Basic Electronics

Dr. Pushpa P.V.

Department of Electronics & Communication Engg.
Dayanand Sagar University, Bangalore, India.
Basic Electronics syllabus

Module 1 Semiconductor Diodes

Module 2 Transistors
Module 3 Operational Amplifiers
Module 4 Communication system
Module 5 Digital circuits
Text Book and References

Text books:
1. Robert. L. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and
circuit Theory, Pearson Education, 9th edition, 2005.
2. Michael Tooley B A (2006) Electronic Circuits: Fundamentals
and Applications, Elsevier Ltd., 3rd Edition, 2006.
Reference Books
1. David A Bell, Electronic Devices and Circuits, PHI, 5th edition,
2007.
2. Millman & Halkias, Electronics Devices and Circuits, McGraw
Hill, second edition, 2010
3. Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems by
B.P.Lathi. Oxford University Press, Fourth edition, 2010
4.NPTEL- https://nptel.ac.in/courses/122/106/122106025/
5. Virtual Labs- http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/
Course Content
Module 1 Semiconductor Diodes
Semiconductor materials- intrinsic and extrinsic types, Ideal Diode.
Terminal characteristics of diodes: p-n junction under open circuit
condition, p-n junction under forward bias and reverse bias condi-
tions, p-n junction in breakdown region, Zener diode, Series voltage
regulator, Rectifier Circuits: Half wave and full wave, Reservoir and
smoothing circuits.
Module 2 Amplifiers
Introduction, Transistor construction, operation and characteristics;
Configuration types: Common base and common emitter configu-
ration, Active region operation of transistor, Transistor amplifying
action, Biasing the BJT: fixed bias, emitter feedback bias, collec-
tor feedback bias and voltage divider bias, Transistor as a switch:
cut-off and saturation modes. Field Effect Transistors: Construction
and characteristics of n-channel JFET, Types of power amplifiers:
Class A operation, Class B operation, Class AB operation.
Module 3 Operational Amplifiers
Ideal Op-amp, Differential amplifier: differential and common mode
operation common mode rejection ratio (CMRR), Practical op-amp
circuits: inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, comparator,
summing amplifier, integrator, differentiator. The concept of pos-
itive feedback, Oscillator circuits using op amps: RC phase shift
oscillator, wein bridge oscillator.
Module 4 Communication system
Communication system - The radio frequency spectrum, electro-
magnetic waves, A simple CW transmitter and receiver, modula-
tion, demodulation, AM transmitter, FM transmitter, Tuned radio
frequency receiver, Superheterodyne receiver. RF amplifiers, AM
demodulators.
Module 5 Digital circuits
Digital circuits - Logic functions, Switch and lamp logic, logic gates,
combinational logic, bistables/flipflops, application of Flipflops, In-
tegrated circuit logic devices: introduction to Microprocessor and
microcontrollers (Architecture), Related Problems.
Semiconductors

Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a con-

ductivity between that of a good conductor and that of an
insulator.
The three semiconductors used most frequently in the construc-
tion of electronic devices are Ge, Si, and GaAs.
Periodic Table of the elements
Covalent bonding and intrinsic materials
For germanium and silicon there are four valence electrons in the
outermost shell. Gallium has three valence electrons and arsenic
has five valence electrons. Atoms that have four valence electrons
are called tetravalent, those with three are called trivalent, and
those with five are called pentavalent.
Covalent bonding of the silicon atom

Figure: Covalent bonding of the silicon atom

Covalent bonding of the GaAs crystal

Figure: Covalent bonding of the GaAs crystal

Semiconductors Continued....

Figure: Lattice showing covalent bonding

Semiconductors Continued....

Figure: Free negative charge carriers (electrons) produced by introducing

a pentavalent impurity
Semiconductors Continued .....

Figure: Holes produced by introducing a trivalent impurity

n-Type material and p-Type Material

Figure: Antimony impurity in n-Type Material and Boron impurity in

p-Type Material
Majority and Minority Carriers

Figure: n-type material and p-type material

Summary

A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping

process is called an extrinsic material. .
Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor
atoms.
The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called
acceptor atoms.
Assignement 1

1. Describe the difference between n-type and p-type semicon-

ductor materials.
2. Describe the difference between donor and acceptor impuri-
ties. .
Semiconductor diode

The semiconductor diode is created by simply joining an n-type and

a p-type material.
Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0 V)
A forward-bias or on condition is established by applying the positive
potential to the p-type material and the negative potential to the
n-type material
As the applied bias increases in magnitude, the depletion region will
continue to decrease in width until a flood of electrons can pass
through the junction, resulting in an exponential rise in current.
Forward Bias

Figure:
Reverse Bias

Figure:

The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the

reverse saturation current and is represented by Is .
PN Diode Characteristics

Figure:
Shockley Equation for forward bias and reverse bias regions

Figure:
Comparison of Ge, Si, and GaAs commercial diodes

Figure:
Summary

A bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons be-

tween neighboring atoms, is called covalent bonding.
Increasing temperatures can cause a significant increase in the num-
ber of free elec- trons in a semiconductor material.
Most semiconductor materials used in the electronics industry have
negative tem- perature coefficients; that is, the resistance drops with
an increase in temperature.
Intrinsic materials are those semiconductors that have a very low
level of impurities, whereas extrinsic materials are semiconductors
that have been exposed to a doping process.
Summary continued

An n-type material is formed by adding donor atoms that have five

valence electrons to establish a high level of relatively free electrons.
In an n-type material, the electron is the majority carrier and the
hole is the minority carrier.
A p-type material is formed by adding acceptor atoms with three
valence electrons to establish a high level of holes in the material.
In a p-type material, the hole is the majority carrier and the electron
is the minority carrier.
Problems
Problem 1.1).The characteristic shown in Fig. refers to a germanium
diode. Determine the resistance of the diode when (a) the forward
current is 2.5 mA and (b) when the forward voltage is 0.65 V.
Problem 1.2). At a temperature of 27C (common temperature for
components in an enclosed operating system), determine the ther-
mal voltage VT.

Problem 1.31) Determine the thermal voltage for a diode at a tem-

perature of 20C.
1.32). For the same diode of part (1.31), find the diode current
using if Is=40 nA, n = 2 and the applied bias voltage is 0.5 V.
A simple half-wave rectifier circuit

Figure:
Working of half wave rectifier circuit

Figure:
Reservoir and smoothing circuits

Figure: A simple half-wave rectifier circuit with reservoir capacitor and

waveforms
Improved ripple factors

Figure: Half-wave rectifier circuit with R-C and L-C smoothing filter
Full-wave bridge rectifier and conduction path for the
positive region of input signal

Figure:
Conduction path for the negative region of input signal
and Input and output waveforms for a full wave rectifier

Figure:
Bridge rectifier with reservoir capacitor and waveforms

Figure:
Center-tapped transformer full-wave rectifier and Network
conditions for the positive region of input signal

Figure:
Working principle of Zener diode

The characteristic drops in an almost vertical manner at a reverse-

bias potential denoted VZ .
The curve drops down and the current in the Zener region has a
direction opposite to that of a forward-biased diode.
Zener diodes are available having Zener potentials of 1.8 V to 200
V with power ratings from 14 W to 50 W.
Typical characteristics for a 12V zener diode

Figure:
Zener Region and conduction direction

Figure:
Zener diode characteristics

Figure:
TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION

The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device consisting of

either two n and one p-type layers of material or two p- and one
n-type layers of material. The former is called an npn transistor,
and the latter is called a pnp transistor.
The dc biasing is necessary to establish the proper region of opera-
tion for ac amplification.
The emitter layer is heavily doped, with the base and collector only
lightly doped.
The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons participate
in the injection process into the oppo- sitely polarized material. If
only one carrier is employed (electron or hole), it is considered a
unipolar device.
Transistor Operation

Figure: Biasing a transistor: Forward-bias and Reverse-bias

As shown in Figure, a large number of majority carriers will diffuse
across the forward-biased pn junction into the n-type material

Figure:

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the transistor

IE = Ic + IB
Notation and symbols used with the common-base
configuration: (a) npn transistor; (b) pnp transistor
The common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the base
is common to both the input and output sides of the configuration.
The arrow in the graphic symbol defines the direction of emitter
current (conventional flow) through the device.
Input Characteristics for common base configuration
The input set of characteristice for the common-base relates an input
current (IE ) to an input voltage (VBE) for various levels of output
voltage (VCB ).
Ouput Characteristics for common base configuration
The output set relates an output current (IC ) to an output voltage
(VCB ) for various levels of input current (IE ). The three basic regions
of interest are the active, cutoff, and saturation.

Figure:
In the active the base emitter junction is forward-biased, whereas
the collectorbase junction is reverse-biased. regions. The active
region is the region normally employed for linear (undistorted)
amplifiers.
In the cutoff the base emitter and collectorbase junctions of a
transistor are both reverse-biased. The cutoff region is defined
as that region where the collector current is 0 A.
In the saturation the base emitter and collector base junctions
are forward biased. There is exponential increase in collector
current.
Common Emitter Configuration
The base-to-emitter voltage will be assumed to be VBE = 0.7V

Figure: Common Emitter Configuration: a) npn transistor b) pnp

transistor
Input characteristics for CE configuration

Figure:
Output characteristics for CE configuration

Figure:
Current gain

The common-emitter current gain is given by:

IC
hFE =
IB
where, hFE is the hybrid parameter which represents large signal
(d.c.) forward current gain

M IC
hfe =
M IB
where hfe is the hybrid parameter represents small signal (a.c.)
forward current gain
Typical transfer characteristic for CE configuration

Figure: