Place 30 g potassium nitrate into a round-bottomed flask.
2. Pour 33 ml 98% sulfuric acid and place a stir bar into the flask
3. Setup a simple distillation apparatus and start heating the round-bottomed flask with a hot plate with
stilting. Soak the collecting vessel in a cold-water bath Consider the diagram below.

To ensure our yield of anhydrous nitric acid is higher, adding some excess sulfuric acid is very helpful.
It makes the final product less water and produces more nitric acid. So we add equation 2 sulfuric acids into
equation 1 potassium nitrate to produce anhydrous nitric acid.
Industrial Preparation
On a commercial scale, nitric acid is manufactured through the Ostwald's process - the process of catalytic
oxidation of ammonia
Ostwald's process
The conversion of ammonia into nitric acid in this process is done through the following steps
Step 1
Oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide

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Ammonia is oxidized by air in the presence of Pt catalyst at 800'C to give nitric oxide
Step 2
Oxidation of NO to NO2
The nitric oxide is oxidized by air at temperature below 100°C. to give nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Step 3
Formation of nitric acid
Nitrogen dioxide is then converted to nitric acid by absorbing NO2 in water, in the presence of air.

Properties of nitric acid (HNO3)

1. It can attack the rubber materials.
2. It is unstable so can decompose at room temperature
3. It is yellowish in color, due to the dissolved nitrogen dioxide. NO2 in the acid.
4. It is the strong oxidizing agent 3 It is a firming acid
Chemical properties of nitric acid
1. Reaction with non metals.

CO2 Gas turns lime water to milky

And extinguishes fire and a reddish brown gas is evolved

2. Reaction with metal.

3. Reactions with basic Oxides

4. Reaction with Bases (Hydroxides)

5. Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates

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6. Reaction with Metals
Nitric acid usually does not behave as an acid, with metals to form the corresponding salt and liberate
Hydrogen.
However, magnesium and manganese are the only two metals, which react with cold and very dilute (1%)
nitric acid to evolve Hydrogen.

7. Reaction with Metallic Sulphites

Uses of nitric acid

The important uses of nitric acid are as follows:
1) Nitric acid plays a significant role in the manufacture of various products such as:
 Explosives like trinitrotoluene (T.N.T.) nitro glycerin, gun cotton, ammonia etc
 Fertilizers such as calcium nitrate, ammonium nitrate etc
 Nitrate salts such as calcium nitrate, silver nitrate, ammonium nitrate,
 Dyes. perfumes, drugs etc. from coal tar products
 Sulphuric acid by Lead Chamber process.
2) It is used in the purification of silver, gold, platinum etc.
3) Nitric acid is used in etching designs on copper, brass, bronze ware etc.
4) It is used to prepare "aqua regia" to dissolve the noble elements.
5) It is used as a laboratory reagent.
NITROGEN MONOXIDE (NO)
Nitric oxide, or nitrogen oxide, also known as nitrogen monoxide, is a molecule with chemical formula NO.
It is a free radical and is an important intermediate in the chemical industry. Nitric oxide is a by-product of
combustion of substances in the air, as in automobile engines, fossil fuel power plants, and is produced
naturally during the electrical discharges of lightning in thunderstorms.
This is the colorless gas which turns reddish-brown on the exposure to air. The gas has strong affinity to
oxygen, so can react with oxygen from the atmosphere then turn to reddish brown
Properties of nitrogen monoxide
1. It is colorless
2. It is neutral to litmus
3. It is odorless.
4. It is insoluble in water.
5. It is denser than air
Preparation of nitrogen monoxide in laboratory
The gas can be prepared when nitric acid react with moderate reactive metal.

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The delivery tube is passed over the water to remove dissolved impurities (nitrogen dioxide)
Consider the diagram below.

Chemical properties of nitrogen monoxide

They include:

The gas reacts with oxygen gas readily to form nitrogen dioxide gas.
Commercial uses of the nitrogen monoxide
1. Used to prepare nitrogen dioxide gas.
2. Used to prepare nitric acid in Haber process.
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula N02. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. N02 is
an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of nitric acid, millions of tons of which are produced each year.
This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor and is a prominent air pollutant.
Nitrogen dioxide is a paramagnetic, bent molecule with C2 point group symmetry.
Preparation of nitrogen dioxide gas

Properties of nitrogen dioxide gas

1. Soluble in water and form two acid nitrous acid- HNO2 and nitric acid.

2. Have irritating chocking smell.

3. Its acidic gas turns dump blue litmus red.
4. It is reddish brown yellow gas.
5. It is less dense than air.
Chemical properties of nitrogen dioxide
They include;

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1. React with base

2. Action of heat

On strong heating the gas nitrogen dioxide decompose to produce nitrogen monoxide and oxygen.
Commercial uses of nitrogen dioxide
1. Used in preparation of nitric acid
2. Used in manufacturing of the salt.
Differences between nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide Nitrogen monoxide
It is soluble in water It is insoluble in water
It is reddish brown yellow in color It is colorless
It has irritating chocking smell It has no pungent smell
It is acidic in nature It is neutral in nature
It change dump blue litmus to red It doesn‘t change litmus
Don‘t burn air It bum in air

CARBON
Carbon is the non- metal with electronic configuration C= 2:4, found in the group four and second level.
Carbon is insoluble. Carbon can be found on the rocks e.g. chalk - CaCO3 and common in the organic food
substance e.g. Glucose – C6H12O6
Properties of carbon
1. Carbon monoxide
2. Carbon monoxide (CO)
When charcoal burns in the place where the air supply is very little (limited supply of air).
Carbon in the charcoal burn to form poisonous carbon monoxide gas which is very dangerous to the body cells
since it combines with haemoglobin(Hb) to form a stable compound called carboxyhaemoglobin (HbCO),
which prevent haemoglobin from combining with oxygen to release it to the body cell or tissue.
Lack of oxygen (suffocation) occurs then death may occur.
2C + O2 —>2CO
 (Carbon monoxide) which is poisonous
Preparation of carbon monoxide
The gas can be prepared from oxalic acid as shown below in the diagram.

Test for gas CO.

The gas burn with blue flame to form carbon dioxide gas
The physical properties
a) It is colorless.
b) It is insoluble.

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c) It is odorless.
d) Neutral to litmus.
e) Less dense than air.
Commercial uses of carbon monoxide
• Used in preparation of carbon dioxide gas.
E.g. 2C0 + 02—► 2C02
• Used as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals.

Chemical properties of carbon monoxide

a) Reaction with air.
E.g. co +o2→ co2
b) React with metal oxides
CARBON DIOXIDE GAS (C02)
Carbon dioxide (chemical formulaC02) is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of 2 oxygen
atoms each covalently double bonded to a single carbon atom.
It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state, as a trace gas at a
concentration of 0.04 per cent (400 ppm) by volume, as of 2014. It is the gas which extinguishes fire.
Preparation of carbon dioxide gas
1. From powdered chips of marble CaCO3 and dilute HC1
Consider the diagram below.

Fig. 11.6 laboratory Preparation of carbon dioxide

2. From Oxalic acid.
Test for carbon dioxide gas
The gas turns calcium hydroxide (lime water) to milky and also extinguishes fire.
E.g. CO; + Ca (OH)2 →CaCO3 + H20
Milky suspension
Physical properties of carbon dioxide gas (c02)
- It is colorless
- It is fairly soluble
- It is slightly denser than air.
- It is an acidic gas so turn blue litmus red.
- It is odorless.
Chemical properties of carbon dioxide
(i) Reacts with bases or alkali
C02 + NaOHNa2C03 + H20
(ii) Reacts with water.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
(iii) Reacts with burning metals.

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 Burning metal continues to burn in the bottle containing C02 gas because intense heat of burning metal
split/ decompose the carbon dioxide gas to form oxygen and carbon. Oxygen gas formed supports
combustion.
Mg + CO2 MgO + O2 + C
Support combustion.
Commercial uses of carbon dioxide gas
(i) Use to make or synthesize cold drinks. Mainly because it brings a pleasant taste. E.g. in Coca cola and
Pepsi.
(ii) Used to extinguish fire because it doesn‘t support combustion, carbon dioxide keeps oxygen away from
the fire source.
(iii) Used in the refrigerator for storage of food as it aids the formation of dry ice.
(iv) Used by plant for photosynthesis.
(v) Used in the production of artificial rainfall but the rain is acidic.

 Take any equal mass of diamond or graphite, and then burn it in air. The products formed when masses are
measured will give the same/ mass for both allotropes.
E.g. Graphite (4g) + burn in air → product W (0.8g)
Diamond (4g) + burn in air → product W (0.8g)
 Both allotropes when burnt in air produce carbon dioxide gas (C02)
It burn in the air to form two oxides - one acidic oxide and other neutral oxide.
Example
Carbon + excess air burn → carbon dioxide gas
C + 02 → C02
Carbon + limited air burn → carbon monoxide gas
C + 0 —> CO
2. Carbon reacts with non metals
Carbon + sulphur → carbon disulphide
2C + S  CS2
Allotropy and allotropes of carbon
Allotropy- this is the existence of an element with different or more or various forms with different physical
properties but same chemical properties. E.g. Carbon, sulphur, phosphorous etc can exist in allotropy form.
Allotropes - are different forms of the same element with different physical properties but the same chemical
properties.
Allotropes of carbon are;-
1. Diamond
2. Graphite
3. Amorphous carbon e.g. charcoal.
1. Graphite
Good conductor allotrope of carbon. This is the impure allotrope of carbon which also good conductor of heat
and electricity Graphite can be seen within dry cell. Used as electrode since good conductor of electricity.

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:
Properties of graphite
 It is a good conductor since it has mobile or free electrons.
 Carbon atoms are arranged in the layers then held by weak intermolecular forces.
 Carbon atoms are equidistant to each other.
 It is a very soft substance due to weak forces holds the atoms across the layer.
 It is opaque, black and greasy.
Diagram arrangement of graphite atom

Commercial uses of graphite

i. Used as the electrode. Because it is a good conductor of heat and electricity as the metal does due to its free
electrons
ii. Used to make pencil. Because it‘s soft so can write well on paper
iii. Used as lubricant. Because it is greasy so reduce the frictional force.
iv. Used in re-enforcement of metal broken bones. Because it is hard.
v. Used for making crucible for storage of molten metal extracted. Because it has high melting point so can‘t
melt easily.
vi. Used to make dry cell. Because it is a good conductor of electricity.
Graphite was considered to be a metal/ graphite is a good conductor of electricity although is non-metal.
Graphite was considered to be a metal because electrons in graphite are mobile or free, as those electrons
present in the metal. At the same time graphite can conduct electric current as a metal does.
Diamond is pure allotrope of carbon.
Diamond is the purest, hardest allotrope of the carbon. Diamond is a valuable material found within the Earth's
surface.
Properties of diamonds
a) It has melting point.
b) It is the hardest substance known.
c) Its carbon atoms are not arranged in the layer
d) Its carbon atoms are held by the strong force of the attraction so this makes electron to be more fixed.
Structure of diamond

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Commercial uses of diamond
They include:
 Used in the jeweler activities to make germ stones. Because it is brilliant.
 It is used in boring or drilling of the rock. Since it is the hardest substance known.
 It is used in glass cutting.
How to confirm the allotropes of the same element
How can we prove that diamond and graphite are allotropes of the same element? Properties of allotropes of
the same elements
 They have the same chemical properties/ composition.
E.g. diamond contains C and graphite contains C.
 When burnt in air produce same product.
 They have different physical properties.
Differences between graphite and diamond
GRAPHITE DIAMOND
1. Good conductor of heat and electricity Bad conductor of heat and electricity
2. Have lower melting point Have a higher melting point.
3. It is black and opaque It is brilliant and transparent
4. Its carbon atoms are not arranged in the layers.
Its carbon atoms are arranged in the layers
5. It has mobile or free electrons It has no mobile or free electrons
6. The carbon atoms are equidistant The carbon atoms are not equidistant
Similarities between graphite and diamond
 Both have carbon atoms
 Both burns in air to form carbon dioxide gas
AMORPHOUS CARBON
This is an impure allotrope of carbon. This is the non crystalline allotrope of carbon which is impure.
A good example of amorphous carbon is charcoal and soot.
Forms or amorphous carbon
They include
1. Charcoal
2. Coke
3. Soot
1. Charcoal
This is the solid material from incomplete combustion. Amorphous carbon obtained from the destructive
distillation of solid materials.
Types of charcoal

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a) Wood charcoal - obtained from raw material wood through process called destructive distillation of wood.
b) Animal charcoal- obtained from raw material bone through process called destructive distillation of bone.
c) Sugar charcoal- obtained from raw materials sugar through process called destructive distillation of sugar.
Commercial uses of charcoal
a. Animal charcoal- purification of brown sugar to form white sugar since can absorb the colored materials.
b. Sugar charcoal- used in chemical processing industry so act as mask of the poisonous gas.
c. Wood charcoal- used in fuel for cooking, purification of water and detoxification.

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 11. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
The word organic refer to the substance which originated from the plants and animals remains. The substance
which originated from the body of the living organism such as plant and animal is grouped to the group of the
organic compound. But those substances which came from minerals are referred to as inorganic compounds.
E.g. of organic compound petroleum (crude oil), the food we eat such as starch, glucose, protein and other
product like kerosene. alcohol, diesel and petrol there are examples of the organic compounds: All above
compounds they contain carbon atom. Example glucose – C6H12O6
DISTINCTION OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FROM INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- Most substances are made of carbon atoms. when you hest dry wood completely the black residue seen is due
to the pretence of carbon atoms in it. Other organic compounds include dyes, drugs, papers, plastics and
textiles
In contrast, inorganic compounds contain very small quantity of carbon or not having it at all. Around 25% of
all global substances are inorganic compounds.
Examples of inorganic compounds are
(i) All oxides e.g. sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and aluminium oxide
(ii) All carbonates e.g. Calcium carbonates, sodium carbonates, Iron II carbonate and copper carbonate
(iii)All hydrogen carbonates e.g. Sodium hydrogen carbonate
(iv) All sulphates e.g. ammonium sulphate, Sodium sulphate and copper II sulphate
(v) All Chlorides e.g. hydrochloric acid (HCL), sodium chloride (NaCl) and Iron III chloride.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Some specific properties of sodium chloride (inorganic compound) and hexane (organic compound) are hated
in a table below. Consider the following comparisons of typical organic and inorganic compounds.
a. Melting point Organic compound have relatively low melting points, like hexane and ethanol are liquid at
room temperature. Most inorganic salts, by contrast have high melting points.
b. Solubility: Most organic compounds are insoluble in water hut are soluble in organic liquids.
c. Density: Most organic liquids are less dense than water and like oil they float on top of water if we attempt
to dissolve them
d. Flammability: Organic compound are flammable some are highly flammable. Some, like gasoline, form
explosive mixtures with air and must not be used near an open flame. Inorganic compound are non
flammable. Some, such as water and sodium bicarbonate (I are even used in fighting fires.
e. Bonding: Properties of organic compounds are related to the fact that they are composed of molecules with
covalent bonds. Inorganic compound is ionic. Water solutions of ionic compounds conduct an electric
current. But water solutions of molecular substances those having covalent bonds are non-conductors.
Comparison of an organic and inorganic compound:

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SOURCES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:
There are three main sources of organic compounds.
Namely:
 Petroleum and coal: these substances provide compounds which can be used in their simple forms.
 Plants and animals: glycogen is an example of organic compound found in animals. Starch and cellulose
are organic compounds found in plants.
 Synthetic organic compounds: some organic compounds are synthesized, for example nylon and
polyesters. Others include synthetic rubber colours, dyes, fibres such as artificial sisal fibres and synthetic
acids, alcohols, ethers and amines.
APPLICATION (importance) of studying organic chemistry
They include:
• Applied in the food used by human beings and other listing organisms Example protein, carbohydrates,
lipids, all these contain carbon atom
• Applied in fuel industries in the production of fuel e.g. Petrol, kerosene, petroleum, Benzene – C6H6,
diesel, all these are organic compounds
• Applied in the pharmaceutical industries in the drags, chemical synthesis e.g. erythromycin, tetracycline
panadol, aspirin etc.
• Applied in the plastic material production in the industries, e.g. plastic bags, trough, sandals PVC
(polyvinylchloride) used in plastic pipes, electrical wires insulators all these are organic compound
CRACKING
This is the process of breaking down the complex compound to form the simplest compound which is more
useful
E.g. complex compound — simplest compound
Less useful more useful
Example

TYPES OF CRACKING
There are
1. Thermal cracking - Is the cracking that hest is used to break down the complex compound to form the
simplest compound which is more useful

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2. Catalytic cracking - Is the cracking that catalyst is used to break down the complex compound to form the
simplest compound which is more useful
DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OIL
A crude oil refinery is a group of industrial facilities that means crude oil and other inputs into finished
petroleum products. A refinery‘s capacity refers to the maximum amount of crude oil designed to flow into the
distillation unit of a refinery, also known as the crude unit.
The diagram above presents a stylized version of the distillation process. Crude oil is made up of a mixture of
hydrocarbons, and the distillation process aims to separate this crude oil into broad categories of its component
hydrocarbons, or "fractions." Crude oil is first heated and then put into a distillation column, also known as a
still, where different products boil off and are recovered at different temperatures.
Lighter products, such as butane and other liquid petroleum gases (LEG), gasoline blending components, and
naphtha, are recovered at the lowest temperatures. Mid-range products include jet fuel, kerosene, and distillates
(such as home heating oil and diesel fuel). The heaviest products such as residual fuel oil are recovered at
temperatures sometimes over 1,000oF
The simplest refineries stop at this point. Although not shown in the simplified diagram below, most refineries
in the United States reprocess the heavier fractions into lighter products to maximize the output of the most
desirable products using more sophisticated refining equipment such as catalytic crackers, reformers, and
cokers

Distillation tower
HYDRO-CARBONS
Hydro-carbons are organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms. For example, methane
(CH4), ethane (H - CH3) and ethyne (CH ≡CH) each one contains in it the atoms of carbon and hydrogen only.
Basing on the number of bonds between carbon to carbon atoms, there are three families of hydro-carbons.
These are alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. Some of hydro-carbons are saturated while others are unsaturated.
Compounds are said to be saturated if the carbon to carbon atoms is only the single bond.
Example of: Saturated hydro-carbons

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On the other hand, unsaturated compounds are those whose molecules contain either double or triple bounds
between carbon to carbon atoms.
For example: Un-saturated hydro-carbons

From above information alkanes are saturated organic compounds while both alkenes and alkynes are
unsaturated
Homologous series is a series of compounds related to each other. A group of compounds forms a homologous
series if there is a constant increment of change in molecular structure from one compound in the series to
another or
Homologous series: Is a group of compounds which possess the same general formula and the members of
homologous series differ from the next by group.
The following are characteristics of members that belong to the same homologous series.
1. All members in the same family conform to a general molecular formula.
For Example:

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2. Each member differs in molecular formula from the next by CH2
Each member differs from the next by CH2

3. All members show similar chemical reactions though varying in strength e.g. Tire reaction of methane and
ethane with chlorine, Respectively

AS CL → HCL
4. The physical properties of members change gradually in the same direction along the series e.g. In alkane
CH4 is a gas at ordinary temperature while C5 H12 is liquid at ordinary temp.

NOTE:

5. General methods of preparation are known which can he applied to any member of the series.
Example of hydrocarbons in the families of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes have been given in tables below
Examples of alkanes as hydro-carbons

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Hydro-Carbons of Alkenes

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STRUCTURES OF THE HYDRO-CARBONS
There are two types of structure of hydrocarbons. These are condensed and open structure

Condensed and open structure of alkenes.

Condensed and open structure of alkynes

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NAMING HYDRO-CARBONS
1. NAMING ALKANES
Nomenclature: Is the system of naming. The naming in alkanes is according to the (IUPAC) International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

Rule 1: Naming of alkanes ends with suffix -ane-

Rule 2: In naming alkanes the name is determined by the parental chain (Longest chain of carbon atoms)

- Longest chain consists of 4 carbon atoms.

-Its name is Butane.
(2) CH 3 CH 2 CH 3
- The longest chain consists of 3 carbon atoms
- Its name is Propane
Rule 3: Number the carbon atoms of the parent chain starting from the end nearer to a substituent group
E.g. (1)

Rule 4: If the substituent group attached in a long chain a carbon atoms, the substituent group named
according to their position in which occurs. The most number should he lowest as possible.
In naming the substituent group named first followed with the name of a parental chain.
Example of substituent group is:
F – Fluoro

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I -Iodo
CL - Chloro
Br-Bromo

Rule 5: If substituent group divides the parent chain into two identical parts starts numbering from either end.
E.g.

I.e. Wherever you start the carbon atom with a substituent group is given number 3. Thus, any one is correct.
Rule 6 Separate numbers from each other by commas (,) and separate numbers from names by hyphen (-)

Rule 7: If the identical substituent groups are present in the parent chain, use prefixes di for two groups, tri for
three groups and tetra for four groups

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Rule 8: If there is two or more different substituent groups name them alphabetically.

(2) NAMING ALKENES

All rules in naming alkanes are applied used in alkenes except the following modifications.
(i) The suffix an in alkane replaced by suffix – ―ene‖ in alkene.

(ii) In naming alkenes the parent chain is determined by a double bonds or must include double bonds

(iii) In writing the name of a parent chain the position in which the double bond occurs should he indicated.
Make sure the number is smallest as possible

3) NAMING ALKYNES:
All rules in naming alkenes are used in naming alkynes except the suffix "ene" in alkenes is replaced by suffix
- "yne"
E.g. Propene - Propyne
Pentene- Pentyn4e
ISOMERISM OF HYDRO- CARBON
Compounds that have the same molecular formula hut different structural formula are called isomers.
This phenomenon is known as isomerism. Isomerism is defined as the occurrence of two or more compounds
of the same molecular formula but different molecular structures.
For example, four carbon atoms can he joined in two ways
(i) An un-branched chain of four

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Or
(ii) A branched chain having the fourth atom joined to the middle of three other atoms

All above un-branched and branched chains have each one four carbon atoms. In that case they have the same
molecular formula. However the arrangement of those atoms differs between the two. That is, they have
different molecular structures and regarded as the two isomers.

WORK EXAMPLES:
Write down the isomer of the following hydro carbons.

PROPERTIES OF HYDRO-CARBON
ALKANES: A hydrocarbon contains hydrogen and carbon only. Alkanes are hydro-carbons with the formula
C n H 2 n +2
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES

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Some physical properties of first 4 alkanes are given in the table below. Notice the fairly regular increase in
melting point, boiling point, and density as the number of carbon atoms increase. As shown in the table at
room temperature alkanes having 1 to 4 carbon atoms per molecule are gases. The alkanes are insoluble in
water.
Table show: physical properties of selected alkanes are

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES

The alkanes are the least reactive of all organic compounds. They are un-reactive towards strong acids, (such
as sulphuric acid) and strong bases such as sodium hydroxide) Alkanes do undergo a few very important
reactions, including combustion. Some of the chemical properties of methane are as follows:
a. Combustion: Methane burns in air with the faintly luminous frame, forming carbon dioxide and water
A mixture of air and methane is explosive.

b. Chlorine in free radical substitution: A mixture of methane and chlorine explodes when placed in blight
sunlight or when sparked.

In diffused sunlight the substitution of hydrogen occurs slowly and in steps as shown below:

U.V is ultra-violent light:

In this reaction, each time one hydrogen atoms in methane becomes replaced by a chlorine atom.
This type of reaction is substitution reaction. The substitution reaction is the reaction in which the hydrogen
atom of a hydrocarbon becomes replaced by a new functional group.
All saturated hydro - carbons (alkanes) undergo substitution reaction (chain reaction) because the reaction
stops when all hydrogen atoms become replaced.
Chain reaction of methane with fluorine is very explosive it is moderate with bromine and methane does not
react at all with iodine. Iodine is a metal in the halogen group.

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ALKENES: The general formula of alkenes is CnH2n in which n=2 or more Table showing boiling point and
the number of carbon atoms

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Ethene is a gaseous at room temperature and pressure,
 colourless,
 Almost insoluble in water and slightly
 Less dense (Vapour density = 14) than air (Vapour density = 14.4)
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
(1) COMBUSTION: Ethene burn (explodes) in air if a light (or electric spark) is applied. The product on
combustion are carbon dioxide and steam, but the flame tend to be smoky from un-burnt carbon became of
its highly proportional about 86% of carbon

2. ADDITION REACTIONS:
Ethene gives a number of addition reactions in which two hydrogen atoms are taken into combination per
molecule of ethene of form a single product .Ethene is said to be unsaturated
Consider the following addition reactions
(1) With chlorine or bromine
Ethene combines rapidly to give an oil liquid 1,2 - dichloro ethane

(2) With hydrogen iodide

Ethene combines rapidly with hydrogen iodide (Vapour) at ordinary temperature to produce iodoethane.

The gases HBr and HCL combine similarly but more slowly.
(3) With concentrated sulphuric acid
Ethene is absorbed rapidly by this acid at room temperature to form ethyl hydrogen sulphate

- Tire reaction is reversed at about 1800C liberating ethene.

(4) With hydrogen:

- Ethene combines with hydrogen if the two are passed over finely divided nickel (catalyst) at about 2000C The
product is the alkane called ethane

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ALKYNES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Ethyne is a colourless gas,
 almost insoluble in water and having a sweet smell when pure.
 It is slightly less dense than air (vapour density is 13: vapour density of air is 14.4)
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Having a carbon - to - carbon triple hound in its structure, ethyne is an unsaturated compound. It gives a
number of addition reactions: combining with two moles of the reagent as shown below.
i) With bromine
-At ordinary temperature ethyne combines rapidly with bromine, forming tetrabromoethane

-Thus, bromine vapour is decolourized

-Chlorine gives a corresponding reaction to form carbon and hydrogen chloride

ii) With Hydrogen:

If passed with twice its own volume of hydrogen over nickel (catalyst) at about 200oC ethyne forms ethane.
iii) With halogen acids
Ethyne combines readily with hydrogen iodide at room temperature to form diiodoethane.

The reaction with hydrogen chloride is very slow.

iv) With acidified potassium manganese VII solution
At room temperature, with shaking, ethyne quickly decolourizes this solution (i.e. reduces it) with the
formation of ethanedioio acid (oxalic acid)

- Oxalic acid is a colourless, crystalline and toxic organic compound

ALCOHOL
Alcohol is an organic compound which have the functional group of ―-OH" which is known as alcohol group.
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
Have got the general molecular formula of R-OH where R= Alkyl group since alkyl group = CnH2n+1
The general molecular formula of alcohol can be represented in two ways, e.g. For methanol

Hence:
Molecular formula of alcohol can be:

Where "n" starting from 1.2.3…….n

The adjacent members differ from one another by CH2 group only

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NOMENCLATURE OF ALCOHOL
All rules in naming alkanes are applied in alcohol except the suffix "ane― in alkane replaced by suffix "anol" in
alcohol.
E.g. (1) Ethane Ethanol
(2) Heptane Heptanol

WORK EXAMPLE

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PREPARATION OF THE ALCOHOL
Ethanol is commercially produced using a process called fermentation. Many other alcohols can be made this
way, but are more likely to be produced by synthetic routes - from natural gas, oil or coal.
Fermentation is the process in which yeast breaks down sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Yeast is tiny.
The process does not need oxygen; hence it is the form of anaerobic respiration.
These are two types of fermentation
a. Alcoholic fermentation - producing alcohol
b. Lactic acid fermentation - producing lactic acid The word equation for this process is:
Glucose + yeast —» alcohol + carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide gas bubbles out of the fermenting solution into the air leaving a mixture of ethanol and water.
It's important that no air is present or the yeast will produce ethanoic acid - the chemical found in vinegar.
Beer and lagers
Barley, hops, water and live yeast produce beers and lagers. The sugar in the mix comes from the spouting
barley. Bitter, stout and ale use top-fermenting yeast, while lager uses a variety that sinks to the bottom.
Wine In wine making the sugars come from the flesh of the crushed grapes. The type of wane produced
depends on the type of grape used in the process.
Spirits and distillation
Yeast cannot survive in high levels of alcohol, so to create stronger spirits an additional process, distillation, is
required. Fermented drinks are distilled to create vodka, rum and other spirits. Distillation relies on ethanol
having a lower boiling point than water. When the fermented drink is heated the ethanol vaporizes at 78.5
degrees and the water is left behind (water boils or vaporizes at 100 degrees). The ethanol gas is caught and
cooled so it condenses into a stronger concentration of ethanol liquid.
Alcohol can be prepared locally or in the industries
 Local preparation of the alcohol; raw material — sugar beet, cereals such as (cassava, millet, maize)
 Industrial preparation of the alcohol; Raw material - maltose sugar - C12H22O11
The enzyme known as the diastase help to covert the starch to maltose; normally the starch containing food are
crushed then treated with the steam to extract starch from them. The malt from Barley added in order to
convert the starch to maltose, the mixture allowed to stay for about one hour also yeast can be added, and the
yeast contains two enzymes maltose and zymase.

Definition:

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Fractional distillation — is the process used to separate the components of the homogeneous mixtures which
differ in the boiling points 9BP) consider the diagram below

Where
A - Stand for ethanol - C2H5OH
B - Cold water to distillate ethanol vapors to liquid
C - Ethanol (78°c) and water (100°c)
D - Ethanol vapour
E - Ethanol drops
F - Thermometer record temperature
G - Stand and clump
H - Cork
I - Condenser
K- Round bottomed flask
A1- Ethanol (C2H5OH)
Ao-Beaker (Container)

NOTE
 The mixture boiled until temperature reach about 80 — 85°c then stopped at this point all ethanol become
extracted from the mother solution
 The yeast cells are killed by the high temperature
 The yeast contains two enzymes known as Maltose, and Zymase
 Alcohol can also prepared from the sugar cane
E.g. sugar cane + water yeast —> Glucose + Fructose
Sucrose + water —» Glucose + Fructose
C12H22O11 +H2O → CH12O6 + C6H2O6
The invertase enzymes connect sucrose to glucose and fructose
PROPERTIES OF THE ALCOHOL
The following are the properties of the Alcohol
• It is colorless and has odour taste

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• It is soluble in water and can from the homogeneous mixture water
• It boils at 78°c
• Purely ethanol is non - electrolyte
REACTION IN ALCOHOL
They includes
a) Reaction with Carboxylic Acid

Alcohol reacts with carboxylic acid to form "Ester" and water, hence reaction called Esterification
reaction
Example

b) Reaction with Electropositive metals

E.g. Alcohol + Electropositive metals salt + hydrogen
Examples
Ethanol + sodium —> sodium ethoxide + hydrogen
C2H5OH + Na →C2H5ONa + H20
Ethanol + Potassium → potassium ethoxide + hydrogen
C2H5OH + K -> C2HsOK + H2
c) Oxidizing agent reaction e.g. potassium permanganate - Kmn04 or (O)
E.g. Alcohol + oxidizing agent → Carboxylic acid
Example
Ethanol + (O) →Ethanoic acid
C2H5OH + (O) -> CH3COOH
d) Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid Con. H2SO4 at 180°c/ 140°c Example

In this reaction acid acts or behave as dehydrating since removed water from the Alcohol

e) Reaction with PCI5, PCI3, SOCI2

E.g. ROH + PC15 → RC1 + POCI3 + HC1
C2H5OH + PCI 5 → C2H5C1 + POCl3 + HC1
ROH + PCI3 → RC1 + H3PO4 + HC1
C2H5OH +PCI3 →C2HSC1 + H3PO4 + HC1
ROH + SOCl2 → RC1 + SO4 + HC1

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C2H5OH + SOCl2 → C2H5C1 + S02 + HC1
Where
PCI5 - phosphorus pentachloride,
PC13 - phosphorus trichloride
SOCI2 - sulphuric trichloride or vinyl chloride
Note

COMMERCIAL USES OF ETHANOL - C2H5OH

 Manufacture of the spirit (purely spirit) which can be used in the hospital for the injections or saloon after
shaving the spirit is used in order to kill the bacteria (sterilization). E.g. Methanol (5%) extracted by the dry
distillation of the wood mixed with 95%- ethanol then we obtain methylated spirit which is coloured before
being sold to the public this is to avoid the ethanol from being consumed as the drink.
 They can be used for
 Preservation of the specimen and food
 Fuel and light
 Varnishes, polishes, paint making and removing
 Temporary solvent in the manufacture of the soap, medicine, also to precipitate the chemicals from
their aqueous solutions
 Raw materials for the manufacture of the chemical such as trichloromethane and ethane
 Manufacture of the Alcoholic drinks egg beer contains 2 — 6% ethanol, made by fermenting mash barley.
Wines are made grapes, and yeast for the fermentation grows on the skin of the grapes. Wines contains
10% ethanol
NOTE: sugar beet molasses - Are the remains of sugarcane
HARMFUL EFFECT OF ALCOHOL
Alcohols have much harmful effects to the body, if taken as a drink. However, the effect of a given amount of
ethanol depends on the rate of drinking, the size of the drinker, the alcoholic content of the drink, health and
diet of the drinker and other factors.
The noticeable harmful effects of alcohols including:
- Heavy drinking of alcohol causes shrinkage of the brain cells reduces power of abstract reasoning and
destroys liver cells.
- Heavy drinking can cause cancer of the liver, stomach and gullet.
- Heavy drinking can upset digestion and reduce blood cell formation thus causing anemia.
- Some of car accidents by drivers are due to heavy alcohol drinking. Don‘t drink and drive.
- Alcohol drinking can be one of the sources of family conflicts, misunderstandings, misuse of money and
even divorce.
- Methanol (methyl alcohol) is quite toxic. Ingestion of as little as 30ml can cause permanent blindness or
death.
CARBOXYLIC ACID
A carboxylic acid is an organic compound that contains a carboxyl group (C(O)OH). The general formula of a
carboxylic acid is R-C(O)OH with R referring to the rest of the (possibly quite large) molecule. Carboxylic
acids occur widely, and include the amino acids and acetic acid (active ingredient in vinegar).
The general formula

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Where
R = CH3 or C2H5 = alky group
Example
R = CH3 = CH3COOH
R = C2H5 = C2H5COOH
Note: Function Group — COOH of carboxylic acid can‘t move from the first or last carbon (c) atom, this mean
functional group is fixed but that of alcohol can move
NO OF NAME OF ACID MOLECULAR FORMULA
CARBON
CH20
n=1 Methanoic (formic)
C2H4O2
n=2 Ethanoic acid
C3H6O2
n=3 Propanoic acid
n=4 Botanic acid C4H8 O2

n=5 Pentanoic acid C5H10O2

n=6 Hexanoic acid C6H1202

n=7 Heptanoic acid C7HI402

n=8 Octanoic acid

C8H16 O2
n=9 Nonanoic acid
C9H1802
n = 10 Decanoic acid
C10H2002
CARBOXYLIC ACID
Carboxylic acids are organic acids that are characterized by R-COOH group. The R is an alkyl group. The
functional group is

Organic acids have the general formula CnH2n+1COOH

Where n = 1,2,3….. »nth
From the general formula the first five members of homologous series are shown in table below.
Homologous series of carboxylic acid.
Number of carbon atom Molecular formulary Name of Acid

1 HCOOH or H2C02 Methanoic acid

2 CH3COOH or C2H402 Ethanoic acid

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3 C2HSCOOH or C3H602 Propanoic acid

4 C3H7COOH or C4H802 Butanoic acid

NB: It seems that homologous series of carboxylic acid that the carboxylic acid can be represented by using
the general molecular formula of CnH2n+1COOH
Where n = number of carbon atoms in the compound.
STRUCTURAL FORMULA OF SOME CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Condensed and open structural formula of carboxylic acid.

NOMENCLATURE OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

In naming carboxylic acids, all rules of naming alkenes are used except the modifications that follow:
i) The suffix ‗e‖ of alkanes is replaced by suffix ‗oic‖ of carboxylic acid,
e.g.; Alkane Carboxylic acid
. Methane -Methanoic acid
i. Ethane -Ethanoic acid
ii. Propane -Propanoic acid
 The longest chain of carboxylic acid must includes the carboxylic group must includes the carboxylic
group

e.g.: (i) CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH - Pentanoic acid

(ii) CH3CH2COOH - Propanoic acid
 If the substituent groups are attached to the parental chain of the Carboxylic acid, their position must be
indicated. Numbering starts the side where by carboxylic group (COOH) is early attached.

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 E.g.

4,4,4 - Trichlonobutanoic acid

R-[Link] Substituted carboxylic acids
Hydroxy, alkoxy, and oxo acids. Some trivial names for hydroxyl and alkoxy acids are retained. The names of
carboxylic acids containing an aldehydic group attached to, or a ketonic group contained in the principal chain
or parent ring system, are generally derived from the names of the corresponding simple carboxylic acids by
adding prefixes such as "oxo-", "dioxo-", etc., denoting =0 substituents, or "formyl-", demoting a -CHO
substituent.
Example

The carboxylic acid also has common which people they know due to daily uses of such carboxylic acid
Common Names of Carboxylic Acids

Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds

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IUPAC name: 2, 3 - dibromobutanoic acid

IUPAC name
2- Chloro, 4, 5 - dimethylhexanoic acid

IUPAC Name
2,2 - dimethylpropanoic acid
PROPERTIES OF THE CARBOXYLIC ACID
 They are Acidic in nature so they can react with base then form salt and water
 They have carboxylic group as their functional group - COOH
 They end up with suffix - "oic"
E.g. Methanoic, Ethanoic
Where
n = 0............... methanoic
n = 1………... ethanoic
n = 3,4, 5, 6, 7....10
CnH2n02
Where n = 1,2, 3 , 4 ,
REACTION OF CARBOXYLIC ACID - COOH
Carboxylic acid are acidic in nature so they can react with base then form salt and water as other acid (mineral
acid)
1. CARBOXYLIC ACID AND BASE (Alkali)
E.g. Acid + base → salt + water
Example
 Ethanoic + sodium → sodium + water
Acid hydroxide → Ethanoate
CH3COOH + NaOH -> CH3COOHNa + H20
 Acetic acid + sodium hydroxide → Sodium Acetate + Water

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CH3COOH + NaOH→ CH3COONa + H20
 Formic Acid + potassium hydroxide →Potassium methanoate + water
HCOH + KOH→ HCOOK +H2
2. CARBOXYLIC ACID AND METAL (K, Na)
Acid + metal → Salt + hydrogen Example
Acetic Acid + sodium → Sodium Acetate + Hydrogen
CH3COOH +Na → CH3COOHNa + H2 CH3 COOH + K -> CH3 COOK + H2
ESTERIFICATION AND NEUTRALIZATION
ESTERIFICATION - Is the reaction between the Alcohol and carboxylic acid under control of concentrated
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and heat (∆)

Acid provide - H- which shift equilibrium position than ester produced

CONDITION FOR ESTERIFICATION
They include
a) Concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) as catalyst. The concentrated sulphuric acid is used as the catalyst
to speed up the rate of the chemical reaction.
b) Heat.
PRODUCTS OF ESTERIFICATION
They include
a) Ester
b) water
ESTER - Are the organic compounds with the smell (sweet smell) like fruits and have structure
EXAMPLE
CH3COOC2H5

NEUTRALIZATION
This is the reaction between acid and base (Alkali) to form salt and water
Acid + Base → salt + water
• Esterification and neutralization have differences as shown below.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ESTERIFICATION AND NEUTRALIZATION
ESTERIFICATION NEUTRALIZATION
Is the reaction between carboxylic acid Is the reaction between acid and base
a) a)
to form salt and water Alcohol and form Ester and water
b) Is reversible reaction b) Is not reversible (Irreversible)
c Produce "Ester" Produce" salt"
d) Catalyst used e.g. Acid d) catalyst is not used

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e) Produces covalent compound e) Produces the Ionic compound
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ALCOHOL AND CARBOXYLIC ACID

SAPONIFICATIONS
Saponification is a process that produces soap, usually from fats and lye. It involves a reaction between a base,
usually sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), and an ester group on a compound. Triglycerides are an example,
which is an ester of a fatty acid. The triglycerides are hydrolyzed to form the sodium salt of a carboxylate. In
addition to soap, such traditional saponification processes produce glycerol. "Saponifiable substances" are
those that can be converted into soap

APPLICATION OF THE SAPONIFICATION

The knowledge of the saponification is applied in the industries to manufacture soap, Ester such as oil is mixed
with the base then salt hence heated (boiled), then soap particles precipitates to form the down ward (boiled),
and then soap particles.

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 12. SOIL CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
Soil is a top layer of earth's surface. It is made up of broken down rock particles, rotted plant materials, water
and air. It is a medium in which plant grow and derive moisture and nutrient.
Soil chemistry- is the study of various chemical nutrient present in soil and their influence on the properties of
soil such as alkalinity or acidity OR
Is the study of the soil to show its physical and chemical properties and components of the soil including
biological and fertility property.
SOIL FORMATION
This is evolution of soil from parent material. The formation of the soil particle is regarded to the result from
the combination of the waste products, or dead organic matter, water, and air which combines to form the soil.
These processes are continuously and take place through the action of weathering on the parental rock.
Mineral matters
These are substances which are considered to result from the weathering process.
With an exception of nitrates, all salts originate from the mineral. Nitrates originate from the humus.
Mineral matter in the soil are said to be derived from the weathering process - breaking of the rocks which
form the earth's crust.
Weathering
This is the process which the parent rocks undergo disintegration (breaking) down to form the fragments or
small particles. Weathering process is a combination of disintegration and synthesis (building up process).
It involves series of complex change that alter form of colour, texture, and composition of rock particles. The
rock first broken down to smaller fragment and eventually into individually constituent minerals
These fragments can combine with dead organic matter to form a soil layer
Agents of weathering
The agents of weathering are the factors that facilitate the weathering process. They include)
 oxygen
 water
 wand
 temperature
 plant roots and animal
 Ice.
 Human being
Types of weathering
There are;
a) Chemical weathering.
b) Physical weathering
c) Biological weathering.
Biological weathering
This is the process in which the parent rocks break down into the fragments by the help of animals and plants.
Example; Plant roots, when penetrate through the depression in the rocks, on expanding causing the rock
undergo disintegration; finally the rock gets a fault.

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Also the group of animal when passing in the same area frequently and the burrowing animal they can cause
weathering in the soil
Physical weathering
This is the disintegration of rock materials without any change in its chemical composition. It is common in
area with little vegetation and area with wide temperature range, in this weathering process the parent rocks
break to form the fragments due to the physical factor.
These factors are; temperature, wind, moving ice, water and earth quakes.
Earthquake
When the earthquake occurs, causes the vibration of the rocks within the soil, which finally collide with each
other to form the fragments which combine with other substances then soil is formed
Moving ice
Moving cold ice on falling on warmed-up rock surface causes the rock to undergo suddenly contraction finally
soil particles are formed due to the combination of the weathered materials.
Wind
The strong winds may cause the stones /rocks to collide with each other as the result of collision occur which
leads to fragmentation.
Ways through which physical weathering takes place
A. Pressure release
B. Exfoliation
C. Frost sheltering
D. Crystallization
E. Biological weathering.
Chemical weathering
This is the breaking down of rock by chemical alteration of a constitute minerals. The chemical weathering
occurs due to the chemical reaction in the soil which destroys the internal structure of a rook. It commonly in
warm and wet area, the main agents of chemical weathering is water and acid.
The ways through which chemical weathering takes place:
A. Hydrolysis
B. Dissolution
C. Oxidation
D. Carbonation.
Carbonation - is the process whereby underground rock changes its form by weak carbonic acid which is
found in rain water. The rock such as limestone is changed into calcium bicarbonate which is weak to
physical barrier.
 Hydrolysis.

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 This is the process in which the substance is broken down by the help of water. When the parent-rocks
become into contact with water they disintegrate to form the soil particles.
 Dissolution.
This is the process which the substance dissolves of a solid substance solvent to make a solution. Hence the
large rock they become small particles which combine with organic matter to form soil.
 Oxidation.
This Is the gain of oxygen or loss of electrons This occurs In the rock which Is In Iron state when they
exposed to water and oxygen, oxidation takes place, they change into Iron (111) oxide (rust) form which ere
week and easily to be destroyed by any physical barrier.
FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE SOIL FORMATION
They include;
 Parent rock
 Temperature
 Rainfall
 Age of the rock
 Slope
 Nature of the parent rock.
The hardest parent rocks cannot undergo disintegration quickly than the soft parent rocks which break down
quickly and lead to the formation of fragments which finally combine with the dead organic matter to form the
soil. So the soft parent rocks can lead to the formation of soil particles easily than the harder one which delay
to form soil particles.
• Rainfall
The place which there are high rainfall, the rate of the soil formation becomes highest than the regions in
which there are low rainfall. The reason is that rainfall, contributes more in the decomposition of the dead
organic matter which finally combine with the other particles to form a soil layer.
• Temperature
The region with the highest temperature, rate of formation of the soil becomes very high because high
temperature on heating the rock-surface causes it to expand but suddenly when the rock surface cools down-
contract, these expansion and contraction they led to weathering of that rock. The formed fragment combines
with other materials to form the soil.
• Age of the rocks
Normally the oldest rocks can‘t undergo disintegration as easy as soft rocks, which disintegrate fastest to form
the soil particles
PLANT NUTRIENTS
These are the soil nutrients which are required by the plants for proper growth, productivity and protection
against diseases. Some are needed for enzyme making and hormone including protein making. The one among
characteristic of fertile soil is to give all plant nutrient in proper amount.
Plant nutrient they come from the parent rock during soil formation and other through manure and fertilizer.
Example of plant nutrient; nitrogen, iron, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, manganese, cobalt, phosphorous, boron,
Chlorine, etc
Types of plant nutrients
There are two types of plat nutrient which are the following
1. Micro nutrients or trace element
2. Macro nutrients or bulk element
MACRO PLANT NUTRIENTS
These are nutrients required in by plant in large quantities for the proper growth of plant. They are categorized
in two groups which are primary and secondary macronutrient.

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Primary macronutrient they are required in relativity large quantity. They include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)
and potassium (K). Most used for the synthesis of hormones and proteins.
Secondary macronutrients are macronutrients that are required in a relatively small quantity if you compare
with primary macronutrient. They include iron (Fe), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), carbon(C), Magnesium (Mg),
and Calcium (ca), Zinc (Zn).
ROLE OF MACRO NUTRIENT
They are required in the following,
Synthesis of the hormones which are required for the different metabolic activities. E.g. plant hormones-
auxins, gibberillin hormone, ethylene hormone, absiscic acid hormone.
Synthesis of the protein which help to promote the growth.
MICRO PLANT NUTRIENT
These are nutrients required by plant in small quantities. These nutrients are needed in small quantity, it
doesn‘t mean they are not needed, if they are absence in plant, this will affect their proper growth.
Examples of micronutrients are Cobalt (Co), Boron (B), Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mb) Copper (Cu),
etc.
ROLE OF MICRO NUTRIENTS
They are required to synthesize enzymes. Enzymes are required to control some of the metabolic activities
such as digestion, respiration, required for energy production.
MANAGE AND LOSS OF PLANT NUTRIENT FROM THE SOIL LOSS OF PLANT NUTRIENT
Plant nutrient are important in the soil for proper growth of plant. Plant nutrient they are found either natural or
through applied. Sometimes soil can loss a nutrient naturally or through human activities, through the
following the loss of soil nutrient occurs;
a) Soil erosion
b) Leaching
c) Bad agriculture practice
SOIL EROSION
This is the removal and movement of the top soil layer from one place to another by the help of the soil erosion
agent.
Agents are;
 Wind
 Water (removes top soil layer from one place to another)
 Animal.
Effects of soil erosion
(a) May cause loss of soil fertility since can remove top soil layer which is more fertile.
(b) May cause deposition of waste to the water bodies.
(c) May cause death to occur since soil organisms carried away then deposited into water.
(d) May cause galley.
Causes of soil erosion
They include;
o Overstocking.
o Cultivation along hills
o Deforestation
o Monoculture.
o burning of forest
• Overstocking
The excess stock fanning in the small area cause the destruction of the soil structure hence soil erosion can
occur easily because soil particles become loosely packed.
• Cultivation along the hill.

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This allows moving water to collect and remove the soil particles away from the top hill downward hence soil
erosion.
• Deforestation
This is the process of cutting down trees from the forest without planting other trees. Trees are cutting down
for various uses such as for furniture, charcoal etc, this causes the land to remain bare. And this leads to the
erosion agents carrying the soil away.
• Monoculture
This is the process of growing one type of crop each season. This causes the destruction of the soil structure
and the soil particles become loosely packed, then the erosion agents can remove the soil easily.
 Burning of forest
This cause the land to remain bare, destruction of mineral salts, killing of organisms, (plant and animals in the
soil) if this occurs, the land remains bare for the agents of erosion to remove soil particle which contain the
plant nutrient from its area.
Prevention of soil erosion
They include
i. Contour forming
ii. Afforestation
iii. Reforestation
iv. Destocking
v. Terracing.
METHOD TO PREVENT LOSS OF PLANT NUTRIENT
i. Contour forming.
This prevents movement of water along the hills; hence provide the resistance of moving materials
downward. These prevent loss of nutrient through soil erosion.
ii. Afforestation
This is the process of planting vegetation's in the open space (desert). This prevents the soil erosion
because branches of the trees become as wind barriers so the soil particles are not carried away
iii. Reforestation
This is the process of replanting the trees in the forests; involve a campaign of out tree and replant tree.
This helps to keep the soil erosion agents away from the soil
iv. Destocking
It involves the reduction in the number of the stock in the certain place. This help to reduce the
destruction of the soil structure, finally soil erosion.
v. Terracing
This is the process of constructing the embankment. An embankment help to provide the resistance against
moving materials, hence soil erosion is prevented.
GOOD AGROCHEMICAL METHODS.
These are good agricultural methods.
Example
 Crop rotation.
 Fallowing
 Liming
 Mulching
 Cover crops.
Crop rotation
This is die process planting the different types of the crops on the same piece of the land one season to the
next. Example
Three years crop rotation. Consider the rotation below showing three consecutive years.

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LEGUMINOUS PLANT
These are plants which have root nodules containing rhizobium bacteria. E.g. pea, beans groundnut Consider
the diagram below;

Principles used in the crop rotation:-

They include;
 Must involve different types of crops
E.g. beans, millet, rice (paddy), potatoes.
 Leguminous plants should be involved.
E.g. groundnuts, beans, potatoes.
 Shallow and deep rooted plants should be involved.
Advantages of the leguminous plants to the farmer (gardener)
A. Allow the nitrogen fixation.
E.g. N, to NO, formed nitrate helps to increase the soil nutrients; since the plant need nitrogen to make
protein and hormones
B. Help to maintain the soil structure since they help to make the soil soft and spongy.
C. Help to prevent the soil erosion since some of the leguminous ground on the soil horizontally.
Advantages of crop rotation to the farmer
 Help to destroy the plant pests, the plant causing diseases. This occurs if the planted plants have no quality
that can satisfy the pests. If no satisfaction, the pests can move away from the plant or death may occur.
E.g. if the former insect loving to eat cotton leaves and nowadays they don‘t like cotton leaf they should die to
hunger.
 Favour or allow the recycling of the plant nutrients within the soil at different level. This becomes
advantageous to the shallow rooted plant Where

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 Recycling of the nutrients from the down soil.
 Plant mineral soil absorbed by the plant root.
 Help to increase soil fertility since other have no nodules containing bacteria for nitrogen fixation.
Advantages of deep rooted plant
E.g. bean, cotton
 Allow the circulation of the nutrients to the soil at different levels.
 Help to maintain the soil structure since some of the plants have extensive roots which can hold the soil
firmly.
 They can allow nitrogen fixation
Fallowing
This is the cultivation of the soil and then leaving it without planting of any crops.
ADVANTAGES OF FALLOWING
 Help to increase soil fertility, since allow time for recycling of the nutrients
 Allow the time for the weathering and then deposition of the weathered materials to occur.
 Help to remove the occurrence of the plant pest, since some of them will escape during the time of
fallowing.
MULCHING
This is the process of covering the top soil by using the mulching materials. Mulching is commonly used by
the gardeners who grow the vegetables.
Consider the diagram below for illustration:

MULCHING MATERIALS
These are the materials used for the mulching process. Example grasses, banana leaves, ground nut leaves.
Advantages of mulching to the farmer
 To help increase soil fertility.
 Help to reduce soil erosion. E.g. erosion caused by wind.
 Help to keep the moist in the soil since they prevent evaporation from the soil.
Disadvantages of mulching
 Mulching materials can catch fire then causes the destruction of the crop in the field.
 Mulching materials can welcome (attract) ants that destroy crops.
Cover crops
Grow horizontally on the soil surface. The crops which can grow on the soil surface horizontally.
E.g. Ground nuts, beans, pumpkins.
Advantages of the cover crops
 Reduce or control the soil erosion.
 Help to keep the moist in the soil.

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 Promote nitrogen fixation.
 Allow the recycling of the nutrients since some of them have deep roots searching for nutrients
downwards.
NOTE: Do not plant excess cover crops in the field since some of them have extensive roots so can bring
competition with other plants, finally led to the fall of productivity.
CONSUMPTION OF NITROGEN BY THE PLANTS
Although the plants use or consume nitrogen for making their protein plant, they do not use nitrogen as a
molecule- N2 Why?
This is because nitrogen is insoluble therefore cannot be absorbed by the plant roots when occur in molecular
form. So the plants convert the nitrogen into soluble nitrates, which becomes easily absorbed by the plant
roots.
MANURE AND FERTILIZER
MANURE
This is the organic compound which contains and supply plant nutrients required by plant for proper growth,
productivity and protection against diseases. Common manure used in Tanzania:
- Kraal manure
- Farmyard manure
- Green manure
- Poultry manure
- Composite manure.
Advantages of manure to the farmer
 Supply all plant nutrients required for the growth and development but fertilizer do not since selective.
 It is cheap. Unlike fertilizers which are very expensive to the extent that farmers cannot afford.
 Manure helps to maintain the soil structure but fertilizers do not.
 Less expertise is required for the use of manure unlike the use of fertilizers which requires more
knowledge.
 Manure can support microbial activities.
 Manures help to maintain soil color
 Manure helps to keep the moisture in the soil
 Manures last long when kept on soils.
 Manures do not cause soil acidity.
FERTILIZER
Fertilizer is chemical substances (inorganic compound) which contain the nutrients which required by plant for
growth, productivity and protection against disease.
Example
1. Urea
2. Ammonium nitrate
3. Ammonium sulphate.
4. Calcium phosphate
5. Calcium nitrate.
6. NPK( nitrogen phosphorous and potassium)
Types of fertilizers
(i) STRAIGHT FERTILIZER
This is the fertilizer which contain one of the main plant nutrient e.g. It contains N, P and K. there are three
types of straight fertilizer.
 Nitrogenous fertilizer
 Phosphorus fertilizer and
 Potassium fertilizer

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(ii) NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER
These are the fertilizer which have or contain the nitrogen as only primary macronutrient. This fertilizer
contains nitrogen than other fertilizers. Examples of nitrogenous fertilizer
They are;
-Ammonium sulphate
-NPK
-Ammonium nitrate
-CAN
Properties of nitrogenous fertilizer
o They contain a lot of nitrogen
o They can scorch or bum the plant since some of them are acidic in nature e.g. S.A
o They can cause the accumulation of toxic substances in the soil. E.g. unwanted elements can settle within
the soil
Effects of the repeatedly use of nitrogenous fertilizer in the field.
They include;
(1) They cause the soil acidity e.g. since some of them are acidic in nature Examples ammonium sulphate
(2) They cause the accumulation of poisonous and toxic elements to the plants.
IONIZATION OF NITROGEN BY THE PLANT
Although the plants use or consume nitrogen for making their protein plant, they do not use nitrogen as a
molecule- N, Why?
This is because nitrogen is insoluble therefore cannot be absorbed by the plant roots when occur in molecular
form. So the plants convert the nitrogen into soluble nitrates, which becomes easily absorbed by the plant
roots.
(iii)PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER.
This is the fertilizer which contains phosphate or phosphorus in large quantity than the other primary
macronutrient.
Example; Calcium phosphate - Ca3 (PO,), this fertilizer supply phosphorous in high amount or percentage
(iv) COMPLETE FERTILIZER.
This is the types of fertilizer which contains all plant nutrients (main). The fertilizer contains all plant nutrients
N. P. K.
Percentage composition of the element in the fertilizer
This helps the former to know how much fertilizer to buy for the fulfillment of the field requirements.
Choice of fertilizer
This depends on
a. Cheapness of the nutrient
b. Soil requirement
c. Nature of soil.
.APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS IN THE SOIL
Methods of adding fertilizer they are depend on the type of fertilizer applied, time for application and nature of
the soil. The method of applying a fertilize include
a. Placing
b. Broadcasting
c. Band strip
d. Spraying.
Time of application of manure or fertilizer
They include
 Top dressing
 Basal dressing
(i) BASAL DRESSING

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Is the application of the fertilizer/ manure in the field before seed planting and germination occurs. Ibis
sometimes may occur depending on the nature of the soil and the soil plant requirements.
(ii) TOP DRESSING
This is the application of the fertilizer in the field after seed germination. This also depends on the nature of the
soil.
 PLACING
In these method which the fertilizer/ manure is placed about certain distance from the plant stem. Fertilizer
applied in this method is nitrogenous fertilizer because they dissolve easily to avoid scorching effect in plant.
E.g. the soil is dug about 6-9cm from the plant stem.

 BROADCASTING
These method involve the spreading the fertilizer over the soil surface. Mainly applicable before planting and
nitrogenous or potasic fertilizer applied in these method.

 BAND STRIP
These are the method of applying the fertilizer in rows. This occurs when the plants are planted in a straight
line or in rows,
 SPRAYING OR AERATION
This is the method of spraying the fertilizer over the soil which occurs in the solution from the powdered
fertilizer.
SOIL PH

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Ibis is the degree measure of the acidic and basic nature of the soil. The knowledge of soil pH helps us to know
the soil acidity or alkalinity. E.g. Soil can become
 Acidic soil
 Neutral soil
 Basic soil.
NB: acidic soils supply H+ and basic soils supply OH+
Ibis means that a soil with a high concentration of hydrogen ions becomes acidic while OH- (hydroxyl)
becomes basic.
ACIDIC SOILS
Hus is the soil which the concentration of hydrogen ions becomes dominant or excess. Acidic soils have pH
less than 7.
BASIC SOILS
This is the soil which the concentration of hydroxyl ion- OH+ is dominant or excess. Basic soil has pH greater
than 7.
NEUTRAL SOILS
This is a soil with a pH of 7. It occurs when neutralization occurs.
SOIL ACIDITY
This is the condition which the concentration of hydrogen ion H+ in the soil becomes dominant.
TYPES OF SOIL ACIDITY
 Active acidity
This is the acidity which the pH of the soil becomes less than 1. This acidity is very dangerous to the soil
because it can lead to death of the plant
 Potential acidity.
The acidity which the Ph of the soil becomes greater than l
pH = -log H+
pH is the negative logarithm to base ten of concentration of the hydrogen ion concentration.
E.g. H+ = 4
pH = - log 4
Causes of soil acidity
• Rainfall
This produce dilutes carbonic acid. H2CO3 or dilute nitric acid.
 Application of fertilizer.
Some of the fertilizer are acidic in nature, so when applied to the soil they cause the soil to become acidic
e.g. ammonium sulphate.
 Soil living organisms.
These organisms produce carbon dioxide gas the combine with the soil water to form carbonic acid.
 Decomposition.
This cause production of carbon or nitrogen from dead bodies, which combine with oxygen to form acid
Causes or sources of hydrogen ion in the soil
 Presence of metal in the soil.
E.g. Aluminium
Al + H20 Al (OH)3 + H+
Where H+ remains free
• Irrigation.
E.g. irrigation causes the deposition of water into the soil which dissociates to form H + and OH-. 2H2O
O2 + 2H2
• Acidic compounds in the soil.

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Sources of the hydroxyl ion in the soil
They include;
 Alkaline metal E.g. Na, K, Ca etc.
They react with water to form alkaline which supply hydroxyl ion- OH- to the soil.
E.g.

 Irrigation.
Excessively produce hydroxyl ion which causes the soil to become basic.
Presence of basic component Liming and lime
Lime -This is the basic /alkaline compound in the nature added to the soil in order to correct soil acidity
Example
 limestone CaCO3.
 quick lime CaO
 magnesium oxide MgO
 calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
 Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH)2
LIMING- is the additional of the lime to the soil in order to correct (neutralize) the soil acidity.
NOTE: acid + base  salt + water (Neutralization)
CLASSIFICATION OF THE LIMING MATERIALS
They have three natures;
 Carbonate e.g.CaCO3
 Hydroxide e.g. Ca(OH)2
 Oxide e.g. CaO
Advantages of liming to the farmer
 Help to neutralize the soil acidity
 Help to increase the soil fertility since make the soil in the pellet form consider the soil pH.
Components of fertile soil
They include;
 Soil living organisms.
 Soil dead organic matter.
 Soil mineral.
 Soil water.
 Soil air.
SOIL FERTILITY AND PRODUCTIVITY
Soil fertility
This is the ability of the soil to supply plant nutrients which are required for the productivity, growth and
protection against diseases. OR
Soil fertility is the ability of soil supply the essential plant nutrient that plant adequate in available and balance
form.
The fertile soil can supply the nutrients which are very important to the plants growth, protection and
productivity.
Fertile soil
This is the soil which can supply the nutrients required for the growth, productivity and protection against
diseases
CHARACTERISTIC OF FERTILE SOIL
a. Rich in basic plant nutrient such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
b. Contain sufficient minerals

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c. Soil pH range 6.0 to 6.8.
d. Contain soil organic matters that improve structure and moisture retention.
e. Large amount of top soil
f. Good soil structure
SOIL PRODUCTIVITY
 Soil productivity is largely determined by its ability to provide water and nutrient, to allow deep rooting of
agriculture plant.
 To better understand potential productivity of soil, it important to examine key soil characteristic and
indicator such as texture, depth, organic matter and fertility.
 The measure of productivity is usually crop yield per millimeter of available water
Fertile soil is not necessary productive
This is due to the following;
 Leaching.
Is the downward movement of the mineral salt far away from near the plant roots, OR
Is the downward movement of the mineral salts in the soil far away from near the plant roots.
Leaching maybe caused by water logging so if leaching occur the plant lose its fertility hence it becomes
not necessary productive,
 Water logging.
The soil become water logged if there is accumulation of water within the soil. If the soil become water
logged, it causes mineral salts to go more downward finally top soil remain empty.
 climate
If the climatic conditions is very bad such that there is dryness, the plants in the fertile soil will be affected
in case of their productivity, but if there is plentiful of enough rainfall, the plant will grow properly and
productivity become high,
 Lack of certain minerals.
If the plant requires the certain mineral and planted in the fertile soil without the important mineral
required, productivity will fall down.
 Type of the crop.
If the wrong choice made in the plantation of the certain place type of the crop in the fertile soil the
productivity foils down.
 Soil structure.
If the soil structure is not good in the fertile soil, such that no good aeration, water movements than
productivity will be affected
How to maintain the soil fertility
They include;
 Good agricultural method
 Application of manure
 Application fertilizer.

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 13. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Pollution is the process of releasing the substance to the Environment which can bring the harmful effect to
both a living and non- living things Or This is the occurrence of the foreign substance at wrong time which can
bring the effect to living or non- living things in the environment.
Example;
When feces and urine are discharged to the environment or water or land can cause bad-smell at the same time
may cause the ―Water-borne disease‖.
TYPES OF POLLUTION
The type of pollution may depend on the place which pollutants are deposited. These are:
 Air pollution or Atmospheric
 Water pollution (Aquatic)
 Land pollution (Terrestrial)
Others
 Oil pollution
 Noise pollution
 Thermal pollution
POLLUTANTS
These are the substances which can pollute the environment Or Are the substance which cause pollution to the
Environment and bring effect to both living and nonliving things.
Example; Garbage, soot, smoke, liter, noise, scraper, detergent, sewage sludge, feces, urine, cans, plastic bags,
glass bottle, smog, papers, coconut waste etc
—>Some of those are degradable and other non-degradable.
TYPES OF POLLUTANTS
They include;-
 Degradable pollutant
 Non- degradable pollutant or Un-degradable.
DEGRADABLE POLLUTANT
These are the pollutants which can decay (decomposed) by micro living organisms or water and then disappear
from Environment naturally.
When these pollutants become into contact with water or bacteria they become decomposed finally eliminated
naturally from the surroundings.
Examples are Garbage, Feces, smokes, sewage, sludge etc.
NON - DEGRADABLE POLLUTANT(S) - cannot decay
Non-degradable pollutants are the pollutants which can‘t undergo naturally decomposition or disappear from
the Environment. This means that the non-degradable pollutants can‘t be destroyed by the Micro organisms or
decomposer such as fungi. At the same time Even if they become into contact with Water they can‘t rot or
decay.
Example; Plastic, bottle, Glass Materials, or containers, Plastic bags, Scrappers, tins, these materials are not
destroyed by the Micro-organisms.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE POLLUTANTS
-The classification includes;
 Primary pollutants
 Secondary pollutants
PRIMARY POLLUTANTS
• These are the pollutants which can exist in the Environments due to some of the human activities.
Example; Particulate (free particles). Suspended in air, Smoke, Dust from cement industry, Particulate
originated from the area which the construction is going on.

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SECONDARY POLLUTANTS
These are the pollutants which can exist in the Environment naturally and bring the effect to both living and
non-living organism.
Examples are Ozone - O3, Particulate due to volcanic Eruption Acid rain.
SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF THE POLLUTANTS
• CARBONMONOXIDE GAS (CO)
The combustion of the fossil fuels E.g. coal, petroleum Damaging Effects
The gas causes Respiratory diseases. At the same time may prevent transportation of the oxygen by the
Hemoglobin (Hb) finally death.
• SULPHUR DIOXIDE - S02
Sources - The combustion of the fossils fuel E.g. Petroleum (crude oil) and coal Damaging effects
The Respiratory distress in the Lungs, damage the chlorophyll, finally death of trees.
• CHLOROFLUOROCARBON CFCS
Source - Aerosol, cans and Refrigerators, freezers Damaging effect
The destruction of the ozone layer -O3 which protect the Earth from harmful radiations, can cause skin cancer
• ACID RAIN
Sources are sulphuric acid, Nitric Acid in rain water.
Damaging Effects
The destruction of trees, forest and pond organisms Well
ACID RAIN
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it possesses elevated
levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals and infrastructure.
Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in
the atmosphere to produce acids. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of
sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by
lightning strikes and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. The chemicals in acid rain can cause
paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and erosion of stone statues.
LAND (TERRESTRIAL) POLLUTION
Land or soil pollution is the process of damping the dirty materials to the land which may affect both living
and non-living things. When the dirty materials damped to the land make it dirty and inhabitable.
LAND POLLUTANTS
The land pollutants may be chemical or solid substances
o Solid substances
Example; Bottles, plastic s, tins, Garbage, Scrappers, Glass, Litters, Papers boxes etc
Can (tins) may be good sites for the mosquito breeding; broken bottles may cause the injuries
o Acid rain
The Acid rain when dissolves into the soil causes the soil to become Acidic which may led to death of the
plants.
o Agrochemicals
The Agrochemicals are the substances (materials) which used for the Agricultural purposes.
Examples are DDT, Fertilizers.
The DDT used in the farm as Insecticides, Fungicides, to kill the pest and Fungi respectively.
Some of the Fertilizers applied to the soil increase soil acidity hence death of plants.
DDT doesn‘t disappear from the soil easily.
PROBLEMS (demerits or disadvantages of DDT to the land)
 It is not easily to be destroyed by the bacteria in the soil so disturb the soil organisms.
 It has accumulative poisonous effects since it kill the plants tissues
 When the plants absorb DDT Eaten by the Animals may kill the Animal tissues.

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DDT is not selective it kills plants and Animals.
CONTROL and PREVENTIVE MEASURES (Remedial) OF LAND POLLUTION
 All solid rubbish should be kept in the containers or tankers prior for collection by trucks for damping at
safe damping sites.
 Bottles and Glass waves should be recycled.
 People should be Educated through the mass media such as TV, Radios, Newspapers, Magazines etc about
the importance of the Environmental conservation
 Packing Materials such as plastic containers, plastic bottles and papers should be recycled such that they
don‘t stay at the same location.
 Biodegradable Insecticides should be developed and used instead of the DDT.
 Biodegradable packing Materials should be imposed and used
 The strictly Laws should be imposed to inhibits peoples who through the rubbish on the land.
RECYCLING OF THE MATERIALS IN THE NATURE TO REDUCES RATES OF POLLUTION
Recycling is the process which the substances are in the circulation and they are put into modification after
their use. When the substances are in Recycling they don‘t stay at the same location. The materials which are
recycled after their uses they are collected and returned back to their site of production such that they can be
used as the raw materials to manufacture the same materials.
MATERIALS WHICH CAN BE RECYCLED TO REDUCE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
They includes
- Bottles such that used for water packing, drinks
- Plastic bottle for the packing of water
- Writing papers such that those used to make Magazines, Newspapers, Exercise books etc
- Packaging boxes for the foods and other materials
THE EFFECTS TO SHOW HOW THE PLASTIC MATERIALS LED TO THE LAND POLLUTION
The land is the one which the plants can grow up
The plastic materials such as plastic bottles, broken bottles are ―impermeable‖ to water, so that when they
become in contacts with ―plant roots‖ they may cause the ―accumulation‖ of water near the plant roots, hence
may cause the plant roots to rote or decay as the results the total failure of the absorption of more water from
the soil mineral salts etc. The materials such as plastic materials when buried to the soil they may cause ―Water
logging‖ Water logging caused by excess accumulation of Water into the soil
NOTE; In 1992 developed countries met at KYOTO Japan and they signed the treaty about how to reduce Air
pollution hence ―Global Warming‖
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL ARE POLLUTANTS
The radioactive materials are those resulted from the nuclear activities, have both effects on animals and plants
In some of the Industrialized countries the materials are packed to the Tanks, some of them are thrown into the
ocean, but when the containers corrodes the Radioactive materials Escape out then cause the death of aquatic
organisms
The following are the effects caused by the radioactive materials;
 May cause the cancer on skin
 May cause the Lung damage
 May cause the tonsillitis
 May cause high fever, vomiting
- People who have high doses of the radioactive materials die few days, but those had few dose they show low
resistance to disease but as the time go they lose their lives.
WATER (AQUATIC) POLLUTION
This is the pollution which pollutants are damped to the water which causes water to be not safe for human
consumption.
-The Water pollutants includes;-

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D. Detergent E.g. powder soap, Puff
E. Sewage sludge
F. Acid deposition
G. Industrial wastes
SEWAGE SLUDGE
-These are the waste pollutants Which Emerge from the domestic and other sources
E.g. Urine from latrines, toilets, all these are channeled to different streams finally to the water bodies such as
well, dam, ponds, sea, ocean, Lake.
Feces from the Latrines are channeled to the Water sources from the different streams
Waste products from the domestic uses E.g. Washing clothes, cleaning water all these channeled to water
bodies, sometime this sewage can be seen even to the Rods escaping from the toilet, Bathrooms.
INDUSTRIAL WASTES
These are the waste which originated from the Industries due to the different Industrial activities taking place.
Some of these wastes have poisons, bad smell, and hot (warm) e.g.
i) Waste water from Tanzania Breweries Limited passing from Industry to Mchikichini, finally to Indian
Ocean
ii) Waste Water from Serengeti Breweries Limited near Kibasila secondary school, the waste water produce
bad odour, at the same time the same water used in the irrigation of the vegetables.
EFFECTS CAUSED BY SEWAGE SLUDGE
 The sewage can cause the bad smell to the Environment such that people can‘t do their activities freely E.g.
Sewage spread at the bus stand
 The Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
This is the oxygen demand (deficit) which may be caused by the Water pollution or other causes. If this occur
may cause the death of Aquatic living organisms, At the same time sewage may cause the growth of Water
Weeds and Algae, Water Weeds will cover the Water at the top, preventing penetration of Light and oxygen
into Water.
DETERGENTS
Detergents are the synthesized cleaning soap.
Examples are powder soap, [Link]
These detergents can be used for the domestic purposes such as washing clothes etc
When they are damped to the Water bodies the interference with aquatic life such as death of Aquatic Living
organisms.
NOTE: Detergents are corrosive
EFFECTS OF THE WATER POLLUTION
 It causes the transmission of the water borne diseases such as typhoid, cholera, Amoebic dysentery.
 It Cause the death of the Aquatic living organisms due to the Biological oxygen demand. (BOD)
PREVENTION AND CONTROL MEASURES FOR WATER POLLUTION
 People should be educated through the mass media such as TV, Radio, and Newspapers about the effect
damping the dirty materials to Water bodies
 The recycling of both Industrial and domestic Waste products should be given consideration
 The tankers for collecting waste products should be constructed.
SOURCES OF SEWAGE SLUDGE'S
They come from;-homes, markets, schools, colleges, university, from hospitals
AIR POLLUTION
This is the release of the substance to the atmosphere (air) which may affect both living and non living things.
The atmospheric air is colorless, odorless and contains a mixture of the relatively constant proportion.
Nitrogen - 78%
Carbon dioxide - 0.03%

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Oxygen - 21%
Inert gases 0.93% and Water vapour
AIR POLLUTANTS
Are the substances which cause the air pollutions They include;
o Smoke
o Smog
o Acid deposition
o Dusts
o Ozone
DUSTS
The dusts may come from the cement industries and construction sites such as Road etc
When these substances are Emitted from the different sources they go to the atmosphere, some of these dusts
may cover the plants leaves, interference with the vision, cover the Glasses etc, and Affect the respiratory
system.
SMOKES
The smokes may come from the vehicle exhaust Tobacco Industries, When the smoke produced then go to the
Atmosphere such smokes can block the stomata of the plants finally photosynthesis process as the result death
of the plants occurs, normally the smokes from the vehicle Exhaust form the black solid (carbon), such that
may cause the Respiratory system to be affected E.g. Lungs can be affected.
ACID DEPOSITION
This is the process in which Acid is deposited to the Environments. The Acid deposition may be by the Acid
gas such as carbon, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide etc.
Some of these gases cause the formation of Acid rain.
Acid deposition occurrence lead to the death of Aquatic living organisms
SMOG
Smog is the gaseous compound which can originate from the Refrigerator, Air conditioner Machines etc
When the smog Emitted to the Atmosphere they may cause the destruction of the "ozone layer" since they
react with ozone as the result reduces the thickness of the layer E.g. Chlorofluoro -Hydrocarbons such as
chloroform CHCI3.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
a. Visibility and Accident
The smokes cover the Atmosphere affects the visibility such that may led to the Accidents.
b. Air borne diseases
c. The air pollution may cause the eruption of that Air borne diseases such as Tuberculosis etc.
d. Destruction of the ozone layer .Air pollution causes the destruction of the ozone because some of the
Air pollutants react with the ozone.
e. Green house Effect or Global warming. Air pollution causes the increase of the planter surface
temperature which affects both living and nonliving things, since a lot
of ―radiations ―come directly to the earth‘s surface.
CONTROL AND PREVENTION OF AIR POLLUTION
• The following are the Remedial measures;
 Internal Engine combustion should be designed to be more efficient, they should not produce smoke or
carbon monoxide
 Forest and Grassland should not bum; since a plant consumes (uses) gases which some of them pollute Air.
 Alternative non-organic fuel should be developed and used instead off coal.
 Strictly Law should be imposed to inhibit the Emission of toxic gases to the Atmosphere.
 All Industries producing chlorofluorocarbons should stop production, and the Alternative chemicals should
be used.
THERMAL POLLUTION

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This is the pollution caused by accumulation of heat to the Environment.
Example: People near the Manufacturing Industries are facing this problem.
NOISE POLLUTION
This is the form or type of the pollution caused by the noises to the surrounding Environment. When noise
pollution occurs to the surrounding Environment there is great probability of the person in the coming days to
fail to have normal hearing.
Example
1. At the market school, Bus stands, At the Airport.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT GASES
These are the gases which causes the greenhouse effects.
The green house gases when Emitted from the Earth‘s surface then they go to the atmosphere and reach the
point such that they react with ozone layer which led to the leakage of the sunlight rays directs to the Earth‘s
surface. Which led to the increase of the surface temperature of the Earth?
COMMON EXAMPLES OF GREEN HOUSE GASES
They include
 Carbon dioxide - Co2
 Methane-CH4
 Carbon monoxide –Co
 Sulphur dioxide - S02
 Nitrogen dioxide - No2
 Chloroform – CHCl3
When these gases are emitted from Earth‘s surface they tend to react with ozone layer can ―leak‖ and
reduction of its thickness can occur E.g. ozone layer.
 Leaks such that allow the harmful radiation from the sun to penetrate directly to Earth‘s surface.
 The ozone layer thickness is reduced.
Example;

Where;
Sunlight or harmful radiations from them are reflected back to the surface then Warm it up.
EFFECTS OF THE GREENHOUSE GASES
 They react with ozone layer as a result causes the layer to leak.
 They cause the thickness of ozone layer as the result its protective power decrease.
GREEN HOUSE
This is the substance which can trap light Energy as the result green house effect. The green house substance
can absorb (trap) the light Energy then prevent the Reflection of the light energy back to the surface.
Example; of Green house
 Some of the gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide etc
 Green plants, during photosynthesis, the plants trap (absorb) the sunlight Energy as the result a lot of the
radiations remains to the lower atmosphere.

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OZONE (03)
Ozone- is the compound with three atoms of oxygen which make up the ozone layer
When the ozone Ionizes it produces the poisonous substance which when inhaled may cause the cancer growth.
OZONE LAYER
This is the layer which is found about (over) the Earth‘s surface.
The ozone layer is found about 10 to 50km from the Earth‘s surface.
When the layer found or Exist at that level it become helpful but below that level it can contaminate with air
then when inhaled cancer growth may occur.
Example

IMPORTANCE OF OZONE LAYER

 It acts as the thermal blanket which ―traps‖ or absorbs some of the harmful radiations from the sun to
Earth‘s surface.
 It protects the Earth‘s surface from the harmful radiations to penetrate directly to the Earth‘s surface
 It help to prevent (reduce) the increase of the surface temperature
GLOBAL WARMING
This is the warming conditions which Experienced on the Earth‘s surface
The global warming refers to the condition which there is increase of the planetary surface temperature. The
Air pollution led to Global warming.
CARBONMONOXIDE GAS (C02) AS THE TRANSPARENT GLASS AND ITS EFFECT IN AIR
POLLUTION
When carbon dioxide gas is emitted from the earth‘s surface, then they go to the Atmosphere, then the gas
reach the point which the gas form transparent glass which absorbs(trap) some of the sunlight. The sunlight or
radiations with the short wavelength penetrates to glass and almost all go back or Reflected or Re-radiated to
the upper atmosphere, While those radiations with long-wave length have low penetrating power, some of
them ―accumulate‖ the lower Atmosphere since these radiations contains the energy, they warm up the Lower
Atmosphere as the results certain part of the Earth‘s surface warm up hence the Global Warming ―Increase of
the planetary surface temperature‖ occurs.
This shows that carbon dioxide gas contributes more to the increase of the surface temperature.
Consider the explanation below.

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NOTE;

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It was observed that as the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increase less heat Energy is
allowed to escape from Earth‘s surface and gradually surface temperature increase.
CONSEQUENCES (OUTCOME) OF GLOBAL WARMING
1. Change of climatic conditions such as Rainfall seasons

2. Desertification (extension of deserts)

3. The raise of Water level in the ocean due to melts of the ‖Ice‖ in the polar regions from Mountain peak
forming Water then flow to the streams, Rivers to ocean.
4. Natural calamities or catastrophic Events such as floods, droughts and hurricanes
5. Distribution of the living organisms and disappearance of other living organisms.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
Environmental conservation is the process of protecting and preserving natural resources from destruction,
wastage or loss .Natural resources globe wise are Atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and mesosphere.
This means that; (soil) land, water, living-organism, ozone layer (protective layer).
Land; - soil texture e.g. minerals -spring waters
Living organism; is to protect and preserving
-aquatic life
- Domestic life
-wild life.
IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION;
The following are some reasons why environmental conservation is important.
 Sustenance of human life;
The environment contains all resources which may sustain human life. These includes soil water and air
 Protection of animal and plant species;
Animals and plant play a very important role in the environment. These include the maintenance of the
ecology balance in the ecosystem .ecological balance is the state in which the number of animals and plants
in an area is just enough to ensure the continued existence of each other.
 Economic value
Most economic activities depend on natural resources. For example fishing depends on ocean water. For
economic development to take place, natural resources natural resources must be protected and preserved
to ensure their continued availability.
 Future generation;

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 Environmental conservation aims at making natural resources availability to future generation.
 Beauty;
The natural resources give the environmental touch of beauty.
For example forest and hills
Environmental conservation measures
Environmental conservation is a very sensitive issue that reflects directly to life.
The following are measures taken to conserve environment.
 Setting up organization and institute.
Many organizations have been initiated to deal with environmental issues country-wise and international wise.
Examples in Tanzania there are two offices dealing with environmental issues.
o Vice presidents office; environmental issues.
o Ministry of tourism and natural resources.
International agency includes the United Nations environmental programme (UNEP)
 Legislation
Law's are been made that will govern environmental conservation.
 Education.
People are being educated on the importance of environmental conservation. Environmental education is
continuing being offered in schools, colleges, universities and even in organizations.
 Research
Research is being carried out o the best way to protect and conserve the natural resources. Some of the
areas of research include;
o Alternative sources of energy
o Methods of preventing and controlling pollution, and
o Sustainable use of natural resources.

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 14. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
What is qualitative analysis?
Qualitative analysis is the analysis which deals with the determination or identification of the components of
the unknown given chemical solid substance. The unknown chemical solid substance actually we talk about the
solid salt which normally we are given but the name is unknown. The solid salt is placed into the watch-glass,
and then you are required to identify ―cation‖ and ―Anion‖ then chemical formula of the salt
SOLID SAMPLE [unknown salt]
This is the solid salt which contains the ions which you are required to identify Consider the solid salt in the
watch glass below:

ION(S)
This is the positively or negatively charged particle formed by the Electron loss or gain by atom element
Examples:

TYPES OF IONS
There are two types

NOTE;
CATION: is the positively charged particle formed by the Electron loss by an atom Element. Example:

ANION: is the negatively charged particle formed by the Electron gain by an atom Element. Example:

QUALITATIVE GITDE SHEET (QDS)

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-This is the sheet which contains the information used or guiding in order to answer the Qualitative analysis
questions. Normally in the Examinations room you are provided with this sheet. Consider how the sheet
appears and it includes .experiment, observation and Inference.
S/N EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
Salt was ‘Blue‘ crystalline
solid CU2+ may be present
Appearance of the sample Salt was ‘Green crystalline
e.g. Take the sample then solid Fe2+ may be present
(a)
observe its appearance and
texture Salt was ‘White‘
crystalline solid

Salt was white powdered may

solid be present
Solubility- take the solid Soluble salt was present
b) salt put into the test tube Salt was soluble
then add distilled water

EXPERIMENT
This is the practically done action by the experimenter
An Experimenter can
a) Take the salt sample from Watch glass then-
b) Observe its colour
c) Salt solid sample observed on the hand by observer, the colour of the sample must be stated.

d) Check the texture of the salt.

e) Smell the salt or its odor
f) Dissolve it into the distilled water into the test then observe if soluble or not soluble (insoluble)
OBSERVATION
This is what an experimenter has seen due to the Experiment which he she had performed. The following are
the common or possible observation which an experimenter can observe
 Powdered/crystalline solid sample
 The colour E.g. Green, yellow, white.
 Evolution of the gas e.g. O2, NH3, NO2, S2
 Formation of the ppt (precipitation) (precipitate)
 The colour of Residue formed after heating the solid sample.
 The smell of the solid sample E.g. Urine (NH3), smells irritating chocking smell
 Solubility of the salt if soluble insoluble.
NOTE: On doing the solubility leave the salt to stay for certain period of time, because some of the salt takes
the time to dissolve completely. Don‘t harry up to state that the salt is Insoluble
INFERENCE (conclusion)
This is the stage which an experimenter is required to take the conclusion above the result observed after doing
an experiment.

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Conclusion; cation NH4+ Anion-NO3, formula of TT—NH4N03
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
There are:-
• Guided Qualitative Analysis
• Systematic Qualitative Analysis (unguided)
GUIDED QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
-Is the type of Qualitative which the experiments to be done by an experimenter is guided or instructed or
limited.
POSSIBLE QUESTION
The salt sample WW contains one cation and Anion in the tabular form of Experiment. Observation and
Inference Identify cation and Anion in the salt solid sample WW.
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
a) Take the sample WW then
observe it
b) Take one spatula full of solid
sample W33 then smell it

c) Take the salt WW pat it into the

clean test tube then add distilled
water until half of test tube
d) To the solid sample WW add
1. Dil HCL
2. Conc. H2SO4

Conclusion Cation - Anion- Formula of WW

SYSTEMATIC QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
-Is the type of the qualitative analysis which no instructions is given but an experimenter should follow the
procedures stages which can led to identification of solid sample
POSSIBLE QUESTION
The salt sample WW contains one cation and Anion in the tabular form below identifies cation. Anion and
formula of WW.
SOLN ANS:
S/N EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

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 Solid sample WW was
a) Appearance of the sample WW
white crystal solid

The sample gave smell of NH4+, was present and

b) Smell of sample WW
Ammonia gas (urine) confirmed
Gas-NH3,

Soluble salt may be

The sample was soluble and
c) Solubility of WW
formed clear solution

Action of dil H2 SO4, to solid Gas with Urine smell

d) NH4+, confirmed
WW detected
Action of dil NAOH solution Gas with urine system
e) to WW solution detected NH4+, confirmed

Action of Bacl2, to WW
f) White ppt was formed SO42- confirmed
solution

STAGES OF SYSTEMATIC QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

They include:-
-Preliminary test
-Test in solution
-Confirmatory test
PRELIMINARY TEST
These are the tests which are done at the first stage such that preliminary information of the solid sample can
be obtained:-
These Experiments includes:
o Appearance of the sample (solid)
Here we talk about colour, Texture of sample.
o Solubility of the sample (solid)
o Smell of the solid sample
o Action of heat on solid sample
o Action of dil. HC1 (Hydrochloric Acid) or concentrated sulphuric Acid : (con.H2SO4) the solid sample into
test tube(TT)
o Flame test of solid sample
o Residue test of the solid sample
THE REQUIREMENTS;
 Clean test tubes
 Test tube holder

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 Heat source e.g. Bunsen burner
 Distilled Water E.g.

 Acid E.g.

APPEARANCE OF SOLID SAMPLE

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POSSIBLE QUESTION
S/N EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
Sample BB was white
crystalline solid
a) Appearance of a solid sample
Sample BB was light green
crystalline solid
Sample RR was blue in
b) Appearance of RR color
Sample RR was yellow in
color
SOLUBILITY OF SOLID SAMPLE
Take solid sample put small (little) amount into clean test tube then Add distilled Water into the solid sample
observe it if soluble or insoluble. Be careful on observing E.g. salt -AA or CC or TT etc

NOTE:
Transition metals [Cu2+,Cu+, Fe3+ ] they tend to display [show] their colour if their salt dissolved into Water
presided that they are soluble-salt.
COLOR OF SOLUTION FORMED ON DISSOLVING SALT SAMPLE IN W ATER
-Consider the table below for more illustration;
E.g. SALT SAMPLE

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POSSIBLE QUESTION

Fill (1) and (2)

Answer
1. Blue solution was formed
2. Solubility of a sample
SMELL OF THE SOLID SAMPLE
Take the solid sample then smell it. Normally Ammonium salt –NH4+ Even at the room-temperature they tend
to give out the Urine smell (smell of Ammonia gas -NH3 or When they are Heated. But other salts are
(odorless)

TABLE OF RESULTS
OBSERVATION NFERENCE
Salt had the imitating chocking smell (Urine NH4+ is confirmed
smell) or smell of Ammonia gas

No specific smell detected or salt had no am, smell

POSSIBLE QUESTION
S/N EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
a) On smelting the sample XX Ammonia gas smell was i)
into a watch glass detected
ii) NH4+, was absent
b) Urine smell detected NH4+, confirmed
Fill (i), (ii), and (b)
Ans
(i) NH4+ confirmed
( i i ) no specific smell detected
(b) Smell of the sample
NATURE OF GASES, SMELL, ACTION OF LITMUS, COLOR, SOLUBILITY
• Some of the gases are Acidic. Basic (Alkaline), colorless, colored, soluble, insoluble have smell (odor),
odorless.
GAS SMELL NATURE COLOR SOLUBILITY
ACTION ON LITMUS
NH3 Urine or Basic/alkaline colorless Highly soluble Blue
NO2 Pungent Addle Reddish Soluble Red

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 smell Brown yellow Soluble Red
So2
Irritating Acidic colorless Soluble
Cl2 Irritating Acidic Greenish Soluble Red then
yellow bleached
CO2 odorless Acidic colorless Soluble Red
O2 odorless Neutral colorless Insoluble No
NOTE: We can try to know the nature of the gas by dissolving it into Water then resulting solution may be
Acidic. Basic or Neutral. E.g.

ACTION OF HEAT ON SOLID SAMPLE IN THE DRY AND CLEAN TEST TUBE
To the clean, dry test tube put the salt sample then heat it for few minutes and observe the changes which occur
some of the salt ace stable(under composes) but other decomposes (stable) During heating process you can
observe the colour if gas Evolved, smell of the Gas Evolved. Normally each radical release
Example

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POSSIBLE QUESTION
You have been given with salt sample ZZ, QQ, Which was the piece of the paper isolated in the Examination
room by form IV students at Mtazamo secondary school.
OBSERVATION INFERENCE
The salt ZZ gave the yellow residue- hot and White
Reddish-GG cold and Reddish brown yellow fumes
of the gas PP
The salt QQ gave the colourless gas - FF Which
turn time water - Ca(OH2) to milky form and
Extinguishing the fire or burning candle the gas
produced the Effervescence and turned damp
litmus-Blue paper Red and yellow Residue HH.

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a. Fill the inference column
b. Given cation - Anion and formula of salt ZZ including cation -Anion -in QQ
c. Name gas FF, PP, Residue HH, GG.

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE GAS EVOLVED DURING EXPERIMENT [Heating using Acid] The
following methods can be used:-
 Through smelling
 By using the damp litmus paper
 By observing the colour of gas
 Experiments

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—The Nichrome ware or glass rod or Test tube then dip into the test-tube containing dil. HC1 the reason: Is to
provide White vapour on the flame on heating the salt. Take the Wet nichrome or glass rod or test tube dip into
the salt sample, so the salt sample should stuck on the Wire. Transfer the salt on the flame burn it While
observing the colour given by the flame

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OBSERVATIONS:

PROCEDURES OF THE FLAME TEST

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Consider the diagrams below showing how to perform Flame test

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ACTION OF DILUTE HCl, HNO3 OR CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID [conH2 S0 4 ] ON SOLID
SALT IN DRY AND CLEAN TEST TUBE
Take the solid salt put into the clean and dry test tube, and then Add either dilute HC1 or con.H2SO4, or
dil.HNO3, then observe what happened, Hydrochloric acid -HC1.
Nitric Acid - HN03 and
H2SO4 have the tendency to break down radical such as CO32- OR HCO3- then form CO2- carbon dioxide
which give off Effervescence But on additional of con. H2SO4 or
HNO3 (dil) or dil. HC1 to the salt which have no CO32/HCO3- No CO2. Evolved probably other gas

PROCEDURES DURING ACTION OF ACID ON SOLID SAMPLE [SALT] BY USING ACID

You have been given with salt JJ, KK, and LL

Examples: ACIDS ADDED TO SOLID SALT

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RESIDUE TEST [Identify cation
Example: Zn2+, Cu2+ etc.
Take the given salt sample put it into the test tube then heat until no changes occurs. The test tube should be
clean and dry on doing the residue test. Note that some of the salt doesn't decompose.

 These salt – CO32- of group I (alkaline metal) ace stable on heating so they don‘t decompose at all

• These salt of group II (Alkaline metal) their Sulphates – SO42- are very stable
OBSERVATION:
 Blue- Residue turn black- CuO cation-Cu2+
 No colour E.g. MgO, AL2O3, etc

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PROCEDURES FOR THE RESIDUE TEST
You have been given with salt sample solid WW, MM and TT

POSSIBLE QUESTION
Solid PP was White on heating gave yellow- Residue When hot on cooling become White PP was:-
 ZnCO3
 ZnO
 ZnCl2
TEST IN THE SOLUTION
This is the second stage of the Qualitative analysis which the test is done in the solution form.
Example —Take the salt given then put it into the beaker or Test tube then adds distilled water in order to
obtain the solution.

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NOTE:
AA - Known as mother solution (M.s) or stock solution original solution
Then you can divide the solution into the different solutions E.g. First solution, second solution Third solution,
and then you can add given reagent such as NaOH, NH4OH etc

NaOH+CuCl2—CU (OH)2 + NaCl

 NH4OH + CuSO4→ Deep → Blue ppt

OBSERVATION:

PROCEDURES DURING THE TEST IN SOLUTION

You have been given with the salt RR, FF
Take the salt dissolve into the given distilled water in order to obtain the solution. This solution can be divided
into the different solution named first, second, third etc. The following solution, solution (reagent) can be
Added to the prepared solution;-
a. Sodium hydroxide - NaOH
b. Ammonium hydroxide Aqueous solution - NH4OH
c. Potassium hexaferrocynide

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THE MAIN AIM OF THE ADDITIONAL OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH) or NH4OH TO THE
ORIGINAL SOLUTION (O.S) or STOCK SOLUTION (S.S) OR MOTHER SOLUTION (M.S)
The aim is to identify the cation in the solution given, and then observe what occurred into the solution you
make.
CONFIRMATORY TEST
This is the third stage and lastly stage of the Qualitative analysis which can be used to determine or identify the
specific cation or Anion present in the unknown given salt. Each cation or Anion has the specific confirmatory
reagent used to identify them.
E.g. IDENTIFICATION OF ANION
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION NFERENCE
To a sample solution AgNO3 is
added followed by dil.HNO3 White ppt insoluble in HNO3 but -
solution then excess ammonia Cl present and confirmed
soluble in ammonia solution
solution

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A sample solid is mixed with Greenish yellow gas with a
manganese dioxide and cone pungent smell is ( C l 2 ) i s given Cl- present and confirmed
H2S04 added and waned out which turn a moist Kl- starch
paper blue
To a solution of sample dil. HC1 White ppt insoluble dil. HCl is
is added followed by BaCl2 SO2- present and confirmed
formed
solution
To a sample solution add fresh
prepared ferrous sulphate solution
followed by carefully addition of Brown ring is formed NO3- present and confirmed
conc. H2S04 along the side of the
test tube
For insoluble carbonate add dil. 2-
colourless gas forming time water CO3 present and confirmed
HCl
milky effervescence evolved
To a sample solution in water
MgSO4, is added, boiled if ppt not White ppt in cold CO32- present and confirmed
formed White ppt after warming HCO3- present and confirmed

(i)In-A-Solution

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NO3- is confirmed

(ii)In-D-Solution

COMMON SALTS IN THE QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

You must be familiar with the following salts
(a) Ammonium salts
Example:
i. Ammonium chloride – NH4C1
ii. Ammonium Nitrate - NH4NO3
iii. Ammonium sulphate - (NH4)2SO4 etc.
(b) Iron salts
Example:

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(c) Calcium salts
Example:

(d) Sodium salts

Example:

(e) Zinc salts

Example:
 Zinc carbonate – ZnCO3
 Zinc sulphate – ZnSO4
(f) Copper salts
Example:
o Copper II sulphate -CuSO4
o Copper II chloride –CuCl2
o Copper II Nitrate-Cu(NO3)2
o Copper I sulphate – Cu2SO4
(g) Lead salts
o Lead chloride – PbCl2
o Lead Nitrate - Pb(NO3)2
o Lead sulphate – PbSO4
(h) Potassium salts
o Potassium chloride - KC1
o Potassium carbonate – K2CO3
NOTE
You should be able to:-
-Use the qualitative Analysis sheet
-Know the Appearance of the salt
-Know the flame test
-Identify the cation. Anion
-Know how to write down the chemical formula of the compound
-White down the balanced chemical Equation which take place or occur during practical
-Prepare the solution of the salt etc
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