CS F222: Discrete Structures for Computer Science

Tutorial - 3 (Mathematical Induction)

1. Prove that 2n > n2 for all n ≥ 5.

Solution: The base case is the statement that 25 > 52 , which is true because 32 > 25.
To prove the base case, we assume that 2k > k 2 for some k ≥ 5, and prove that 2k+1 > (k + 1)2 .
There are several ways to do this.
We have 2k+1 = 2k + 2k > 2k 2 , by the inductive hypothesis. So we need to prove that 2k 2 > (k + 1)2 ,
or 2k 2 > k 2 + 2k + 1.
Since k ≥ 5, we have 2k + 1 < 3k < k 2 , and so k 2 + 2k + 1 < k 2 + k 2 = 2k 2 , as desired.
2. Prove that 3 + 3 · 5 + 3 · 52 + . . . + 3 · 5n = 3(5n+1 − 1)/4 whenever n is a non-negative integer.
Solution: Let P (n) be the statement 3 + 3 · 5 + 3 · 52 + . . . + 3 · 5n = 3(5n+1 − 1)/4 where n ≥ 0.
Basis step: We show that P (0) is true.
3 · 50 = 3(50+1 − 1)/4 which implies 3 = 3. Hence, P (0) is true.
Induction hypothesis: Assume that P (k) is true for n = k, k > 0. This implies, 3+3·5+3·52 +. . .+3·5k =
3(5k+1 − 1)/4.
Inductive step: We now show that P (k + 1) is true.

3 + 3 · 5 + 3 · 52 + . . . + 3 · · · 5k + 3 · 5k+1 = 3(5k+1 − 1)/4 + 3 · 5k+1 (by hypothesis)

= 3(5k+1 − 1 + 4 · 5k+1 )/4
= 3(5 · 5k+1 − 1)/4
= 3(5(k+1)+1 − 1)/4

Thus, P (k + 1) is true.
Hence, P (n) is true for all non-negative integers n.
3. Prove that n2 − 1 is divisible by 8 whenever n is an odd positive integer.
Solution: Let P (n) be the statement n2 − 1 is divisible by 8 whenever n is an odd positive integer.
Note that n ∈ {1, 3, 5, 7, . . .}.
Basis step: We show that P (1) is true.
Let n = 1, then 12 − 1 = 0 and it is divisible by 8. Hence, P (1) is true.
Induction hypothesis: Assume that P (k) is true where n = 2k − 1 (k-th odd positive integer) and k > 1.
Hence, (2k − 1)2 − 1 = 4k 2 − 4k + 1 − 1 = 4k 2 + 4k is divisible by 8.
Inductive step: We now show that P (2k + 1) is true.
(2k + 1)2 − 1 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 − 1 = 4k 2 + 4k = (4k 2 − 4k) + 8k
Since the both terms in the RHS are divisible by 8, we conclude that (2k + 1)2 − 1 is also divisible by
8. Thus, P (k + 1) is true.
Therefore, P (n) is true for all non-negative integers n.
4. Prove that 21 divides 4n+1 + 52n−1 whenever n is a positive integer.
Solution: Let P (n) be the statement n2 − 1 is divisible by 8 whenever n is an odd positive integer.
Basis step: We show that P (1) is true.
Let n = 1 =⇒ 41+1 + 52×1−1 = 42 + 51 = 16 + 5 = 21.

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 P (1) is true.
Induction hypothesis: Assume that P (k) is true for some positive integer k. Thus, 4k+1 + 52k−1 is
divisible by 21.
Inductive step: We now show that P (k + 1) is true i.e., 4(k+1)+1 + 52(k+1)−1 is divisible by 21.

4(k+1)+1 + 52(k+1)−1 = 4k+2 + 52k+1

= 4 · 4k+1 + 52 · 52k−1
= 4[4k+1 + 52k−1 ] + 21 · 52k−1

From the inductive hypothesis, the first term on the RHS is divisible by 21 and clearly, the second term
is also divisible by 21. Thus, 4(k+1)+1 + 52(k+1)−1 is divisible by 21. Hence, P (k + 1) is true.
Therefore, 21 divides 4n+1 + 52n−1 whenever n is a positive integer.
Solution:
5. Recall that the Fibonacci numbers F (n) are defined by F (1) = 1, F (2) = 1, and F (n) = F (n − 1) +
F (n − 2) for n ≥ 3. Prove that for F (n + 1) + F (n − 2) = 2F (n) for each n ≥ 3.
Solution: We prove this by strong induction. We prove two base cases: n = 3 and n = 4. We have
F (1) = 1, F (2) = 1, F (3) = 2, and F (4) = 3.
The case n = 3 asserts that F (4) + F (1) = 2F (3), which says that 3 + 1 = 2 · 2, which is true.
The case n = 4 asserts that F (5) + F (2) = 2F (4), which says that 5 + 1 = 2 · 3, which is true.
Now, assume, for some fixed k ≥ 5, that F (n + 1) + F (n − 2) = 2F (n) for all n < k. We will prove that
F (k + 1) + F (k − 2) = 2F (k).
By definition, we have
F (k+1)+F (k−2) = (F (k)+F (k−1))+(F (k−3)+F (k−4)) = (F (k)+F (k−3))+(F (k−1)+F (k−4)).
By the inductive hypothesis applied to n = k − 1, we have F (k) + F (k − 3) = 2F (k − 1). By the
inductive hypothesis applied to n = k − 2, we have F (k − 1) + F (k − 4) = 2F (k − 2). Therefore, we have
F (k + 1) + F (k − 2) = 2F (k − 1) + 2F (k − 2) = 2F (k), using the definition of the Fibonacci numbers
in the last step, and we’re done.
6. Prove that every bill n$, where n ≥ 5 and it is a positive integer, can be paid by using two 2$ and 5$
coins.
Solution: Let P (n) be the statement that we can form n dollars using just 2$ and 5$ bills. We want
to prove that P (n) is true for all n ≥ 5.
Basis step: Clearly, P (5) and P (6) are true since 5$ = 5$ and 6$ = 2$ + 2$ + 2$.
Inductive Hypothesis: Assume that P (j) is true for all j with 5 ≤ j ≤ k, where k is an arbitrary integer
greater than or equal to 7.
Inductive step: We want to show that P (k + 1) is true. Because k − 1 ≥ 6, we know that P (k − 1) is
true, that is, that we can form k − 1 dollars. Add another 2$ bill, and we have formed (k + 1)$.
Therefore, we conclude that P (n) is true for all n.
7. Assume that a chocolate bar consists of n squares arranged in a rectangular pattern. The entire bar, or
any smaller rectangular piece of the bar, can be broken along a vertical or a horizontal line separating
the squares. Assuming that only one piece can be broken at a time, determine how many breaks you
must successively make to break the bar into n separate squares. Use strong induction to prove your
answer.
∗ Can you solve the problem by (ordinary) mathematical induction?
Solution: We claim that the number of needed breaks is n − 1. We shall prove this for all positive
integers n using strong induction.
Basis step: For n = 1 is clear. In that case we don’t need to break the chocolate at all, we can just eat
it.
Inductive Hypothesis: Suppose now that n ≥ 2 and assume the assertion is true for all rectangular
chocolate bars with fewer than k squares.

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 Inductive step: We show that the claim is true for k pieces. Then we break the chocolate into two
pieces of size m and k − m where 1 ≤ m < k. By the induction hypotheses, the bar with m pieces
requires m − 1 breaks and the bar with k − m squares requires k − m − 1 breaks. Thus the original
chocolate bar requires 1 + (m − 1) + (k − m − 1) breaks. This number equals k − 1.
Thus, we conclude that the claim is true for all n.

8. Show that if the statement P (n) is true for infinitely many positive integers n and P (n + 1) → P (n) is
true for all positive integers n, then P (n) is true for all positive integers n.
Solution: For a proof by contradiction, assume that there is some positive integer n such that P (n)
is not true. Let m be the smallest positive integer greater than n for which P (m) is true; we know that
such an m exists because P (m) is true for infinitely many values of m (otherwise, P (n) can be true
only for finite number of integers n.) But we know that P (m) → P (m − 1) is true, so P (m − 1) is also
true. Thus, m − 1 cannot be greater than n (otherwise, the choice of m is incorrect). So m − 1 = n
and P (n) is true. This contradiction shows that P (n) is true for all n.