9-Methods of estimating cooling load/heat sources

Generally, cooling load calculations involve a systematic, stepwise procedure,

using which one can arrive at the required system capacity by taking into
account all the building energy flows. In practice, a variety of methods ranging
from simple rules-of-thumb to complex Transfer Function Methods are used in
practice to arrive at the building loads.
9.1 Rule –of- thumb method:
It is specify the required cooling capacity based on the floor area or occupancy.
Table 9.1 shows typical data on required cooling capacities based on the
floor area or application. Such rules-of-thumb are useful in preliminary
estimation of the equipment size and cost. The main conceptual drawback of
rules-of-thumb methods is the presumption that the takes into account all
the loads experienced by a building under a specific set of assumed
conditions. building design will not make any difference. Thus the rules for a
badly designed building are typically the same as for a good design

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Table 9-1: Required cooling capacities for various applications
based on rules-of-thumb .

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9.2-Cooling load calculations:
Load calculations involve a systematic and stepwise procedure that takes into
account all the relevant building energy flows. The cooling load experienced by
a building varies in magnitude from zero (no cooling required) to a maximum
value. The design cooling load is a load near the maximum magnitude, but is
not normally the maximum.
The assumptions behind design cooling load are as follows:
1. Design outside conditions are selected from a long-term statistical
database. The conditions will not necessarily represent any actual year, but
are representative of the location of the building. Design data for outside
conditions for various locations of the world have been collected and are
available in tabular form in various handbooks.
2. The load on the building due to solar radiation is estimated for clear sky
conditions.
3. The building occupancy is assumed to be at full design capacity.
4. All building equipment and appliances are considered to be operating at a
reasonably representative capacity.

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Buildings may be classified as externally loaded and internally loaded.
In externally loaded buildings the cooling load on the building is mainly due to
heat transfer between the surroundings and the internal conditioned space.
Since the surrounding conditions are highly variable in any given day, the
cooling load of an externally loaded building varies widely.

In internally loaded buildings the cooling load is mainly due to internal heat
generating sources such as occupants or appliances or processes. In general
the heat generation due to internal heat sources may remain fairly constant,
and since the heat transfer from the variable surroundings is much less
compared to the internal heat sources, the cooling load of an internally loaded
building remains fairly constant.

Obviously from energy efficiency and economics points of view, the system
design strategy for an externally loaded building should be different from an
internally loaded building. Hence, prior knowledge of whether the building is
externally loaded or internally loaded is essential for effective system design.

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9.2.1-Estimation of external loads:
a)Heat transfer through opaque surfaces: This is a sensible heat transfer
process. The heat transfer rate through opaque surfaces such as
walls, roof, floor, doors etc. is given by:

------------------------------9-1
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and A is the heat transfer
area of the surface on the side of the conditioned space. CLTD is the
cooling load temperature difference.
For sunlit surfaces, CLTD has to be obtained from the CLTD tables.
Adjustment to the values obtained from the table is needed if actual
conditions are different from those based on which the CLTD tables are
prepared.
For surfaces which are not sunlit or which have negligible thermal mass (such
as doors), the CLTD value is simply equal to the temperature difference across
the wall or roof. For example, for external doors the CLTD value is simply equal to
the difference between the design outdoor and indoor dry bulb temperatures,
Tout-Tin.

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For interior air conditioned rooms surrounded by non-air conditioned spaces,
the CLTD of the interior walls is equal to the temperature difference between
the surrounding non-air conditioned space and the conditioned space.
Obviously, if an air conditioned room is surrounded by other air conditioned
rooms, with all of them at the same temperature, the CLTD values of the walls
of the interior room will be zero.

Estimation of CLTD values of floor and roof with false ceiling could be tricky. For
floors standing on ground, one has to use the temperature of the ground for
estimating CLTD. However, the ground temperature depends on the location and
varies with time. ASHRAE suggests suitable temperature difference values for
estimating heat transfer through ground. If the floor stands on a basement or on
the roof of another room, then the CLTD values for the floor are the
temperature difference across the floor (i.e., difference between the
temperature of the basement or room below and the conditioned space).

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This discussion also holds good for roofs which have non-air conditioned rooms
above them. For sunlit roofs with false ceiling, the U value may be obtained by
assuming the false ceiling to be an air space. However, the CLTD values obtained
from the tables may not exactly fit the specific roof. Then one has to use his
judgment and select suitable CLTD values.

b) Heat transfer through fenestration: Heat transfer through transparent

surface such as a window, includes heat transfer by conduction due to
temperature difference across the window and heat transfer due to solar
radiation through the window. The heat transfer through the window by
conduction is calculated using Eq.(9-1), with CLTD being equal to the
temperature difference across the window and A equal to the total area of
the window.

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The heat transfer due to solar radiation through the window is given by:

------------------------------9-2

where Aunshaded is the area exposed to solar radiation, SHGFmax and SC

are the maximum Solar Heat Gain Factor and Shading Coefficient,
respectively, and CLF is the Cooling Load Factor. The un-shaded area
has to be obtained from the dimensions of the external shade and solar
geometry. SHGFmax and SC are obtained from ASHRAE tables based on
the orientation of the window, location, month of the year and the type
of glass and internal shading device.

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The Cooling Load Factor (CLF) accounts for the fact that all the radiant
energy that enters the conditioned space at a particular time does not
become a part of the cooling load instantly. As solar radiation enters the
conditioned space, only a negligible portion of it is absorbed by the air
particles in the conditioned space instantaneously leading to a minute
change in its temperature. Most of the radiation is first absorbed by the
internal surfaces, which include ceiling, floor, internal walls, furniture etc.
Due to the large but finite thermal capacity of the roof, floor, walls etc.,
their temperature increases slowly due to absorption of solar radiation.
As the surface temperature increases, heat transfer takes place between
these surfaces and the air in the conditioned space.

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Depending upon the thermal capacity of the wall and the outside
temperature, some of the absorbed energy due to solar radiation may be
conducted to the outer surface and may be lost to the outdoors. Only that
fraction of the solar radiation that is transferred to the air in the
conditioned space becomes a load on the building, the heat transferred to
the outside is not a part of the cooling load.

Thus it can be seen that the radiation heat transfer introduces a time lag
and also a decrement factor depending upon the dynamic characteristics of
the surfaces. Due to the time lag, the effect of radiation will be felt even
when the source of radiation, in this case the sun is removed. The CLF
values for various surfaces have been calculated as functions of solar time
and orientation and are available in the form of tables in ASHRAE
Handbooks. Table 9-2 gives typical CLF values for glass with interior
shading

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Table 9-2: Cooling Load Factor (CLF) for glass with interior shading and
located in north latitudes (ASHRAE)

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c) Heat transfer due to infiltration: Heat transfer due to infiltration consists
of both sensible as well as latent components. The sensible heat transfer
rate due to infiltration is given by:

---------9-3

where Vo is the infiltration rate ( in m3/s), ρo and cp,m are the density and
specific heat of the moist, infiltrated air, respectively. To and Ti are the
outdoor and indoor dry bulb temperatures.

The latent heat transfer rate due to infiltration is given by:

------------
9-4

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where hfg is the latent heat of vaporization of water, Wo and Wi are the outdoor
and indoor humidity ratio, respectively.
As discussed the infiltration rate depends upon several factors such as the
tightness of the building that includes the walls, windows, doors etc and the
prevailing wind speed and direction. As mentioned before, the infiltration rate
is obtained by using the air change method,and is given by:

-----------9-5

where ACH is the number of air changes per hour and V is the gross volume
of the conditioned space in m3.

For modern buildings the ACH value may be as low as 0.2 ACH. Thus
depending upon the age and condition of the building an appropriate ACH
value has to be chose, using which the infiltration rate can be calculated.

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d) Miscellaneous external loads: In addition to the above loads, if the
cooling coil has a positive by-pass factor (BPF > 0), then some amount of
ventilation air directly enters the conditioned space, in which case it
becomes a part of the building cooling load. The sensible and latent heat
transfer rates due to the by-passed ventilation air can be calculated using
equations (9-3) and (9-4) by replacing

with
where
is the ventilation rate and BPF is the by-pass factor of the
cooling coil.

In addition to this, sensible and latent heat transfer to the building also
occurs due to heat transfer and air leakage in the supply ducts. A safety
factor is usually provided to account for this depending upon the specific
details of the supply air ducts

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If the supply duct consists of supply air fan with motor, then power input to the fan
becomes a part of the external sensible load on the building. If the duct consists of
the electric motor, which drives the fan, then the efficiency of the fan motor also
must be taken into account while calculating the cooling load. Most of the times, the
power input to the fan is not known a priori as the amount of supply air required is
not known at this stage. To take this factor into account, initially it is assumed that
the supply fan adds about 5% of the room sensible cooling load and cooling loads are
then estimated. Then this value is corrected in the end when the actual fan selection
is done.

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9.2.2- Estimation of internal loads:
The internal loads consist of load due to occupants, due to lighting, due to
equipment and appliances and due to products stored or processes being
performed in the conditioned space.

a-Load due to occupants: The internal cooling load due to occupants

consists of both sensible and latent heat components. The rate at which
the sensible and latent heat transfer take place depends mainly on the
population and activity level of the occupants. Since a portion of the heat
transferred by the occupants is in the form of radiation, a Cooling Load
Factor (CLF) should be used similar to that used for radiation heat
transfer through fenestration. Thus the sensible heat transfer to the
conditioned space due to the occupants is given by the equation

--------9-6

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Table 9.3 shows typical values of total heat gain from the occupants and
also the sensible heat gain fraction as a function of activity in an air
conditioned space. However, it should be noted that the fraction of the
total heat gain that is sensible depends on the conditions of the indoor
environment. If the conditioned space temperature is higher, then the
fraction of total heat gain that is sensible decreases and the latent heat
gain increases, and vice versa.
The value of Cooling Load Factor (CLF) for occupants depends on the
hours after the entry of the occupants into the conditioned space, the
total hours spent in the conditioned space and type of the building.
Values of CLF have been obtained for different types of buildings and
have been tabulated in ASHRAE handbooks.
The latent heat gain due to occupants is given by:
(CLF) -------9-7

Since the latent heat gain from the occupants is instantaneous the
CLF for latent heat gain is 1.0.

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Table.9-3: Total heat gain, sensible heat gain fraction from occupants

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b-Load due to lighting: Lighting adds sensible heat to the conditioned space.
Since the heat transferred from the lighting system consists of both radiation
and convection, a Cooling Load Factor is used to account for the time lag.
Thus the cooling load due to lighting system is given by:

---------9-8

The usage factor accounts for any lamps that are installed but are not
switched on at the time at which load calculations are performed. The ballast
factor takes into account the load imposed by ballasts used in fluorescent
lights. A typical ballast factor value of 1.25 is taken for fluorescent lights,
while it is equal to 1.0 for incandescent lamps. The values of CLF as a
function of the number of hours after the lights are turned on, type of lighting
fixtures and the hours of operation of the lights are available in the form of
tables in ASHRAE handbooks.

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c-Internal loads due to equipment and appliances: The equipment and
appliances used in the conditioned space may add both sensible as well as
latent loads to the conditioned space. Again, the sensible load may be in
the form of radiation and/or convection. Thus the internal sensible load due
to equipment and appliances is given by:

-------9-9

The installed wattage and usage factor depend on the type of the
appliance or equipment. The CLF values are available in the form of tables
in ASHARE handbooks.

The latent load due to appliances is given by:

---------9-10

Table 9.4 shows typical load of various types of appliances

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Table 9-4: Typical appliance load .

For other equipment such as computers, printers etc, the load is in the
form of sensible heat transfer and is estimated based on the rated power
consumption. The CLF value for these equipment may be taken as 1.0 as
the radiative heat transfer from these equipment is generally negligible
due to smaller operating temperatures. When the equipment are run by
electric motors which are also kept inside the conditioned space, then the
efficiency of the electric motor must be taken into account.

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9.3 Estimation of the cooling capacity of the system:
In order to find the required cooling capacity of the system, one has to
take into account the sensible and latent loads due to ventilation, leakage
losses in the return air ducts and heat added due to return air fan (if any).
9.3.1. Load on the system due to ventilated air:

Figure 9.1 shows a schematic of an air conditioning system with the

cooling coil, supply and return ducts, ventilation and fans. The cooling coil
has a by-pass factor X. Then the cooling load on the coil due to sensible
heat transfer of the ventilated air is given by:

-------9-11

The latent heat load on the coil due to ventilation is given by:
------9-12

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 Fig.9.1: Atypical summer air conditioning system with a cooling coil of
non-zero by-pass factor.

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9.3.2. Load on the coil due to leakage in return air duct and due to return
air fan:
If there is leakage of air and heat from or to the return air duct, additional
capacity has to be provided by the cooling coil to take care of this. The
sensible heat transfer to the return duct due to heat transfer from the
surroundings to the return duct depends on the surface area of the duct
that is exposed to outside air (Aexposed), amount of insulation (Uins) and
temperature difference between outdoor air and return air, i.e.,

--------9-13

The amount of sensible and latent heat transfer rates due to air leakage
from or to the system depends on the effectiveness of the sealing
provided and the condition of the outdoor air and return air.

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Since the load due to return air duct including the return air fan (Qreturn duct)
are not known a priori an initial value (e.g. as a fraction of total building
cooling load) is assumed and calculations are performed. This value is
modified at the end by taking into account the actual leakage losses and
return fan power consumption.
Now the total sensible load on the coil (Qs,c) is obtained by summing up the
total sensible load on the building (Qs,r), sensible load due to ventilation
(Qs,vent) and sensible load due to return air duct and fan (Qs,retrun duct), that is:

--------9-14

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 Similarly the total latent load on the coil (Ql,c) is obtained by summing up
the total latent load on the building (Ql.r), latent load due to ventilation
(Ql,vent) and latent load due to return air duct and fan (Ql,retrun duct), that is

------------9-
15
Finally the required cooling capacity of the system which is equal to the
total load on the coil is obtained from the equation

------------9-
16
A suitable safety factor is normally used in the end to account for
uncertainties in occupants, equipment, external infiltration, external
conditions etc. This relatively simple method offers reasonably accurate
results for most of the buildings.

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Example9. 1 :- An air conditioned room that stands on a well ventilated basement measures 3
m wide, 3 m high and 6 m deep. One of the two 3 m walls faces west and contains a double
glazed glass window of size 1.5 m by 1.5 m, mounted flush with the wall with no external
shading. There are no heat gains through the walls other than the one facing west. Calculate
the sensible, latent and total heat gains on the room, room sensible heat factor from the
following information. What is the required cooling capacity?
Inside conditions : 25oC dry bulb, 50 percent RH
Outside conditions : 43oC dry bulb, 24oC wet bulb
U-value for wall : 1.78 W/m2.K
U-value for roof : 1.316 W/m2.K
U-value for floor : 1.2 W/m2.K
Effective Temp. Difference (ETD) for wall: 25oC
Effective Temp. Difference (ETD) for roof: 30oC
U-value for glass ; 3.12 W/m2.K
Solar Heat Gain (SHG) of glass ; 300 W/m2
Internal Shading Coefficient (SC) of glass: 0.86
Occupancy : 4 (90 W sensible heat/person)
(40 W latent heat/person)
Lighting load : 33 W/m2 of floor area
Appliance load : 600 W (Sensible) + 300 W(latent)
Infiltration : 0.5 Air Changes per Hour

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