Mineralogy
Introduction
1. The Nature of Minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring homogeneous solids with a definite chemical composition and a
highly ordered atomic arrangement; they are usually formed by inorganic processes. There are several
thousand known mineral species, about 100 of which constitute the major mineral components of rocks;
these are the so-called rockforming minerals.
A mineral, which by definition must be formed through natural processes, is distinct from the synthetic
equivalents produced in the laboratory. Man-made versions of minerals, including emeralds, sapphires,
diamonds, and other valuable gemstones, are regularly produced in industrial and research facilities and
are often nearly identical to their natural counterparts.
By its definition as a homogeneous solid, a mineral is composed of a single solid substance of uniform
composition that cannot be physically separated into simpler compounds. Homogeneity is determined
relative to the scale on which it is defined. A specimen that megascopically appears homogeneous, for
example, may reveal several mineral components under a microscope or upon exposure to X-ray
diffraction techniques. Most rocks are composed of several different minerals; e.g., granite consists of
feldspar, quartz, mica, and amphibole. In addition, gases and liquids are excluded by a strict
interpretation of the above definition of a mineral. Ice, the solid state of water (H2O), is considered a
mineral, but liquid water is not; liquid mercury, though sometimes found in mercury ore deposits, is not
classified as a mineral either. Such substances that resemble minerals in chemistry and occurrence are
dubbed mineraloids and are included in the general domain of mineralogy.
Since a mineral has a definite composition, it can be expressed by a specific chemical formula. Quartz
(silicon dioxide), for instance, is rendered as SiO2, because the elements silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) are its
only constituents and they invariably appear in a 1:2 ratio. The chemical makeup of most minerals is not as
well defined as that of quartz, which is a pure substance. Siderite, for example, does not always occur as
pure iron carbonate (FeCO3); magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), and, to a limited extent, calcium (Ca)
may sometimes substitute for the iron. Since the amount of the replacement may vary, the composition of
siderite is not fixed and ranges betwen certain limits, although the ratio of the metal cation to the anionic
group remains fixed at 1:1. Its chemical makeup may be expressed by the general formula (Fe, Mn, Mg,
Ca)CO3, which reflects the variability of the metal content.
Minerals display a highly ordered internal atomic structure that has a regular geometric form. Because
of this feature, minerals are classified as crystalline solids. Under favourable conditions, crystalline
materials may express their ordered internal framework by a well developed external form, often referred
to as crystal form or morphology. Solids that exhibit no such ordered internal arrangement are termed
amorphous. Many amorphous natural solids, such as glass, are categorized as mineraloids.
Traditionally, minerals have been described as resulting exclusively from inorganic processes; however,
current mineralogic practice often includes as minerals those compounds that are organically produced
but satisfy all other mineral requirements. Aragonite (CaCO3) is an example of an inorganically formed
mineral that also has an organically produced, yet otherwise identical, counterpart; the shell (and the pearl,
if it is present) of an oyster is composed to a large extent of organically formed aragonite.
Minerals also are produced by the human body: hydroxylapatite [Ca5(PO4)3(OH)] is the chief
component of bones and teeth, and calculi are concretions of mineral substances found in the urinary
system.
1.1. Nomenclature
While minerals are classified in a logical manner according to their major anionic (negatively
charged) chemical constituents into groups such as oxides, silicates, and nitrates, they are named in a far
less scientific or consistent way. Names may be assigned to reflect a physical or chemical property, such as
colour, or they may be derived from various subjects deemed appropriate, such as, for example, a locality,
public figure, or mineralogist. Some examples of mineral names and their derivations follow: albite
(NaAlSi3O8) is from the Latin word (albus) for “white” in reference to its colour; goethite (FeO ∙ OH) is in
honour of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, the German poet; manganite (MnO ∙ OH) reflects the mineral’s
composition; franklinite (ZnFe2O4) is named after Franklin, N.J., U.S., the site of its occurrence as the
dominant ore mineral for zinc (Zn); and sillimanite (Al2SiO4) is in honour of the American chemist
Benjamin Silliman. Since 1960 an international committee of nomenclature has reviewed descriptions of
new minerals and proposals for new mineral names and has attempted to remove inconsistencies. Any
new mineral name must be approved by this committee and the type material is usually stored in a
museum or university collection.
1.2. Occurrence and Formation
Minerals form in all geologic environments and thus under a wide range of chemical and physical
conditions, such as varying temperature and pressure. The four main categories of mineral formation are
(1) igneous, or magmatic, in which minerals crystallize from a melt; (2) sedimentary, in which minerals are
the result of the processes of weathering, erosion, and sedimentation; (3) metamorphic, in which new
minerals form at the expense of earlier ones owing to the effects of changing— usually increasing—
temperature or pressure or both onsome existing rock type (metamorphic minerals are the result of new
mineral growth in the solid state without the intervention of a melt, as in igneous processes); and (4)
hydrothermal, in which minerals are chemically precipitated from hot solutions within the Earth. The
first three processes generally lead to varieties of rocks in which different mineral grains are closely
intergrown in an interlocking fabric. Hydrothermal solutions, and even solutions at very low temperatures
(e.g., groundwater), tend to follow fracture zones in rocks that may provide open spaces for the chemical
precipitation of minerals from solution. It is from such open spaces, partially filled by minerals deposited
from solutions, that most of the spectacular mineral specimens have been collected. If a mineral that is in
the process of growth (as a result of precipitation) is allowed to develop in a free space, it will generally
exhibit a well-developed crystal form, which adds to a specimen’s aesthetic beauty. Similarly, geodes,
which are rounded, hollow, or partially hollow bodies commonly found in limestones, may contain
wellformed crystals lining the central cavity. Geodes form as a result of mineral deposition from solutions
such as groundwater.
