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 A Color Guide to the Petrography
of Sandstones, Siltstones, Shales
and Associated Rocks

Memoir 109

By

Dana S. Ulmer-Scholle, Peter A. Scholle,

Juergen Schieber and Robert J. Raine

Published by

The American Association of Petroleum Geologists

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 ii
Copyright © 2014
By the American Association of Petroleum Geologists
All Rights Reserved

ISBN: 978-0-89181-389-7

AAPG grants permission for a single photocopy of an item from this publication for personal use. Authorization
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AAPG Editor: Michael L. Sweet

AAPG Geoscience Director: James B. Blankenship

COVER: Primary and secondary porosity within a volcanic arenite from Pliocene–Pleistocene Gila Group from
southern New Mexico.

This publication is available from:

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 iii

The American Association

of Petroleum Geologists

Elected Editor
Michael L. Sweet, Houston, Texas

Geosciences Director
James B. Blankenship, Tulsa, Oklahoma

Books Editorial Committee

Chief Books Editor and Publications Committee Chair
Colin P. North, Aberdeen, Scotland

Association Books Editors

Timothy Diggs, Houston, Texas
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The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Books Refereeing Procedures

The Association makes every effort to ensure that the scientific and production quality of its books matches
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 Table of Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................... viii
Foldout Michel-Lévy birefringence color chart ............................ xvii
Grains
Chapter 1: Quartz and silica ................................................................ 1
Monocrystalline .......................................................................................... 3
Polycrystalline ............................................................................................ 12
Chapter 2: Feldspars ............................................................................ 19
Plagioclase .................................................................................................. 21
Potassium feldspars ................................................................................... 30
Chapter 3: Rock fragments .................................................................. 39
Sedimentary rock fragments ................................................................... 40
Metamorphic rock fragments .................................................................. 55
Igneous rock fragments ............................................................................ 65
Chapter 4: Accessory minerals ............................................................ 79
Light minerals
Muscovite ................................................................................................ 81
Biotite ...................................................................................................... 83
Chlorite ................................................................................................... 85
Ultrastable heavy minerals
Zircon, tourmaline and rutile ................................................................ 87
Intermediate-stability heavy minerals
Apatite ..................................................................................................... 92
Epidote .................................................................................................... 93
Zoisite and clinozoisite ........................................................................... 94
Garnet ...................................................................................................... 95
Kyanite .................................................................................................... 97
Monzonite, sillimanite and staurolite ................................................... 98
Titanite .................................................................................................... 99
Unstable heavy minerals
Amphibole, pyroxene and olivine ......................................................... 100
Opaque minerals ....................................................................................... 104
Chapter 5: Associated detrital grains and rocks ................................ 107
Carbonate grains ....................................................................................... 110
Siliceous grains and rocks ........................................................................ 113
Phosphatic grains and rocks .................................................................... 118
Organic grains and rocks ......................................................................... 124
Evaporite grains and rocks ...................................................................... 128
Green marine clays and rocks ................................................................. 133
Green marine clays and ironstones ........................................................ 135
Iron-rich grains and iron formations ..................................................... 137
Tuffaceous deposits .................................................................................... 139
Texture and Classification
Chapter 6: Sand and sandstone textures ......................................... 147
Chapter 7: Sandstone classification ................................................. 167

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 Mudrocks
Chapter 8: Siltstones, mudstones, claystones and shales ................. 181
Diagenesis ................................................................................................. 213
Chapter 9: Synsedimentary and surficial diagenetic features .......... 215
Chapter 10: Compaction ...................................................................... 227
Chapter 11: Cementation - Introduction / Quartz and silica ............ 245
Quartz overgrowths .......................................................................................... 250
Polycrystalline quartz cements ...................................................................... 258
Amorphous silica cements ............................................................................... 261
Chapter 12: Cementation - Feldspars ...................................................... 265
Chapter 13: Cementation - Clays ............................................................. 273
Chamosite ............................................................................................................. 276
Glauconite ............................................................................................................. 277
Kaolinite/dickite .................................................................................................. 278
Smectite and illite/smectite .............................................................................. 284
Illite/sericite .......................................................................................................... 286
Chlorite .................................................................................................................. 290
Chapter 14: Cementation - Zeolites ......................................................... 297
Chapter 15: Cementation - Carbonates .................................................. 309
Calcite ..................................................................................................................... 313
Siderite ................................................................................................................... 322
Dolomite .................................................................................................................. 326
Ankerite ................................................................................................................. 329
Chapter 16: Cementation - Sulfates and halides .................................... 335
Gypsum .................................................................................................................... 338
Anhydrite ................................................................................................................ 339
Barite ........................................................................................................................ 341
Celestite and halite ............................................................................................... 343
Chapter 17: Cementation - Iron oxides and sulfides ............................ 347
Chapter 18: Cementation - Other cements ............................................. 361
Chapter 19: Dissolution ........................................................................ 373
Chapter 20: Replacement and recrystallization ................................. 395
Feldspars ..................................................................................................... 399
Carbonates .................................................................................................. 405
Sulfates ........................................................................................................ 406
Other ............................................................................................................ 409
Chapter 21: Deformation features ....................................................... 419
Other topics
Chapter 22: Porosity ....................................................................... 443
Chapter 23: Paragenesis ................................................................. 467
Chapter 24: Emerging techniques ................................................... 481
Glossary ............................................................................................. 495
Index .................................................................................................. 507

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 vi

About the Authors

Dana S. Ulmer-Scholle
Scholle Petrographic, LLC, P. O. Box 386, Socorro, NM 87825 U. S. A.
(e-mail: [email protected])

Dana developed an early love for geology while growing up on the classic
Upper Ordovician outcrops around Cincinnati, Ohio. She received a B.S. de-
gree in 1981 from the University of Cincinnati. Dana completed a M.S. degree
(1983) at Southern Methodist University working on the Mississippian Arroyo
Peñasco Group of New Mexico. After a stint working for ARCO Exploration
Co., she returned to SMU for a Ph.D. (1992). Her dissertation research concen-
trated on evaporite-related diagenesis in upper Paleozoic carbonate rocks from
New Mexico, Wyoming and Greenland.
Dana has worked, or consulted, for a number of companies including Amoco
Oil and Gas Co., ARCO Exploration, ARCO International, Mobil Research, and
Maersk Oil and Gas. Currently, she is the co-owner of Scholle Petrographic,
LLC, a petrographic consulting company. Dana is also an Associate Research
Professor at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. She teaches carbonate-related courses including
petrography and depositional/diagenetic models. Her research interests include CO2 sequestration in carbonate and
siliciclastic systems, carbonate sedimentology and diagenesis, petrography, low-temperature isotope and trace element
geochemistry, fluid inclusion analysis and fluid flow histories in sedimentary rocks. While at New Mexico Tech, she
has also been involved in environmental investigations that include heavy-metals bioremediation and fate-and-trans-
port of heavy minerals in the environment. She is the author, coauthor or editor on numerous papers, reports, books
and CD-ROMs with AAPG Memoir 77 receiving the Robert H. Dott, Sr., Memorial Award (2005).

Peter A. Scholle
Scholle Petrographic, LLC, P. O. Box 386, Socorro, NM 87825 U. S. A.
(e-mail: [email protected])
Peter received his B.S. in geology from Yale University in 1965. After a year at
the University of Munich in Germany, and another year at the University of Texas
at Austin, he received a Ph.D. in geology from Princeton University in 1970. His
dissertation work, on deep-water carbonate turbidites in the Italian Apennines, was
supervised by Al Fischer.
Peter’s professional employment included state and federal government, the
petroleum industry, and academia. He worked for five years for various oil com-
panies (Cities Service, Gulf and Chevron) and consulted for other oil companies
for many years. Nine years were spent with the U. S. Geological Survey in Reston
(VA) and Denver (CO), including three years as chief of the Oil and Gas Branch.
He taught at the University of Texas at Dallas for three years and was Albritton
Professor of Geology at Southern Methodist University in Dallas from 1985 to
1999. From 1999-2011, he was the New Mexico State Geologist and director
of the New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources. He is now the
co-owner of Scholle Petrographic, LLC.
Peter has devoted much of his time to carbonate research and writing. His major interests are in deepwater carbon-
ates (especially chalks) as well as the diagenesis and petroleum potential of Permian rocks in many areas of the world.
He has worked in nearly 30 countries and has written, coauthored, or edited nine books, about 200 papers and abstracts,
23 CD-ROMs, and a number of other computer or audio-visual products. Peter has been a member of AAPG and
SEPM since 1976-77. He was an AAPG Distinguished Lecturer (1975-76) and received the AAPG President’s award
twice, the Sproule Memorial Award, the AAPG Certificate of Merit and the AGI Ian Campbell Medal for Superlative
Service to the Geosciences (2013). He served as president and special publications editor of SEPM and is an honorary
member of that society. He was also president of AGI and AASG (the Association of American State Geologists).

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 vii
Juergen Schieber
Indiana University, Department of Geological Sciences, 1001 E. 10th St.,
Bloomington, Indiana, 47405, U.S.A. (e-mail: [email protected])

Juergen received a B.S. degree (1978) in geology from the University

of Tübingen, Germany and a Ph.D. (1985) in geology from the Univer-
sity of Oregon where he worked on the relationship between basin evo-
lution and the genesis of stratiform sulfide deposits of mid-Proterozoic
sediments of central Montana. He is a Professor of Geology at Indiana
University (2002-present) and previously worked at the University of
Texas-Arlington (1996-2002).
Juergen is a specialist on shales. He has published extensively (100
papers, 20 guidebook chapters, two books, 215 conference abstracts) and
has been an invited lecturer at universities in the US, Canada, Europe and
Asia, at research organizations, industry short courses and symposia. His
research interests include: basin analysis and sedimentology, sedimentol-
ogy of shales, the genesis of black shales and sediment-hosted mineral deposits, evolution of the Belt Basin and the
Devonian basins of the eastern US, geochemistry of sediments and planetary geology and sedimentary geology of Mars.
Juergen is a member of the science team that currently explores the geology of Gale Crater on Mars with NASA’s Cu-
riosity rover.
Juergen’s research is characterized by a holistic approach to shales; integrating field studies (facies, stratigraphy)
with lab studies (thin sections, electron microscopy and geochemistry) in order to understand the various factors that are
involved in the formation of shales. A key area of focus for his work is the experimental study of shale sedimentology
via flume studies and related work. Funding for his research is provided by government agencies (NSF, DOE, NASA),
foundations (Petroleum Research Fund), and industry via the Indiana University Shale Research Consortium (Exx-
onMobil, Anadarko, Marathon, Shell, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, Wintershall, Whiting, Statoil) and separate research
agreements (Schlumberger/TerraTek; Pioneer Natural Resources). He consults on matters pertaining to shale sedimen-
tology, shale fabric and pore structure, and also teaches short courses on shale sedimentology and facies analysis, as
well as microscope-based petrography.

Robert J. Raine
Geological Survey of Northern Ireland, Belfast, Ireland, United Kingdom
BT9 5BF (email: [email protected])

Rob graduated in 2003 with an M.S. degree in geology from the University
of Birmingham and remained there to study for a Ph.D. in geology. He studied
the Cambrian and Ordovician carbonate sedimentology and stratigraphy of
Laurentian passive margin sediments in northwest Scotland. During this
time, he was also the assistant curator for the Lapworth Museum of Geology
and took time out to work as a museum conservator.
In 2008, Rob joined Ichron Limited as a sedimentologist and petrographer
and conducted studies on marine, lacustrine and terrestrial sediments from
India, Sri Lanka, Algeria and the UK and Norwegian sectors of the North
Sea. He also led a number of field trips for oil companies to Portugal and
Yorkshire and core logging courses in India.
Rob recently joined the Geological Survey of Northern Ireland as a
petroleum and energy geologist to provide scientific support to the Department
of Enterprise, Trade and Investment on petroleum licenses and to conduct research to promote the petroleum and
geothermal exploration potential of Northern Ireland. His main research interests are peritidal carbonates and evaporites
in mixed carbonate siliciclastic settings, peritidal and lacustrine microbialites, reservoir quality and diagenesis of fluvial
and eolian sediments, Permian and Triassic rocks and geoarcheology.

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 viii Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Introduction
This book covers the microscopic study of sand- in oil and gas recovery from “unconventional” reser-
stones, mudstones and associated lithologies but ex- voirs, has also led to remarkable new insights and dis-
cludes carbonate rocks which were covered in AAPG coveries, many of them made using light and electron
Memoir 77 (Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle, 2003). Sand- microscopy. When looking at sandstones and carbon-
stone petrography, and sedimentary petrography in gen- ate rocks, outcrops can be counted on to provide a wide
eral, is considered by many to be a science in decline. array of interesting observations. Features that inform
As a consequence, it is being taught at fewer univer- about transport processes, sedimentary environments,
sities, or at least commonly is subsumed into broader and depositional history are readily observed and by the
petrology or sedimentology classes, where it receives time we move on from those outcrops, we have arrived
less time and less focus. at some preliminary rock assessments. Fine-grained
In reality, however, the petrography of clastic terrig- rocks, on the other hand, typically are not very impres-
enous rocks remains a vital area of study, contributing to sive in outcrop, because they weather easily and turn
both academic and applied economic discoveries. It is into a crumbly mass. When examined in thin section
a science in transition, however. In the mid-20th centu- and SEM, however, shales truly reveal their character.
ry, the research focus was largely on the use of textural More than 100 years ago, H. C. Sorby (1908) ob-
properties to define mechanisms of transport, environ- served that “examination in a natural condition is
ments of deposition and the use of grain identification enough to show that the structure of clays differs enor-
and rock classification to shed light on source terranes, mously, and indicates formation under very different
paleoclimates and paleotectonic settings. Since that conditions; but there is always some doubt as to their
time, the research forefront has shifted to studies of di- true structure, when not made into thin sections”. On
agenesis in sandstones and to an increased understand- this score nothing has changed.
ing of the finer-grained terrigenous rocks—siltstones,
In a well-prepared thin section of a shale, one can
mudstones and shales (see, for example, the insightful
easily observe a variety of layers and multiple rock
historical review by Steel and Milliken, 2013). That
types in spatial context and with high detail on contact
transition has been driven largely by the fact that hydro-
relationships. With these observations, one can then
carbon exploration has shifted to deeper targets, more
proceed to derive critical insights about depositional
stratigraphic traps and unconventional, finer-grained
processes and environments from a few square centi-
reservoir rocks.
meters of cross-section. A well-chosen thin section of
The shift in focus for petrography has led to amazing a shale unit has the potential to deliver as much sedi-
discoveries regarding the character and extent of diage- mentologic insight as one might be able to derive from
netic processes as well as to the development of predic- an entire outcrop of sandstones and carbonates. When
tive models of subsurface alteration and porosity reten- working with shales, thin sections and SEM views are
tion, loss or creation. At the same time, the increased indispensable for developing an understanding of dep-
recognition of the significance of subsurface alteration ositional processes, environments of deposition and di-
has forced a reevaluation of long-established principles agenetic history.
of sandstone provenance based on petrographically-de-
The focus on fine-grained rocks, on diagenetic
termined sediment composition. Composition is now
concerns and on subsurface studies, has proceeded
much more clearly understood to be not just a product
hand-in-hand with remarkable scientific and
of its source terrane as modified by the impacts of surfi-
instrumental advances in analytical chemistry. That,
cial weathering and the rigors of transport and deposi-
in turn, has made petrography less of a “stand-alone”
tion. Diagenesis has taken a prominent place as at least
science and more of a “team sport”. Various flavors
an equal partner in controlling the ultimate composition
of electron microscopy have extended the reach of
of sandstones through the burial-associated processes
petrographic examination into the submicron range.
of dissolution and replacement (Table 1).
More sophisticated and automated x-ray diffraction,
The studies of fine-grained terrigenous deposits microprobe, ion probe, cathodoluminescence and other
(shales and siltstones), driven in part by the revolution analytical techniques, along with laser ablation and

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 Introduction ix

Table 1: Major stages in the life of sands and sandstones

(factors that influence ultimate rock composition and make
provenance determinations progressively more difficult)

Birth: Source area conditions

Meet the parents—the initial influence is the source-rock composition and pre-exposure (in-vitro)
alteration. Selective weathering, breakage and erosion, along with tectonic, topographic and
climatic influences, further shape initial sediment composition.

Leaving home: Transport

Fracturing, abrasion and geochemical alteration, along with sorting and mixing, selectively alter
sediments. Possible interim deposition or exposure events (again, with strong tectonic/topographic
and climatic controls) can produce further changes.

Settling down: Deposition

Continued weathering and abrasion occurs in terrestrial settings; localized sea-floor diagenesis
occurs in marine settings; potential addition of locally-derived intraclasts, carbonate skeletal or
oolitic components along with formation of associated chemical/biochemical deposits (limestones,
cherts, evaporites, greensands or ironstones).

A first job: Early burial (gen. < 500 m [1,600 ft] burial and temperatures <40°C)
Considerable dewatering and compaction; potential pedogenic, meteoric, brine, or mixed-water
diagenetic alterations (partial to complete dissolution of unstable minerals; selective cementation,
and/or replacement, especially by calcite, dolomite or siderite, with kaolinite, chlorite and, in
some settings, zeolites). Biogenic (microbial) alteration of organic matter in some cases.

Growing maturity: Intermediate burial (0.5-2.5 km [1,600-8,200 ft]; temperatures 40 to

100°C)
Lesser compaction but accelerated diagenetic alterations (increased cementation by quartz and
illitic clays; partial dissolution and/or replacement of unstable calcic and potassium feldspars,
smectitic clays and unstable to moderately stable heavy minerals). Thermochemical alteration of
opal to opal-CT. Onset of thermochemical hydrocarbon generation.

Creeping senility: Deep burial (typically 2.5-10 km [8,200-33,000 ft] with temperatures of
100 to 250°C)
Extensive dissolution of remaining unstable feldspars and heavy minerals; near-complete
transformation of smectite to illite (and neoformation of pure illite); kaolinite transformation to
dickite or illite; overall formation of a stable and fully lithified quartz, albite, illite assemblage
or, in some cases, conversion to a “diagenetic quartzarenite”. Completion of conversion of opal-
CT sediments to quartz (chert or chalcedony). Peak to end of thermochemical hydrocarbon
generation and thermochemical sulfate reduction (with potential for calcite dissolution and
saddle dolomite formation).

Off to the crematorium (or back to the surface for reincarnation): Burial to >10 km (33,000
ft) and temperatures >250°C
Onset of low-grade metamorphism with chlorite and mica formation. Or uplift and perhaps
ultimate exposure and erosion.

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 x Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

other microsampling methods, allow acquisition of About This Book

geochemical data at a microscopic scale.
Sedimentary petrography is an art as much as it is
Yet as undeniably useful and sophisticated as these
a science. At its core, you need to be able to differ-
techniques are, petrography (at light and electron
entiate grains, matrix, cements and pores and each of
imaging levels) remains the underlying science that
those components are covered in one or more chapters
informs these analytical studies—in its simplest form,
that are illustrated with numerous photomicrographs.
you need to know exactly what you are analyzing before
Quartz, feldspar and rock fragments dominate most
the analysis can make much sense. For example, is
sandstones and siltstones, and the identification of the
the material detrital or authigenic? This has become
many varieties of these grains occupies a major part of
especially important in an era when improvements in
the book. There also are many accessory minerals that
microscale imaging and analysis allow elemental and
should be identified in any useful petrographic study, so
isotopic studies of small portions of single grains; for
the most important and common of those minerals are
example, the detrital core and authigenic overgrowths
covered as well.
on even silt-sized or finer material.
Grain identifications provide an understanding of
Overall, petrography benefits enormously from the
sediment provenance. Beyond that, one needs to under-
wide range of analytical data available today, ranging
stand the textural parameters of sedimentary deposits
from routine bulk x-ray data to detailed spectral chem-
(size, sorting, rounding, and others) and to distinguish
ical analysis, to more sophisticated (and expensive)
detrital matrix from pseudomatrix and precipitated
studies such as radiometric or fission-track dating of
clays. With those topics covered, one will have the
clays and stable, detrital heavy minerals including zir-
information needed to understand how clastic terrige-
con, tourmaline and apatite. Such analyses can assign
nous deposits are classified (and why there have been
well-defined ages to specific events in a paragenetic se-
so many different approaches to their classification, es-
quence and provide quantitative information about the
pecially in the “era of nomenclatural searching” [the
age and composition of source rocks.
1950s-1970s]). Finally, the complexities of diagenesis,
Petrography also still crucially and fundamentally once poorly understood or largely confined to studies
informs much applied day-to-day work in the petro- of near surface alteration, are now far better understood
leum industry. To give a specific example of the val- although much still remains to be learned. So chapters
ue of the “teaming” of petrography and geochemistry on compaction, cementation, dissolution and replace-
to applied sedimentology, take a hypothetical x-ray ment will help one to understand diagenetic products
or spectral geochemical result for a fine-grained rock and the important distinctions between primary and
sample: 48% quartz, 7% plagioclase feldspar, 3% or- secondary porosity.
thoclase feldspar, 3% calcite, 39% combined clays. So
There are a variety of useful resources in this book,
what is all that quartz and from where does it come? Is
beyond the numerous photographs. General utility ta-
it mainly detrital quartz grains, detrital quartz-rich rock
bles showing standard grain-size and sorting terminol-
fragments, altered planktic organisms (radiolarians or
ogy, along with visual comparators for sorting, shape
diatoms), microcrystalline quartz (chert), quartz over-
and rounding of grains, are found in Chapter 6. A com-
growth cement or yet something else? You will never
parison chart for visual grain percentage estimation is
know what that quartz means unless you do petrogra-
provided at the end of this introduction. A glossary is
phy, and in terms of rock fracability and hydrocarbon
located near the back of the book, and it supplies defi-
production it very much matters what form the quartz
nitions for many of the technical terms used throughout
takes. And what about the clays? Are they detrital
the volume. Considerable effort also went into creating
matrix in a poorly-sorted sandstone, are they squashed
a thorough index that should allow you to quickly find
sedimentary rock fragments or are they diagenetic pre-
the information that matches your interest. Finally, a
cipitates? Such knowledge makes a difference in ex-
Michel-Lévy foldout color chart at the end of this intro-
ploration models, and is impossible to acquire without
duction provides accurate birefringence colors for most
petrography.
minerals found in sedimentary rocks.

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 Introduction xi

The overarching purpose of this book is not to be a A word about the photography in this book — unlike
textbook in sedimentology, but to be a pictorial guide Memoir 28, the predecessor to this volume, the photo-
to microscopic studies — that is, to provide you with graphs in this book were almost entirely taken in digital
annotated illustrations of the grains, matrix, cements, formats (even in the relatively few photos that show
pores, fabrics and textures of clastic terrigenous rocks the same field of view as in Memoir 28 were generally
so that you can learn to recognize these features your- rephotographed in digital format). Digital photography
self. We have tried to provide good and clear, but not has revolutionized petrographic documentation, allow-
exceptional, examples in our pictures so that what you ing one to photograph features at much lower light lev-
see in the book will be most like what you will see in els. The digital format also allows later manipulation
the rocks you are studying. However, this book is not a of images in software such as Adobe Photoshop. In the
treatise on optical microscopy or mineralogy, and those interest of full disclosure, it should be said that almost
who have no experience in either of those subjects may all images in this book have had minor color correc-
want to look at some of the references given at the end tion, contrast correction or cropping to bring the pho-
of this introduction. It is not absolutely necessary to tographs into line with what was actually seen under
have formal knowledge about either subject, but some the microscope. Plane and cross-polarized light photos
background certainly helps. have been digitally combined into side-by-side pairs, a
It is important to note that this book is directed pri- process that would be far more difficult with film. In
marily towards recognition and identification of the some cases, irrelevant and distracting blemishes such
components of clastic terrigenous sediments and only as gas bubbles in the thin sections, were removed, but
secondarily toward interpretation. In that regard, it only when doing so did not change any of the critical
parallels its companion volume on carbonate rocks. features in the photograph.
The features that allow you to identify source terranes
for eroded material or to distinguish primary (detrital)
from secondary (diagenetic) materials are illustrated
and discussed. However, full interpretation of all the
grains and fabrics shown is simply beyond the scope Explanation of Picture Captions
of this book, especially because many such interpreta-
tions remain quite controversial. So a list of relevant Each photograph in this book has a caption in stan-
citations is provided at the end of each section. They dard format. The top lines in bold text give the strati-
have been chosen to contain a mix of papers: topical graphic unit and geologic age followed by a generalized
overviews, specific scientific studies, and studies that location (typically the region, province or state and, if
have applied the kinds of data covered in that section not from the U.S.A., the country of origin). The main
to broader geological problems. The overview papers, part of the caption describes the image and is followed,
in particular, are worth reading because they provide at the bottom of the caption box, by lighting, special
many additional references that will take you further techniques, staining, impregnation and scale informa-
into the subject matter. tion.
Likewise, there is a section at the end of the book The following caption abbreviations and
that illustrates some of the analytical techniques, mi- scale bar codes are used: Stratigraphic units are ab-
croscopic, geochemical and other, that complement and breviated with Gp. for Group, Fm. for Formation and
commonly are combined with petrography. That sec- Mbr. for Member, and stratigraphic ages are abbrevi-
tion simply gives a hint as to the rich panoply of tools ated with Lo. for Lower, Mid. for Middle and Up. for
that exist — whole books have been written on many Upper.
of these techniques, so we clearly cannot do justice to
those subjects. Therefore, we have provided referenc- This symbol † at the end of the stratigraphic infor-
es for your use in filling in the gigantic gaps we have mation designates an image that was kindly contributed
left. Photographs using some of the more directly pe- by Ichron Limited.
trographic techniques, such as cathodoluminescence
or fluorescence microscopy, are shown throughout the
book.

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 xii Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Standard microscopic illumination BSE(SEM) – Back-scattered electron

imaging (on SEM)
PPL – Transmitted, plane-polarized
light BSE(MP) – Back-scattered electron
imaging (on microprobe)
XPL – Transmitted, cross-polarized
light SE-CCI(SEM) – Secondary electron /
charged secondary electron imaging
PXPL – Transmitted, partially cross- (on SEM)
polarized light
CCI(SEM) – Charged secondary
RL – Incident reflected light (using a electron imaging (on SEM)
reflected light microscope)
ORL – Oblique reflected light (using an
Most of the cathodoluminescence photomicro-
external light source adjacent to a graphs for this volume were taken with a Gatan Chro-
transmitted light microscope) ma CL system on a FEI QuantaFEG 400 SEM.
GP – Gypsum (or quartz red I) plate
inserted with cross-polarized light
PPL & RL – Combined transmitted Staining and impregnation
and reflected light AS – Alizarin red-S staining of
PPL | XPL – Split image with plane- carbonate (calcite stains pink or red)
and cross-polarized light images AFeS – Alizarin red-S plus potassium
ferricyanide stain for ferroan
carbonates
Other imaging techniques PFS – Sample stained for plagioclase
MAC – Macroscopic photograph (not feldspars
using a microscope) KFS – Sample stained for potassium
CL – Imaging using standard feldspars
cathodoluminescence excitation BDI – Blue (or blue-green) dyed
CCL – Cathodoluminescence image impregnation material in pores
acquired with Gatan ChromaCL RDI – Red (or pink) dyed
instrumentation impregnation material in pores
FL365 – Epi-fluorescent excitation
centered at 365 nm wavelength
FL470 – Epi-fluorescent excitation Image sizes
centered at 470 nm wavelength All images have the same size scale bar in the lower
SEM – Scanning electron microscopy right-hand corner (a scale bar that is 1/10th the horizon-
tal length of the full image) and the metric length for
Col SEM – Hand-colorized SEM the scale in that picture is given at the bottom of each
SE(SEM) – Secondary electron (on caption.
SEM)

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 Introduction xiii

Acknowledgments Additionally, Peter S. Mozley and Steven M. Cather

allowed the authors access to their thin section collec-
Figure 6.1: Reprinted from Computers & Geosci- tions. Virgil W. Lueth provided photographs of min-
ences, vol. 27/4, Dougal A. Jerram, Visual comparators eral specimens from the mineral collection at the New
for degree of grain-size sorting in two and three-dimen- Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources,
sions, p. 485-492, Copyright (2001), with permission and helped with the reflected light microscopy.
from Elsevier.
Albert V. Carozzi, Steve Cather, Julie Dumoulin,
Lower right corner of Figure 6.4: Reprinted from Nelia W. Dunbar, Shirley P. Dutton, Cortland F. Eble
Continental Shelf Research, v. 20, Flemming, B. W., and the Kentucky Geological Survey, Sara Gallagher,
2000, A revised textural classification of gravel-free Kenneth P. Helmold, Glenn Izett, Noel P. James, Stan-
muddy sediments on the basis of ternary diagrams, p. ley A. Kling, E. D. Pittman, Peir K. Pufahl, B. Charlotte
1125-1137, Copyright (2000), with permission from Schreiber, R. F. Sipple, Joann E. Welton, E. L. “Jerry”
Elsevier. Winterer, and Jeremy Young kindly provided images
Figure 8.1: Used with permission of Dr. Tom An- (in some cases, ones reproduced from the earlier Mem-
derson, Energy & Geoscience Institute, University of oir 28 version of this book).
Utah. Maersk Oil and Gas for permission to use SEM and
Ichron Limited, United Kingdom allowed the au- other images.
thors to use the photomicrographs marked with the FEI, Incorporated analyzed one of our thin section
symbol (†) in the photo headers. and provided the data and images utilized in Chapter
Cairn India Limited provided permission to use the 24. InGrain and Gatan, Incorporated, also, supplied
photomicrographs from India and Sri Lanka. images and text for that chapter.

SM Energy Company allowed the authors to use Zeiss kindly provided the digital file for the Mi-
photomicrographs from various consulting projects. chel-Lévy foldout color chart.

We wish to thank The US Department of Ener-

gy (DOE), National Energy Technology Laboratory
Supplementary Teaching Materials
(NETL) and the Southwest Partnership for the use of
thin sections from projects DE-FE0001812 and DE- A DVD at the back of the book contains Microsoft
FC26-05NT42591. Powerpoint files for each of the chapters that contains
Drs. Robert G. Loucks of Texas Bureau of Econom- all of the photomicrographs (generally without the ar-
ic Geology and Steven M. Cather, New Mexico Bureau rows or mineral labels shown in the book). The notes
of Geology and Mineral Resources performed the he- section for each slide contains the full image captions
roic task of reviewing the entire book. We hope they from the book. These files, however, do not contain
recover soon and are deeply in their debt for all their any of the introductory text, diagrams or bibliographic
suggestions that greatly improved this book. citations.

Drs. David W. Houseknecht of the US Geological

Survey, Kenneth P. Helmold of the Alaskan Depart-
ment of Natural Resources, Oil and Gas Division, Pe-
ter S. Mozley of New Mexico Institute of Mining and
Technology, Joann E. Welton of RQ Consultant, and
Virgil W. Lueth and Nelia W. Dunbar of the New Mexi-
co Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources reviewed
many individual chapters (in some cases more than half
the book). They caught an incredible number of errors
and their expertise and suggestions for improvements
were invaluable!

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 xiv Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Comparison chart for visual percentage estimation (after Terry and Chilingar, 1955).

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 Introduction xv

Introductory Petrographic References

General petrography and optical mineralogy: Boggs, S., Jr., 2009, Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks (2nd Edition): New
Deer, W. A., R. A. Howie, and J. Zussman, 1992, An Introduction to the York, NY, Cambridge University Press, 610 p.
Rock-forming Minerals (2nd Edition): London, Longman Group Ltd., Carozzi, A. V., 1993, Sedimentary Petrography: Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
696 p. Prentice-Hall, 330 p.
Hurlbut, C. S., and W. E. Sharp, 1998, Dana’s Minerals and How to Study Carver, R. E., 1971, Procedures in Sedimentary Petrology: New York,
Them (After Edward Salisbury Dana), 4th Edition: New York, John Wiley-Interscience, 672 p.
Wiley & Sons, 336 p. Folk, R. L., 1951, A comparison chart for visual percentage estimation:
Larsen, E. S., and H. Berman, 1934, The microscopic determination of the Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 21, p. 32-33.
nonopaque minerals (2nd Edition): USGS Bulletin 848, 209 p. Folk, R. L., 1980, Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks: Austin, TX, Hemphill’s
MacKenzie, W. S., C. H. Donaldson, and C. Guilford, 1982, Atlas of Book Store, 184 p. [free download at: https://www.lib.utexas.edu/geo/
Igneous Rocks and their Textures: New York, John Wiley & Sons, 148 folkready/entirefolkpdf.pdf]
p. Füchtbauer, H., and G. Müller, 1970, Sedimente und Sedimentgesteine:
MacKenzie, W. S., and C. Guilford, 1980, Atlas of Rock-forming Minerals Stuttgart, E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 726 p.
in Thin Section: New York, John Wiley & Sons, 98 p. Greensmith, J. T., 1988, Textbook of Petrology, Vol 2: Petrology of the
Nesse, W. D., 2003, Introduction to Optical Mineralogy (3rd Edition): Sedimentary Rocks (7th Edition): London, Unwin Hyman, 262 p.
New York, Oxford University Press, 348 p. Larsen, G., and G. V. Chilingar, eds., 1979, Diagenesis in Sediments and
Perkins, D., and K. R. Henke, 2003, Minerals in Thin Section (2nd Sedimentary Rocks: New York, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 579 p.
Edition): Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall, 176 p. Larsen, G., and G. V. Chilingar, eds., 1983, Diagenesis in Sediments and
Pichler, H., and C. Schmitt-Riegraf, 1997, Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sedimentary Rocks, 2: New York, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.,
Section: New York, Chapman and Hall, 220 p. 572 p.
Raith, M. M., P. Raase, and J. Reinhardt, 2011, Guide to thin section Lewis, D. W., and D. McConchie, 1994, Practical Sedimentology [2nd
microscopy: 107 p. Free online download at: <http://www. Edition]: New York, Chapman & Hall, 213 p.
minsocam.org/msa/content/OpenAccess_publications/Thin_Section_ Milliken, K. L., S.-J. Choh, and E. F. McBride, Sandstone Petrology:: A
Microscophy.pdf> Tutorial Petrographic Image Atlas (2nd Edition): Tulsa, OK, AAPG/
Rost, F. D. W., and R. J. Oldfield, 2000, Photography with a Microscope: Datapages Discovery Series, No. 10, PC-based CD.
New York, Cambridge University Press, 288 p. Milner, H. B., 1962a, Sedimentary Petrography. Volume I, Methods in
Saggerson, E. P., 1975, Identification Tables for Minerals in Thin Sections: Sedimentary Petrography (4th Edition): London, George Allen &
New York, Longman, 378 p. Unwin, 643 p.
Sorby, H. C., 1908, On the application of quantitative methods to the study Milner, H. B., 1962b, Sedimentary Petrography. Volume II, Principles and
of the structure and history of rocks: Quarterly Journal of the Geological Applications (4th Edition): London, George Allen & Unwin, 715 p.
Society, v. 64, p. 171-233, doi: 10.1144/GSL.JGS.1908.064.01-04.12. Pettijohn, F. J., 1957, Sedimentary Rocks (2nd Edition): New York,
Stoiber, R. E., and S. A. Morse, 1994, Crystal Identification with the Harper Brothers, 718 p.
Polarizing Microscope: London, Chapman & Hall, 358 p. Pettijohn, F. J., P. E. Potter, and R. Siever, 1987, Sand and Sandstones
Tröger, W. E., H. U. Bambauer, F. Taborszky, and H. D. Trochim, 1979, (2nd Edition): New York, Springer-Verlag, 553 p.
Optical Determination of Rock-Forming Minerals. Part 1: Determinative Scholle, P. A., 1979, A Color Illustrated Guide to Constituents, Textures,
Tables: Stuttgart, E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 188 p. Cements, and Porosities of Sandstones and Associated Rocks: Tulsa,
Vernon, R. H., 2004, A Practical Guide to Rock Microstructure: OK, AAPG Memoir 28, 201 p.
Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 606 p. Scholle, P. A., and D. S. Ulmer-Scholle, 2003, A Color Guide to the
Petrography of Carbonate Rocks: Grains, textures, porosity, diagenesis:
Sedimentology and sedimentary petrography: Tulsa, OK, AAPG Memoir 77, 474 p.
Arribas, J., S. Critelli, and M. J. Johnsson, eds., 2007, Sedimentary Steel, R. J., and K. L. Milliken, 2013, Major advances in siliciclastic
Provenance and Petrogenesis: Perspectives from Petrography and sedimentary geology, 1960–2012., in M. E. Bickford, ed., The Web
Geochemistry: Boulder, CO, GSA Special Paper 420, 396 p. of Geological Sciences: Advances, Impacts, and Interactions: Boulder,
Blatt, H., 1982, Sedimentary Petrology: San Francisco, CA, W. H. CO., GSA Special Paper 500, p. 121-167, doi: 10.1130/2013.2500(04).
Freeman & Co., 564 p. Terry, R. D., and G. V. Chilingar, 1955, Summary of “Concerning some
Blatt, H., G. V. Middleton, and R. C. Murray, 1980, Origin of Sedimentary additional aids in studying sedimentary formations,” by M. S. Shvetsov:
Rocks: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall Inc., 782 p. Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 25, p. 229-234.
Blatt, H., R. Tracy, and B. Owens, 2006, Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary, Tucker, M. E., 2001, Sedimentary Petrology: An Introduction to the Origin
and Metamorphic (3rd Edition): New York, NY, W. H. Freeman, 530 p. of Sedimentary Rocks (3rd Edition): Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 272 p.
Boggs, S., Jr., 2011, Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (5th
Edition): Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall, 600 p.

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 chaPter 1: Quartz & Silica 1

GRAINS:
QUARTZ AND SILICA

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

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 2 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Quartz and Silica

Quartz (SiO2) is the most abundant mineral in of the grains, but quartz is common to most rock types
terrigenous sedimentary rocks and is exceedingly other than basalts (Table 1.1). Semicomposite and
durable (surviving multiple generations of weathering polycrystalline quartz can be found in metamorphic
and deposition). Quartz and silica occur in many and plutonic rocks as well as hydrothermal vein
varieties—true quartz in the form of megaquartz, chert, deposits and fractures. For metamorphic quartz,
microquartz, or chalcedony and various other forms of the size of the crystals may represent increasing
silica, mainly opal (opal-A and opal-CT [cristobalite]). metamorphic grade; larger crystals form under higher
temperatures and pressures (Fig. 1.1).
Major characteristics: Grain size can make provenance determination
Color: Typically clear, but cloudy and colored varieties more difficult. With decreasing grain size, the ability
occur where crystals are especially rich in water or to see undulatory quartz or polycrystalline/composite
mineral inclusions. In thin section, these colors are grains becomes more difficult. Since crystal sizes
rarely seen, although red and pale brown varieties within polycrystalline grains may be large, grains
related to included hematite and limonite are formed from their breakdown may not exhibit
sometimes found. polycrystallinity or undulatory extinction.
Common crystal habit: Hexagonal, bipyramidal. Chert and opaline silica can be found in either
Pleochroism: None. sedimentary or volcanic rocks — in the former as
Cleavage/fracture: No cleavage, but fractures and direct precipitates and in the latter as recrystallized
healed fractures can be common.
glass.
Relief and optic sign: Low; uniaxial (+).
Birefringence: First-order (in a 30-µm section)
typically first-order white and gray to pale straw
yellow.
Other: No twinning; may contain trains of water, gas
or mineral inclusions including ones, such as rutile
and tourmaline needles, that may provide clues to
grain provenance. Optical behavior varies based
on deformation history; grains can have undulatory
(undulose or sweeping) or nonundulatory
(nonundulose or straight) extinction. Quartz grains
commonly have syntaxial quartz overgrowths that
form diagenetically.
Minerals that may have similar appearance and
distinguishing differences:
Feldspars: Commonly show some cleavage, more
alteration (vacuolization, sericitization, partial to
complete dissolution), presence of characteristic
twinning patterns and are biaxial. Can be
differentiated by staining.
Apatite: Normally lower birefringence, has a higher
relief and is uniaxial (-).
Gypsum and barite: Both have birefringence similar
to quartz, but barite has slightly higher relief and
gypsum has lower relief; both gypsum and barite
have strong cleavage.
Zeolites: Numerous zeolite minerals can be confused
with fibrous varieties of quartz. Most of the
common zeolite minerals are biaxial (+/) and most
have somewhat lower birefringence than quartz. Figure 1.1: Plot of modern beach sands and their source
terranes shows how the amount of nonundulatory, undulatory
Provenance indicators: and polycrystalline quartz grains and the number of crystals in
Quartz can occur as single crystals or polycrystalline polycrystalline grains can help determine quartz provenance
aggregates that may provide clues to the provenance (from Basu et al., 1975).

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 Chapter 1: Quartz & Silica 3

Common inclusions and provenance – (hematite) to high temperature (magnetite)

Amphiboles (actinolite and others): metamorphic, conditions.
intermediate to mafic igneous rocks and skarn Sillimanite: metamorphic rocks.
deposits. Titanium minerals (such as rutile, titanite, anatase
Apatite: felsic to intermediate volcanic rocks, skarns, and others): metamorphic rocks, pegmatites and
carbonatites, calcium-rich metamorphic rocks, hydrothermal vein deposits.
pegmatites and hydrothermal vein deposits. Tourmaline: pegmatites.
Chlorite: fracture fills in low to medium grade Zircon: common in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
metamorphic rocks, skarns and pegmatites. Hydrocarbons, bitumen and methane: trapped
Iron oxides (hematite, goethite and others): very during growth of the quartz crystals from fluids
common, and they form in a variety of environments containing organics. These can sometimes be used
ranging from anoxic (magnetite) to highly oxidizing to reconstruct basin temperature and fluid histories.
(hematite, goethite) and low (goethite), medium

Table 1.1: Overview of quartz types, characteristics and provenance (adapted from Krynine, 1946 and Folk, 1980).

Mid. Ordovician Lander Sandstone,

Johnson Co., Wyoming

Well-rounded, medium-sized quartz grains

in a very fine grained, bimodal quartzarenite
(interpreted to be an eolian deposit). In cross- MONOCRYSTALLINE
polarized light, most of the grains exhibit unit
(nonundulatory) extinction—i.e., the entire
grain goes to extinction at the same time. The
range of birefringence colors (gray to yellow)
in the cross-polarized light photomicrograph
is slightly “high” for a standard thickness (30
µm) thin section; thus, this section is slightly
thicker than standard.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.20 mm

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 4 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Paleogene Needles Range Fm.,

Millard Co., Nevada

A volcanic quartz grain with euhedral, bipyra-

midal outline. Euhedral shape, embayments,
unit extinction and scarcity of inclusions
are all indicative of an extrusive igneous
(volcanic) provenance, but none, by itself, is
conclusive evidence. This crystal started out
as β-quartz, a hexagonal, high-temperature
polymorph (573–870°C) of quartz. β-quartz
is not stable at surface temperatures, and it
inverts to α-quartz upon cooling.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.36 mm

Neogene Yellowstone Tuff, Park

Co., Wyoming

A higher magnification view of a volcanic

quartz crystal. This grain has unit extinction, a
euhedral outline and a large “negative crystal”
or vacuole. The vacuole (or hole) has the same
crystallographic orientation as the complete
quartz grain, hence the term “negative crystal”.
This feature is common but not ubiquitous in
volcanic quartz crystals.

PPL, KFS, Scale bar = 0.14 mm

Cenozoic monzonite intrusive,

Clark Co., Nevada

A deeply (monstrously) embayed volcanic

quartz crystal within a monzonite porphyry.
Embayed quartz crystals are common in
acidic volcanics and have been ascribed to
quartz disequilibrium with the melt causing
the crystals to be reabsorbed (dissolution).
Embayments normally have rounded edges.
Like most volcanic quartz, this grain has unit
extinction and few inclusions. Even though
this is a source rock, it contains oddly shaped
and rounded grains that can be liberated during
weathering.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 1: Quartz & Silica 5

Paleocene, Rajasthan, India

An embayed quartz crystal (pyroclast) within

a crystal tuff. The embayments are not
crystallographically controlled, suggesting
that they result from magmatic corrosion.
The corrosion occurs during changes in melt
composition. Some embayments may form
as partial inclusions, but it is not interpreted
to be the case here. The quartz crystal is
surrounded by devitrified volcanic glass and
stretched pumice. The matrix has taken a stain
from the sodium cobaltinitrite, suggesting that
the alteration product of the glass includes
K-feldspar.

PPL, KFS, Scale bar = 0.49 mm

Paleogene Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,

Texas

A single crystal, unit extinction, detrital quartz

grain (“common quartz” or “normal igneous
quartz” of Krynine, 1946). The grain goes to
complete extinction under crossed polarizers
with less than one degree of stage rotation.
Such quartz is supplied by many types of source
rocks and may be selectively concentrated
during weathering and transportation. This
grain may have been derived from a volcanic
source as indicated by the embayments.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Pennsylvanian – Lo. Permian

Granite Wash, southern Oklahoma

An example of a thin section that was cut

thicker than normal (i.e., > 30 µm). Instead of
the gray to pale yellow birefringence expected
for quartz, many of the quartz grains are deep
yellow. Conversely, if the thin section is too
thin, then the highest quartz birefringence
colors might only be light gray. Thus, one has
to “adjust one’s expectations” to accurately
identify these grains in thin section. Many
of the other grains in this sample are micro-
cline feldspars, recognizable because of their
twinning (example indicated by white arrow).

XPL, Scale bar = 0.22 mm

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 6 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Lo. Cretaceous Patula Arkose,

Coahuila, Mexico

This strained quartz grain has strongly undu-

latory extinction. The difference in stage
rotation between the two photomicrographs is
8°, with the extinction zone sweeping from top
to bottom. The straining here was produced
in situ during burial and compaction causing
crystal lattice dislocations. However, grains
like these are common in source terranes
that have undergone substantial deformation
or metamorphism (Basu, 1985) and thus can
arrive as prestrained detrital grains. The dis-
tinction is made by seeing if most or just a few
grains show straining and if there is or is not a
consistent pattern or fabric of strain features.

XPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Silurian Tuscarora Sandstone,

Lebanon Co., Pennsylvania

Undulatory extinction in a composite quartz

grain. This quartz grain consists of a number
of separate quartz crystals. Such grains can
be derived from a range of source terranes,
including plutonic, metamorphic and hydro-
thermal.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.14 mm

Jurassic Tilje Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

Trails of fluid inclusions (vacuoles) within

an otherwise inclusion-free quartz grain.
Although aligned, these inclusion trains do not
represent Boehm lamellae. The crosscutting
of the trails suggests that the vacuoles are
secondary and occurred from fluid flow along
fractures that were subsequently healed. The
quartz grain is surrounded by siderite cement.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

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 Chapter 1: Quartz & Silica 7

Lo. Cretaceous Travis Peak Fm.,

Eastland Co., Texas

A quartz grain with exceptionally abundant

vacuoles (probably liquid-filled inclusions)
and semicomposite extinction (Krynine’s
“hydrothermal” quartz). Such vacuole-rich
quartz grains are most commonly derived
from hydrothermal-vein sources. The quartz
overgrowth (cement) around the upper part of
the grain has far fewer inclusions.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Lo. Paleozoic andalucite schist,

Carroll Co., New Hampshire

Multiple quartz crystals in a schist that have

abundant needle-like mineral inclusions.
These inclusions are probably sillimanite or
tourmaline on the basis of their moderate relief
and birefringence. When sillimanite occurs
in fibrous masses as in this sample, it is called
fibrolite.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Lo. Paleozoic andalucite schist,

Carroll Co., New Hampshire

Quartz crystals with abundant mineral inclu-

sions. The largest inclusions are biotite crystals
(e.g., the brown crystal indicated by the red
arrow). The smaller needle-fiber inclusions
are probably tourmaline on the basis of their
greenish crystal color, shape and birefringence.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

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 8 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Permian (Guadalupian) Brushy

Canyon Fm., Culberson Co., Texas

A quartz grain with numerous mineral inclu-

sions. The needle-shaped mineral inclusions
probably are rutile and/or tourmaline, but there
also are fluid inclusions which make the grain
appear speckled or dusty. These quartz grains
are surrounded by carbonate cement.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Mid. Jurassic Ness Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

Acicular mineral inclusions within a quartz

grain. The crystals are likely to be rutile but are
too fine crystalline to determine their optical
properties. The crystals show no preferred
orientation.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

Pennsylvanian Alamitos Fm., San

Miguel Co., New Mexico

A quartz grain containing both zircon and

apatite inclusions. The zircon inclusion
(indicated by red arrow) is the large greenish
crystal with very high relief. The apatite inclu-
sions are the colorless, moderate relief crystals
(they have more relief than the surrounding
quartz grain). This grain may be from a
pegmatite or hydrothermal vein deposit. To see
examples of zircon’s very high and apatite’s
very low birefringence under crossed polar-
izers, see Chapter 4.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.16 mm

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 Chapter 1: Quartz & Silica 9

Up. Miocene (Tortonian), Tagus

Basin, Setúbal Peninsula, Portugal †

A quartz grain displaying mineral inclusions of

biotite. The host grain is nonundulatory and
inclusion free, suggesting a possible igneous
origin. The biotite crystals are in optical
alignment with each other. They show a single,
well-defined cleavage, which distinguishes
them from tourmaline.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.04 mm

Silurian Tuscarora Sandstone,

Lebanon Co., Pennsylvania

Vermicular chlorite inclusions in a detrital

quartz grain. The chlorite booklets are pale
green, have anomalous “ultrablue” colors under
polarized light and appear to be worm-like
masses. These inclusions are typical of hydro-
thermal quartz.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.14 mm

Silurian Tuscarora Sandstone,

Lebanon Co., Pennsylvania

Vermicular chlorite inclusions in a detrital

quartz grain. Vermicular chlorites can form
during hydrothermal alteration or within
pegmatites, but they also can form during
metamorphism. These photomicrographs
were taken with the substage condenser raised,
thereby highlighting the individual chlorite
plates that make up the vermicules.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

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 10 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Silurian Tuscarora Sandstone,

Lebanon Co., Pennsylvania

A detrital quartz grain with subparallel lines

of submicron- to micron-sized bubbles
(vacuoles). These features, a product of
intense strain deformation, are termed Boehm
lamellae. When identifying these structures
in thin section, it is important to distinguish
between reworked detrital strained grains and
those that were strained in situ. Also, one must
be careful not to confuse them with twinned
feldspars.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

Quartz grains that display well-formed,

syntaxial quartz overgrowths extending into
pore space (examples shown by black arrows).
Some of the grains display a marked grain
boundary, whilst others do not. The distinction
between the grain and the overgrowth relies on
the presence of thin clay or iron oxide coatings
or a line of inclusions along the grain-over-
growth contact, such as in this case (red
arrows).

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Up. Devonian Cairn Fm., Jasper

area, Alberta, Canada

Euhedral quartz overgrowths on very fine sand

grains in a dolomitized reefal limestone. Such
replacement crystals can be a major source of
quartz grains with reworked (second-cycle or
inherited) overgrowths after they are released
from their carbonate host rock during weath-
ering. Transport and abrasion during reworking
yields rounded overgrowths that are the main
diagnostic feature of second-cycle quartz
(quartz grains from a sedimentary source).

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 1: Quartz & Silica 11

Jurassic Tilje Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

A quartz grain with an inherited quartz over-

growth. The overgrowth is distinguished from
the grain by a line of vacuoles (indicated by
black arrow). The irregular (abraded?) margin
of the overgrowth is an indicator of reworking
but is not conclusive. The lack of overgrowths
on the vast majority of the other detrital quartz
grains in this sample, however, supports the
conclusion that these overgrowths were formed
in a precursor deposit. The main cement in this
sample is early-formed siderite.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Paleogene Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,

Texas

A detrital grain with authigenic quartz

overgrowths that have been rounded during
a second cycle of erosion followed by depo-
sition. Recycled or second-cycle quartz
grains can be difficult to recognize if quartz
overgrowths are not present. The original
grain is largely inclusion free whereas the
surrounding, rounded overgrowth is rich in
inclusions (carbonate, clays and iron oxides).

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic New

Haven Arkose, New Haven Co.,
Connecticut

This semicomposite quartz grain exhibits

undulatory extinction. Grains like this are
composed of numerous quartz crystals that
have closely aligned optic c-axes. Such quartz
grains are common in metamorphic, plutonic
and hydrothermal environments.

XPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.64 mm

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 12 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic New

Haven Arkose, New Haven Co.,
Connecticut

A semicomposite quartz grain, with slightly

undulatory extinction, in a lithic arenite. Note
the changes between the two images that show
sweeping extinction with less than five degrees
of stage rotation.

XPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.17 mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic New

Haven Arkose, New Haven Co.,
Connecticut

A polycrystalline quartz grain with strong

elongation or stretching of the quartz crystals.
This may indicate that the origin of this grain is
POLYCRYSTALLINE

from a metamorphic source terrane. This rock

would be classified as a lithic sandstone on
the basis of the abundance of rock fragments
(lithic clasts). Polycrystalline quartz grains,
however, are grouped differently in various
classifications—some assign them to lithic
fragments and others to quartz grains. Such
differences reflect, in part, whether one is more
interested in accurate description of compo-
sition or the determination of provenance.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.64 mm

Mid.–Up. Ordovician Martinsburg

Fm., Berks Co., Pennsylvania

Polycrystalline (also known as composite)

quartz grains in a poorly sorted sandstone.
The large size of the individual crystals in the
grains may indicate that the origin of the grains
is from an igneous or high-grade metamorphic
source terrane.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 Chapter 1: Quartz & Silica 13

Paleocene Tang Fm., Møre Basin,

Norwegian Sea †

A polycrystalline quartz grain that neither

displays sutured internal crystal/boundaries
nor truly polygonal boundaries. This would
support an origin from weakly metamorphosed
sandstone or quartzite.

XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Gp.,

Co. Antrim, Northern Ireland, U.K. †

A polycrystalline quartz grain of metamorphic

origin. The grain has sutured internal bound-
aries between composite crystals and a prefer-
ential alignment of the constituent crystals. In
addition, crystal boundaries are diffuse.

XPL, AFeS, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07

mm

Miocene Topanga Fm., Ventura Co.,

California

A rounded polycrystalline quartz grain in a

lithic arenite. The elongation of the quartz
crystals in the grain indicates that this grain
probably formed in a metamorphic terrane.
High-density lattice dislocations in quartz
produce polycrystallinity and are indicative of
metamorphic environments (Basu, 1985).

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 14 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Jurassic Morrison Fm., Moffat Co.,

Colorado

A polycrystalline quartz grain (center) sur-

rounded by chert clasts. Based on the strong
elongation of the quartz crystals, this was most
likely sourced from a metamorphic terrane.
Surrounding the stretched polycrystalline
quartz grains are several large chert clasts that
have a dark gray birefringence and speckled
appearance related to the microcrystalline
character of chert. These indicate that sedi-
mentary rocks were also present in the source
area. Numerous silt-sized monocrystalline
quartz grains also are present in the interstices
between the larger grains.

XPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Miocene Topanga Fm., Ventura Co.,

California

A polycrystalline quartz grain in a

feldspathic sandstone. As in the previous
photomicrograph, there is strong elongation
to the quartz crystals in the grain suggesting a
high-grade metamorphic origin for the grain.
This sample also shows, especially in plane-
polarized light, how feldspar can be sometimes
be distinguished from quartz simply based on
its tendency to be more “dusty”.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

Up. Silurian Bloomsburg Fm.,

Warren Co., New Jersey

A polycrystalline quartz grain with strong

elongation and sutured crystal boundaries.
The probable origin of this grain is in a high-
grade metamorphic terrane.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 1: Quartz & Silica 15

Mid. Permian Wegener Halvø Fm.,

Karstryggen area, East Greenland

Polycrystalline or composite quartz in a

feldspathic arenite. The origin of this grain
is problematic; it may be metamorphic, but
plutonic or hydrothermal sources are equally
likely. The inability to assign a unambiguous
source terrane is common if one only has
quartz indicators. The calcite cements in this
sample are stained and therefore appear to be
red even in cross-polarized light.

XPL, AFeS, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Permian Schuchert Dal Fm.,

Jameson Land, East Greenland

A well-rounded polycrystalline quartz granule.

The blue-dyed fracture porosity surrounding
the grain may have been produced by pressure
release during uplift and unloading of over-
burden.

PPL | XPL, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51

mm

Precambrian Neihart Quartzite,

Little Belt Mountains, Cascade Co.,
Montana

A live-color cathodoluminescent SEM photo-

micrograph of a quartz arenite. Blue grains
have the highest formation temperatures, sug-
gesting derivation from plutonic or high-grade
metamorphic sources (e.g., Augustsson and
Reker, 2012). Reddish grains are likely from
lower-grade metamorphic source rocks (green-
schist). Reddish blotches and healed fractures
in the grains may reflect lower temperature,
hydrothermal overprint. Low-temperature
quartz cements (deep blue) have a late (hotter)
overprint (reddish) along grain boundaries and
residual pore spaces in overgrowths.

CCL, Scale bar = 100 µm

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 16 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Holocene grus on Mesozoic

granite, California

Quartz grains are commonly studied using

scanning electron microscopy, either to obtain
more three-dimensional images of grain shape
or to examine surface features. Quartz grains
are normally recognizable in the scanning
electron microscope on the basis of their
conchoidal fracture and lack of cleavage.
Photo by David E. Hoyt.

SEM, Scale bar = 50 µm

Quaternary grus on Precambrian

Packsaddle Schist, Texas

Quartz grains have a wide variety of surface

textures when examined in SEM. V-shaped
indentations are seen in this example and are
probably formed by chemical dissolution.
Various structures have been interpreted as
being indicative of particular source rocks,
transport processes, depositional environ-
ments or diagenetic settings (see Krinsley and
Doornkamp, 2011). Photo by David E. Hoyt.

SEM, Scale bar = 0.07 µm

Up. Cretaceous Craie Grise,

Limburg, The Netherlands

One of the polymorphs of quartz is cristobalite

(opal-CT). In this photomicrograph, the
cristobalite occurs as spherulites that are
commonly termed lepispheres. The alteration
of biogenic opal to quartz generally goes
through the intermediate stage of cristobalite.
The transitions between these three phases are
largely temperature controlled, although time
and associated lithologies also play a large
role. In general, the presence of clay minerals
retards the transformation; CaCO3 accelerates
it (e.g., Isaacs, 1982). The opal-CT pictured
here forms part of larger replacive nodules in a
sandy limestone.

SEM, Scale bar = 2.4 µm

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 Chapter 1: Quartz & Silica 17

Lo. Permian Park City Fm., middle

Franson Mbr., Daggett Co., Utah

Detrital chert clasts in a quartz arenite. Chert

is microcrystalline quartz, and it typically
contains abundant inclusions. These are
mostly water-filled, but inclusions also can be
organics, iron oxides, iron sulfides, carbonates
and other insolubles that make the grains
look cloudy and brownish in plane light. In
cross-polarized light, chert appears to be finely
speckled due to its microcrystallinity.

PPL / XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Mid. Jurassic Curtis Fm., Utah

Fragments of detrital chert (left) and detrital

chalcedony (right). Chalcedony is a micro-
scopically fibrous form of quartz that is
common as void fillings or replacement fabrics
in sedimentary rocks. Here, the chalcedony is
surrounded by carbonate (dolomite) cement
crystals. As with cherts, a wide variety of
chalcedonic textures exist and chalcedony
occurs in length-fast and length-slow forms
(those can be distinguished using a gypsum or
other sensitive tint plate).

XPL, Scale bar = 0.03 mm

Oligocene – Miocene Horse Spring

Fm., Clark Co., Nevada

Shards of volcanic glass in a calcite-cemented

tuffaceous sandstone. The glass shards
(volcanic glass) are isotropic (black under
cross-polarized light). They are commonly
dissolved or are replaced by quartz or other
minerals during diagenesis, in part because,
as hydrophilic particles, they are especially
susceptible to alteration. Because shards are
isotropic, it can be difficult to distinguish
dissolved shards (shard-shaped pores) from
intact ones.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.15 mm

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 18 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks
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p. 116-135, doi: 10.1306/74D71208-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D. doi: 10.1306/212F7E73-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D.
Culver, S. J., P. A. Bull, S. Campbell, R. A. Shakesby, and W. B. Whalley, Tortosa, A., M. Palomares, and J. Arribas, 1991, Quartz grain types in
1983, Environmental discrimination based on quartz grain surface Holocene deposits from the Spanish Central System: Some problems in
textures: A statistical investigation: Sedimentology, v. 30, p. 129-136, provenance analysis, in A. C. Morton, S. P. Todd, and P. D. W. Haughton,
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3091.1983.tb00655.x. eds., Developments in Sedimentary Provenance Studies: London, GSL
Donaldson, C. H., and C. M. B. Henderson, 1988, A new interpretation of Special Publication 57, p. 47-54, doi: 10.1144/GSL.SP.1991.057.01.05.
round embayments in quartz crystals: Mineralogical Magazine, v. 52, p. Walderhaug, O., and J. Rykkje, 2000, Some examples of the effect of
27-33, doi: 10.1180/minmag.1988.052.364.02. crystallographic orientation on the cathodoluminescence colors of
Götte, T., T. Pettke, K. Ramseyer, M. Koch-Müller, and J. Mullis, 2011, quartz: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 70, p. 545-548, doi:
Cathodoluminescence properties and trace element signature of 10.1306/2DC40926-0E47-11D7-8643000102C1865D.
hydrothermal quartz: A fingerprint of growth dynamics: American Young, S. W., 1976, Petrographic textures of detrital polycrystalline quartz
Mineralogist, v. 96, p. 802-813, doi: 10.2138/am.2011.3639. as an aid to interpreting crystalline source rocks: Journal of Sedimentary
Götte, T., and K. Ramseyer, 2012, Trace element characteristics, Research, v. 46, p. 595-603, doi: 10.1306/212F6FFA-2B24-11D7-
luminescence properties and real structure of quartz, in J. Götze, and R. 8648000102C1865D.
Möckel, eds., Quartz: Deposits, Mineralogy and Analytics: New York,

Ftwinned orthoclase
Top – Thin section view of Carlsbad-
Springer, p. 265-285, doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-22161-3_12. acing Page:
Götte, T., and D. K. Richter, 2006, Cathodoluminescence characterization of
quartz particles in mature arenites: Sedimentology, v. 53, p. 1347-1359,
feldspar, Mid. Ordovician New-
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3091.2006.00818.x. town Gneiss, New Haven Co., Connecticut (XPL).
Götze, J., and R. Möckel, eds., 2012, Quartz: Deposits, Mineralogy and Bottom – Twinned orthoclase feldspar crystal, Otero
Analytics: New York, Springer, 360 p., doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-22161-3.
Harrell, J., and H. Blatt, 1978, Polycrystallinity: Effect on the durability of Co., New Mexico. Photo from Mineral Museum, New
detrital quartz: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 48, p. 25-30, doi: Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources.

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 chaPter 2: feldSParS 19

GRAINS:
FELDSPARS

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

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 20 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Feldspars
Feldspars (XAl(1-2)Si(2-3)O8) are the most common rock- Microcline – is also a potassium-rich feldspar, but it
forming minerals in the Earth’s crust, and they occur in belongs to the triclinic crystal system. It is usually
many varieties (Fig. 2.1) — ranging from sodium- and easy to identify because it has two directions of
calcium-rich (plagioclase) to potassium-rich (K-feldspar polysynthetic twins (a combination of albite and
or alkali feldspar). K-feldspars may also contain pericline twinning) that commonly is called tartan,
significant amounts of sodium in their crystal lattices. grid, cross-hatched or microcline twinning.
Feldspars are far less resistant than quartz to chemical Sanidine – is also a monoclinic alkali feldspar similar
and physical destruction and thus are altered or removed to orthoclase. Unlike orthoclase, it has a smaller
by weathering, transport and diagenesis (e.g., Land et al., 2V and is inclusion free. It is common in high-
1987), yielding secondary pores or alteration products temperature acidic volcanic rocks.
(illite, white mica/sericite, albite or kaolinite). Even so, Anorthoclase – is a triclinic Na-rich alkali feldspar
they are the second most abundant grains in sandstones, that grades into microcline. It, too, can have grid
and identifying their mineralogy is crucial for accurate twinning, but it can be distinguished from microcline
sandstone classification and provenance studies. by its smaller 2V. It is common in Na-rich volcanic
rocks.
Major characteristics:
Color: Typically clear to cloudy in thin section, Minerals that may have similar appearance and
sometimes with pinkish color. distinguishing differences:
Common crystal habit: Tabular, euhedral to anhedral Quartz: Has similar birefringence, but no twinning or
crystals are common. cleavage, and it is uniaxial (+), whereas all feldspars
Pleochroism: None. are biaxial.
Cleavage/fracture: K-feldspars have two main Gypsum and barite: Both have birefringence similar to
cleavage planes at roughly 90° to each other. feldspars; barite has slightly higher relief and gyp-
Plagioclase cleavages are 93–94°. sum has lower relief; both gypsum and barite have
Relief and optic sign: K-feldspars are biaxial (-) and strong cleavage.
have low (-) relief. Plagioclases are biaxial, and Staining is a common method used to identify feld-
the optic sign and 2V varies with composition. spars and to distinguish them from quartz. Pla-
Plagioclase has moderate relief. gioclase stains pink in a potassium rhodizonate solu-
Extinction angles: Varies systematically with tion, and K-feldspars stains yellow in a sodium co-
composition. baltinitrite solution. For provenance studies, where
Birefringence: First-order gray and white in a 30-µm detailed compositional data are needed, the K-feld-
section, except for calcic compositions which may go spars should not be stained, since staining alters the
up to first-order yellow. refractive index by partly dissolving the feldspars.
Feldspar minerals:
Plagioclase – Plagioclase minerals are all triclinic.
Albite twinning occurs only in triclinic feldspars
(especially plagioclase), and Carlsbad twinning is
also fairly common (Fig. 2.2). Both are parallel to
the crystallographic axis. Pericline twins are less
common and are normal to albite twins. In igneous
rocks, plagioclase phenocrysts commonly display
zoning (oscillatory, continuous or discontinuous)
and are twinned (although untwinned volcanic
plagioclase is quite common); metamorphic
plagioclase tends to lack zoning and twinning.
Orthoclase – is a monoclinic alkali (K-rich) feldspar.
It is often overlooked or misidentified in thin section.
It has low relief, commonly is untwinned and
cleavages may be hard to see; therefore, it is easily
confused with quartz. If twinning is present, it is
normally Carlsbad twinning. Orthoclase sometimes
contains vacuoles. Fig. 2.1: Ternary feldspar compositional diagram.

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 chaPter 2: feldSParS 21

Because twinning typically is still visible despite the Provenance indicators:

stain, microcline can be recognized in a modal count Almost all detrital feldspars are igneous or
and thus can yield some provenance information. In metamorphic in origin, with orthoclase and microcline
SEM, CL and on ion-milled surfaces, many of the being the most common. Na-rich plagioclase, the next
features shown in this chapter can be recognized in most common feldspar, is usually from volcanic rocks.
silt-size feldspars (i.e., mineral inclusions, twinning, Sanidine, from high-temperature felsic volcanic rocks,
alteration, corrosion, overgrowths). and Ca-rich plagioclase, from mafic to intermediate
igneous rocks, are relatively uncommon.

Fig. 2.2: Feldspar twinning: A) Interpenetrating Carlsbad twins, B) Carlsbad contact twins, C) Polysynthetic albite twins, and
D) Carlsbad and albite twins (modified from Deer et al., 2001).

Mid. Eocene – Lo. Oligocene

Spears Gp., Socorro Co., New
Mexico

The grain on the right is a euhedral, complexly

zoned plagioclase feldspar in a volcaniclastic
sandstone. This type of zoning is referred

PLAGIOCLASE
to as “oscillatory” and represents abrupt
(not continuous) changes in plagioclase
composition during crystallization. Zoning
is very common in plagioclase feldspars, and
this type of oscillatory zoning normally occurs
in crystals of volcanic origin. In addition to
compositional zoning, the other plagioclase
grains in this sample exhibit both Carlsbad and
albite twinning.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.14 mm

Mid. Permian Wegener Halvø Fm.,

Karstryggen area, East Greenland

This plagioclase feldspar (derived from

a volcanic source) shows zonation that is
marked by vacuoles and melt inclusions.
No compositional changes are visible in this
phenocryst, but changes in the crystal growth
caused melt inclusions to be formed.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.33 mm

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 22 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Cretaceous Mowry Fm., Moffat Co.,

Colorado

A zoned plagioclase crystal in a litharenite.

This grain of plagioclase exhibits both zoning
and twinning. The zoning is discontinuous—
there is a distinct break in the composition of
the core relative to the rim. The long, thin,
linear twins are polysynthetic albite twins (red
arrow shows one of several) and are overlain
by broader Carlsbad twins (white arrows).

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.06 mm

Lo. Miocene Harmony Hills Tuff,

Lincoln Co., Nevada

A compositionally zoned plagioclase feldspar

that contains mineral inclusions of quartz and
compositionally different plagioclase. The
large grain is a complexly zoned phenocryst
with oscillatory and discontinuous zoning.
Notice how the zoning and crystal growth
were affected by the feldspar inclusion (white
arrow). The inclusion produced an hourglass-
shaped crystal that was ultimately encased by
later crystal growth. Mineral inclusions are
not common in plagioclase crystals, but they
can occur.

XPL, KFS, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Mid. Eocene – Lo. Oligocene

Spears Gp., Catron Co., New
Mexico

Plagioclase crystals in a volcanic rock

fragment from a coarse conglomerate. The
two large, intersecting crystals are contact (or
penetration) twins. All of the feldspar crystals
are euhedral and contain oscillatory zoning,
and many of the feldspars in this clast also
contain albite and Carlsbad twins.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 2: Feldspars 23

Pliocene Verde Fm., Yavapai Co.,

Arizona

A volcanic plagioclase (center) in a

carbonate-rich matrix. The grain shows
excellent albite and Carlsbad twinning. The
polysynthetic albite twins are the long, thin,
light and dark planes within the crystal. The
Carlsbad (also known as simple) twin lies
between the light area and the mostly dark
area of the crystal (red arrow). There may be
pericline twinning at right angles to the albite
twinning (in the bright side of the crystal).
Zoning is also present—a combination of
continuous (where crystal composition
changes gradually) and discontinuous (abrupt)
changes.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Neogene (Miocene?) Horse Spring

Fm., Clark Co., Nevada

Plagioclase crystals in a volcaniclastic

sandstone. The plagioclase crystals exhibit
euhedral crystal outlines and are twinned. The
larger crystals have both excellent albite and
Carlsbad twinning. Some faint zoning is also
present.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.38 mm

Paleocene Tang Fm., Møre Basin,

Norwegian Sea †

A plagioclase grain that shows an embayed

margin. In this case, it is not likely to be
related to corrosion by changes in magma
composition, but more likely resulted from dis-
solution of a mineral intergrowth. The original
inclusions and/or intergrowths were, in part,
formed of euhedral crystals, but the original
mineral that constituted them is unknown.

XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

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 24 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., North

Sea, United Kingdom †

A plagioclase feldspar that displays two

directions of twinning (albite and pericline).
Without staining of K-feldspar grains within
the sample, this may be superficially confused
with microcline. The twins seen in this grain
are growth twins rather than deformation
twins as they terminate abruptly and generally
maintain their width.

PPL | XPL, AS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Lo. Miocene Arikaree Fm., Platte

Co., Wyoming

An altered plagioclase crystal in a volcani-

clastic sandstone. Feldspars as a group are far
more easily altered by chemical and mechanical
processes than quartz, so it is common to see
them degraded or even partially to completely
dissolved in thin section. Thus, alteration
commonly is a key factor in the recognition
of feldspars. In this pair of photomicrographs,
the central grain exhibits more alteration than
the other nearby plagioclase grains. This may
be a function of compositional variations. The
nearby dull green grain is a pyroxene crystal.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.20 mm

Cenozoic monzonite intrusive,

Clark Co., Nevada

These plagioclase feldspar crystals are still in

their source rock (a monzonite) but the crystals
exhibit extensive in-situ alteration to sericite
(a term for fine-grained white mica). Sericite
is one of the major minerals that replaces
feldspars, but calcite replacement also fre-
quently occurs. These crystals have both albite
and Carlsbad twins, and despite the alteration,
strong zoning is still visible.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 2: Feldspars 25

Paleocene sandstone, Sri Lanka

A plagioclase grain displaying extensive

patches of alteration to albite (red arrow points
to one such area). The albite shows a lighter
gray birefringence. Albitization is a common
subsurface replacement process in sandstones
(e.g., Land et al., 1987; see also Chapter 12
on feldspar cementation as well Chapters 19
and 20 on dissolution and replacement and the
citations at the ends of those chapters).

XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

Lo. Permian Cutler Fm., Mesa Co.,

Colorado

A highly altered plagioclase grain in a

lithic-rich, arkosic sandstone. This plagioclase
fragment has undergone alteration that includes
vacuolization and illitization (the small but
brightly birefringent crystals). Despite the
alteration, the albite twins are still clearly
visible in cross-polarized light. Highly altered
grains like this are easily distinguishable
from quartz grains, but it is important to try
to determine if the grains have undergone
alteration in situ or were already altered prior
to deposition.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.16 mm

Mid. Ordovician Newtown Gneiss,

New Haven Co., Connecticut

A complex plagioclase grain with a core and

outer rim of different compositions. Albite
twinning extends throughout the grain, but the
core shows considerable alteration (mainly
vacuolization and illitization) whereas the
rim is largely unaltered. This crystal clearly
illustrates that alteration can take place in
source rocks and can be highly compositionally
dependent. In a sandstone, the clear outer rim
of the feldspar might well be interpreted as
an authigenic overgrowth, but because this
crystal is still in its metamorphic source, the
rim clearly is a primary feature.

XPL, PFS, Scale bar = 0.09 mm

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 26 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Lo. Cretaceous Patula Arkose,

Coahuila, Mexico

Highly altered, twinned plagioclase feldspars

in an arkosic (feldspathic) sandstone. The
grains have been extensively altered by vac-
uolization and sericitization. The alteration
partially obliterates the twinning. The small
feldspar grain in the center and others in the
thin section are largely unaffected by alter-
ation. This probably is related to composi-
tional variations, but it could indicate that the
alteration occurred in the source terrane and
affected only some of the grains.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Cretaceous (Campanian) Nise
Fm., Møre Basin, Norwegian Sea †

A grain of ambiguous origin that may be a

lithic grain or a plagioclase containing mineral
inclusions of quartz and K-feldspar. The
plagioclase has been altered to white mica
‘sericite’, but in this case it is relatively coarser
than normal, suggesting that the feldspar may
have been hydrothermally altered prior to
deposition as a grain.

XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Mid. Jurassic Ness Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

An antiperthite that consists of an albite grain

with K-feldspar exsolution lamellae. The
irregular lamellar intergrowths formed in
the crystal as a consequence of reduction of
temperatures below the solvus during crys-
tallizaton, causing the solid solution series to
break down.

PPL | XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12

mm

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 Chapter 2: Feldspars 27

Up. Pennsylvanian Bursum Fm.,

Socorro Co., New Mexico

Nearby erosion of Precambrian granites

brought to the surface by block faulting
produced this grain. The central grain appears
to be composed of two different feldspars, but
it is entirely albite with albite twinning clearly
visible in the colorless part of the grain. This
sample shows how difficult feldspar identifi-
cation can be. The fact that the entire grain
is albite is based on quantitative geochemical
analysis (provided by FEI) and is supported
by detailed petrographic observations. The
alteration may reflect variations in the grain
chemistry or albitization of a precursor
feldspar.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Pennsylvanian Bursum Fm.,

Socorro Co., New Mexico

Another example from the Bursum Formation

of an albite grain. This grain has well-
developed cleavage and contains abundant
mineral inclusions of quartz and precursor
albites. In addition, it has a dusty brown
appearance due to abundant vacuoles. The
lack of twinning might suggest orthoclase,
but standard petrographic techniques (optic
sign and 2V) should be utilized to double
check initial conclusions, and microprobe or
other quantitative analytical techniques (or
inexpensive staining) can be further employed
to characterize the sample.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.34 mm

Up. Pennsylvanian Bursum Fm.,

Socorro Co., New Mexico

This albite grain contains exsolution lamellae.

Such lamellae form during cooling of a grain
below the stability field of the grain’s compo-
sition. As this occurs, the mineral exsolves to
form two minerals. This fabric is also called
perthite. This grain is currently all albite, but
originally the grain probably started out as
K-spar (brown) and albite (white; one example
indicated by yellow arrow). During the later
conversion of K-spar to albite, vugs or pores
formed that were later filled in by calcite spar
cements (the brightly birefringent mineral in
cross-polarized light).

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 28 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Pennsylvanian Bursum Fm.,

Socorro Co., New Mexico

A closeup view of lamellar fabric (perthite)

exhibiting two directions of exsolution. As in
the previous example, the original K-feldspar
grain was albitized during mesogenetic
diagenesis, and parts of the grain were infilled
or replaced by calcite (arrows point to calcitic
areas that appear either dark or bright in
cross-polarized light depending on extinction
position). Calcitization is a common diagenetic
alteration product in feldspars and is discussed
more fully in Chapter 20. The red coloration
in this and the two previous feldspars probably
comes from minute hematite inclusions (Putris
et al., 2007).

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic
Huizachal Fm., Tamaulipas, Mexico

A perthitic plagioclase feldspar grain with

exsolution lamellae of albite (dark gray first-
order birefringence) and anorthite (yellow
to orange first-order birefringence; example
shown by red arrow). This sandstone has been
cemented by illitic clays (example shown by
white arrow) that have birefringence colors
similar to those of the anorthite and by calcite
that has very high birefringence (as shown by
the yellow arrow).

XPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

Staining can help in the identification of

feldspars in thin section as well as in hand
specimen (Houghton, 1980). This thin section
has been stained for both plagioclase and
potassium feldspars. Plagioclase stains pink,
and the more calcium in the plagioclase crystal,
the deeper pink the stain. The potassium
feldspars turn a greenish to brownish yellow
as seen in this sample. Albite, a feldspar with
intermediate composition, may not pick up a
stain or be very lightly stained. The clear white
(unstained) grains in this sample are quartz.

PPL, KFS, PFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 2: Feldspars 29

Modern sediment, Llano Uplift,

Texas

This cathodoluminescent image shows

multiple feldspar grains from creek sediments
derived from the Town Mountain Granite of
the Llano Uplift. Most of the feldspar grains
are albite and show considerable variation in
color and texture, probably related to their
position within the granitic pluton. The K-spar/
microcline grain has considerable brighter CL
than the albite, a characteristic distinction
between the two feldspar types.

CCL, Scale bar = 24.9 µm

Eocene Cub Mountain Fm., Lincoln

Co., New Mexico

Feldspars are inherently less stable than quartz

during burial. In this photomicrograph, a
plagioclase grain was preferentially dissolved
along the crystal’s twin planes. The dissolution
has created secondary intragranular porosity.
Diagenetic alteration or partial to complete
dissolution of feldspars is so common that it
can substantially change the composition of
sandstones. For proper evaluation of original
sediment composition, it is important to
recognize altered feldspars, even ones far more
completely altered than this one (as in the next
image).

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

In this sample, plagioclase grains were almost

completely dissolved. The grain in the center
of this view contains remnants of plagioclase
along twinning planes and crystallographic
axes, indicating the influence both can play on
the selective dissolution of feldspars during
diagenesis. Secondary porosity created by
feldspar dissolution is an important component
in numerous sandstone reservoirs in the Gulf
Coast, the North Sea and other petroleum
provinces.

PPL, PFS, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

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 30 PetrograPhy of SandStoneS and aSSociated rockS

Up. Jurassic Spekk Fm., Møre

Basin, Norwegian Sea †

A plagioclase grain in which there are no twins

visible. The recognition as a feldspar in the
absence of twins is through the cleavage and
shape of the grain. The sample was stained
for K-feldspars and so the grain is known to be
plagioclase, without examining other optical
properties. The rock is largely cemented by
ankerite (the blue-stained cements).

XPL, KFS, AFeS, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Triassic Snadd Fm., Barents Sea,

offshore Norway †

A microcline grain that only took a weak stain

and so displays twinning quite clearly. In this
example the twins taper, rather than terminating
abruptly and are therefore deformation twins.
The grain is also partly perthitic and shows
K-FELDSPAR

exsolved lamellae of albite, which are more

irregular than the twins.

XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Mid. Ordovician Newtown Gneiss,

New Haven Co., Connecticut

Microcline feldspars with typical microcline,

grid or tartan twinning. Although such twinning
is characteristic of most alkali feldspars, it is
most commonly shown by microcline and is
a combination of albite and pericline twins.
Some small inclusions of plagioclase also are
present.

XPL, PFS, Scale bar = 0.16 mm

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 Chapter 2: Feldspars 31

Lo. Oligocene Nile Gp., Kongahu

Breccia, Westland, New Zealand

Detrital microcline with both tartan and

Carlsbad twinning. Microcline is a potassium
feldspar that normally occurs in anhedral
crystal masses in plutonic and gneissic source
rocks — they rarely exhibit crystal termina-
tions. This large microcline grain has pla-
gioclase crystal inclusions that may be a calcic
plagioclase based on the higher birefringence
of those inclusions.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.64 mm

Lo. Miocene Arikaree Fm., Platte

Co., Wyoming

The microcline grain in this photomicrograph

has microperthite intergrowths. The micro-
cline or grid twinning is interrupted by a more
brightly birefringent (orange) mineral. It may
be anorthite because calcium-rich plagioclase
has higher birefringence.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.16 mm

Cambrian Hitchock Lake Schist,

New Haven Co., Connecticut

The yellowish grain (stained) in center is a

microcline feldspar with spindle twinning—
the irregular microcline twins can often be
used to distinguish microcline. The brown,
elongate grain directly to the right of the
microcline is biotite.

PPL | XPL, KFS, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 32 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Pennsylvanian Alamitos Fm.,

San Miguel Co., New Mexico

A microcline grain with plagioclase inclusions.

The cores of the plagioclase crystals are more
altered than the rims, indicating that they are
compositionally zoned. The twinning in the
microcline is not well developed, possibly
related to how the grain was cut or more likely
it may be an intergrowth between potassium-
and sodium-rich feldspars (mesoperthite).

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Precambrian Town Mountain

Granite, Llano Uplift, Texas

The cathodoluminescence of feldspars can be

highly informative with regard to provenance
and formational processes. In this image, the
K-feldspars (blue tones) have characteristic
cross-hatch twinning and contain albite inclu-
sions (purple tones). The reddish blotches and
rims of the albite crystal as well as the black
blotches and veinlets in the K-feldspar reflect
hydrothermal alteration as the magma cooled.

CCL, Scale bar = 4.7 µm

Mid. Eocene Baca Fm., Socorro

Co., New Mexico

Anorthoclase contains more sodium than

microcline or orthoclase and commonly has
two directions of polysynthetic twinning
(albite and pericline), forming a distinctive
tartan or grid pattern. Although similar to
microcline twinning, the twins in anorthoclase
have especially thin lamellae.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 2: Feldspars 33

Devonian Old Red Sandstone Gp.,

Dumbarton, Scotland, U.K.

Orthoclase has very low relief and two

cleavages. It is biaxial negative with a 2V
commonly between 35° to 85°. It lacks the
distinctive grid twinning of microcline or the
polysynthetic albite twinning of plagioclase,
but orthoclase may have Carlsbad twins, as in
this example.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

Lo. Miocene Arikaree Fm., Platte

Co., Wyoming

Orthoclase’s low relief can make cleavage

recognition difficult, but not impossible.
Orthoclase can be easily confused with quartz,
but determining if it is biaxial (feldspars)
or uniaxial (quartz) is a definitive way to
ascertain its identity. Where the grains are in
contact with a mounting-medium-filled pore,
relative relief can be used for identification
(quartz having slightly higher relief than ortho-
clase). However, staining generally is the most
reliable and cost-effective way to distinguish
orthoclase from quartz.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Cretaceous Mesaverde Gp.,

McKinley Co., New Mexico

This orthoclase grain was probably intergrown

with another feldspar—a feature called perthite.
The partial dissolution of the intergrowths
(albite?) during diagenesis formed secondary
intragranular porosity. Because of the perthite
structure within the grain, orthoclase is easy
to distinguish from quartz (example at top
center).

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

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 34 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Cretaceous Prince Creek Fm.,

North Slope, Alaska

Orthoclase grains in a chert- and quartz-rich

sandstone. The orthoclase grains are cloudy
because they contain abundant vacuoles
related to alteration. The orthoclase feldspars
are surrounded by euhedral K-feldspar
overgrowths. These overgrowths appear
clearer because they contain fewer inclusions.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.04 mm

Mid. Permian Wegener Halvø Fm.,
Karstryggen area, East Greenland

An orthoclase grain with numerous quartz

inclusions within it (yellow arrow points to
one of many such inclusions). Unlike quartz,
feldspars are structurally less competent and,
during compaction, they can break along
cleavage planes. In this grain, the quartz inclu-
sions show no sign of breakage; whereas, the
orthoclase feldspar is shattered.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.46 mm

Mid. Jurassic Ness Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

A grain of perthite containing elongate lamellae

and blebs of exsolved albite within K-feldspar.
The albite lamellae were not stained by the
sodium cobaltinitrite.

PPL | XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12

mm

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 Chapter 2: Feldspars 35

Modern sediment, Llano Uplift,

Texas

Small creeks that carry sediment from the Town

Mountain Granite complex contain abundant
weathered feldspathic debris. This pair of
BSE and CL images shows a fine-sand-size
K-feldspar grain that is clearly identifiable as a
microcline and has albite exsolution lamellae.
Even silt-size grains will retain this textural
imprint, and thus be traceable to their source.

BSE(SEM) | CCL, Scale bar = 14.2 µm

Up. Cretaceous (Coniacian)

Blålange Fm., Møre Basin,
Norwegian Sea †

A perthite grain that has had albite lamellae

preferentially dissolved. This dissolution has
created secondary intragranular pore space.
The shape of the lamellae appears to have been
tapering and wavy, similar to ‘flame perthite’.
The dissolution appears to have postdated the
main period of compaction, because the partly
dissolved grain is unaffected at grain-to-grain
contacts.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

Cenozoic ignimbrite, Nye Co.,

Nevada

A sanidine crystal in a weakly welded volcanic

tuff. The slide is stained for alkali feldspars,
so the feldspar phenocrysts and some of the
groundmass picks up the yellow stain. Sanidine
is a high-temperature mineral commonly
found in volcanic rocks that are rich in silica
and contain variable amounts of sodium and
potassium (rhyolites, rhyodacites, phonolites
and trachytes); in addition, it is sometimes, but
not commonly, found in contact metamorphic
rocks. Carlsbad twins are common in sanidine,
as shown here.

PPL | XPL, KFS, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 36 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Cenozoic ignimbrite, Nye Co.,

Nevada

Sanidine can easily be confused with quartz,

but it is biaxial (-) and has two directions of
cleavage. It also can be distinguished from
other alkali feldspars by its small 2V. The
sanidine crystal in the upper right side of
the photomicrograph is euhedral and zoned.
Within the sanidine, there is a twinned crystal
that has been partially resorbed prior to
sanidine crystallization. This crystal is likely
to be either anorthoclase (part of the solid
solution series between albite and sanidine)
or albite. Anorthoclase has grid twinning like
microcline and occurs in high temperature
sodium-rich melts.

PPL | XPL, KFS, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

A grain of K-feldspar (microcline or orthoclase

based on twinning) that has taken a strong stain.
The stain intensity may represent composition
as the grain displays a thin overgrowth, which
is a paler yellow. The overgrowth has also
been subjected to partial dissolution.

PPL, KFS, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07

mm

Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Gp.,

Co. Antrim, Northern Ireland, U.K. †

A view of K-feldspar grains (stained yellow)

with well-developed diagenetic overgrowths.
The larger grain exhibits a fine-scale perthite
texture, which results from the presence of
multiple exsolution lamellae of albite.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.17 mm

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 Chapter 2: Feldspars 37

Lo.–Mid. Eocene Cub Mountain

Fm., Lincoln Co., New Mexico

The dissolution of orthoclase grains was

controlled by cleavage and fracture planes
within the grains. Partial to complete
dissolution of these grains has produced
secondary intragranular porosity. The rounded
pore (yellow arrow) is a grain mold produced
by the complete dissolution of a feldspar or
rock fragment. The sample was cemented
by clays, quartz overgrowths, iron oxides and
calcite.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Lo. Pennsylvanian Morrow B
Sandstone, Ochiltree Co., Texas

This was likely a perthite grain of orthoclase

and albite lamellae. During diagenesis, most
of the orthoclase was dissolved leaving thin
bands of inclusion-rich albite and creating
secondary intragranular porosity. Later, the
albite stringers were overgrown by inclu-
sion-poor albite cements.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

A feldspar-stained arkosic sandstone. The

central feldspar grain has a plagioclase core
that is stained pink surrounded by gold colored
(stained) orthoclase. Due to the pale pink
nature of the stain, the core may be albite.
Staining can help quickly tell the difference
between plagioclase, K-feldspars and quartz.
For large projects, staining can increase pro-
ductivity and cost-effectiveness as well as
reliability of the information.

PPL, PFS, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

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 38 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks
Cited References and Additional Information Sources
Barth, T. F. W., 1969, Feldspars: New York, Wiley-Interscience, 259 p. published by the Mineralogical Society. Sources and supporting
Blatt, H., 1985, Provenance studies and mudrocks: Journal of Sedimentary information: Mineralogical Magazine, v. 74, p. 529-551, doi: 10.1180/
Research, v. 55, p. 69-75, doi: 10.1306/212F8611-2B24-11D7- minmag.2010.074.3.529.
8648000102C1865D. Parsons, I., and M. R. Lee, 2009, Mutual replacement reactions in alkali
Brown, W. L., ed., 1984, Feldspars and Feldspathoids: Structures, Properties feldspars I: Microtextures and mechanisms: Contributions to Mineralogy
and Occurrences: Dordrecht, Netherlands, D. Reidel Publishing, NATO and Petrology, v. 157, p. 641-661, doi: 10.1007/s00410-008-0355-4.
ASI Series C 137, 541 p. Parsons, I., P. Thompson, M. R. Lee, and N. Cayzer, 2005, Alkali feldspar
Deer, W. A., R. A. Howie, and J. Zussman, 2001, Rock-Forming Minerals, microtextures as provenance indicators in siliciclastic rocks and their
Volume 4A, Framework Silicates: Feldspars: London, GSL, 972 p. role in feldspar dissolution during transport and diagenesis: Journal of
Dickinson, W. R., 1985, Interpreting provenance relations from detrital modes Sedimentary Research, v. 75, p. 921-942, doi: 10.2110/jsr.2005.071.
of sandstones, in G. G. Zuffa, ed., Provenance of Arenites (NATO Science Pittman, E. D, 1970, Plagioclase feldspar as an indicator of provenance in
Series C): Dordrecht, Netherlands, D. Reidel Publishing, p. 333-361, doi: sedimentary rocks: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 40, p. 591-598,
10.1007/978-94-017-2809-6_15. doi: 10.1306/74D71FDC-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D.
Emmons, R. C., R. M. Gates, S. E. Clabaugh, R. M. Crump, K. B. Ketner, V. Plymate, T. G., and L. J. Suttner, 1983, Evaluation of optical and X-ray
Mann, C. D. Reynolds, C. Bradley, and E. J. Lyons, eds., 1953, Selected techniques for detecting source-rock-controlled variation in detrital
Petrogenic Relationships of Plagioclase: New York, GSA Memoir 52, 142 potassium feldspars: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 53, p. 509-519,
p., doi: 10.1130/MEM52-pv. doi: 10.1306/212F821A-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D.
Götze, J., M. R. Krbetschek, D. Habermann, and D. Wolf, 2000, High-resolution Putnis, A., R. Hinrichs, C. V. Putnis, U. Golla-Schindler, and L. G. Collins,
cathodoluminescence studies of feldspar minerals, in M. Pagel, V. Barbin, 2007, Hematite in porous red-clouded feldspars: Evidence of large-scale
P. Blanc, and D. Ohnenstetter, eds., Cathodoluminescence in Geosciences: crustal fluid–rock interaction: Lithos, v. 95, p. 10-18, doi: 10.1016/j.
Berlin, Springer, p. 245-270, doi: 10.1007/978-3-662-04086-7_10. lithos.2006.07.004.
Helmold, K. P., 1985, Provenance of feldspathic sandstones—the effect of Ribbe, P. H., 1995, The crystal structures of the aluminum-silicate feldspars,
diagenesis on provenance interpretations: A review, in G. G. Zuffa, ed., in I. Parsons, ed., Feldspars and Their Reactions (NATO ASI Series, Series
Provenance of Arenites (NATO Science Series C): Dordrecht, Netherlands, C, v. 421): Dordrecht, Netherlands, Kluwer Academic Publ., p. 1-50.
D. Reidel Publishing, p. 139-164, doi: 10.1007/978-94-017-2809-6_7. Smith, J. V., and W. L. Brown, 1988, Feldspar Minerals, Volume 1. Crystal
Hersey, J. B., 1959, Optical properties of potassic feldspars: GSA Bulletin, v. Structure, Physical, Chemical and Microtextural Properties (2nd Edition):
70, p. 511-538, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1959)70[511:OPOPF]2.0.CO;2. New York, Springer-Verlag, 828 p.
Houghton, H. F., 1980, Refined technique for staining plagioclase and alkali Stewart, D. B., and P. H. Ribbe, 1975, Optical properties of feldspars, in P. H.
feldspars in thin section: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 50, p. 629-631. Ribbe, ed., Feldspar Mineralogy (Reviews in Mineralogy 2): Washington,
James, W. C., G. H. Mack, and L. J. Suttner, 1981, Relative alteration of DC, Mineralogical Society of America, p. 121-140.
microcline and sodic plagioclase in semi-arid and humid climates: Journal Suttner, L. J., and P. K. Dutta, 1986, Alluvial sandstone composition
of Sedimentary Research, v. 51, p. 151-164, doi: 10.1306/212F7C34- and paleoclimate: I. Framework mineralogy: Journal of Sedimentary
2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D. Research, v. 56, p. 329-345, doi: 10.1306/212F8909-2B24-11D7-
Krynine, P. D., 1942, Provenance versus mineral stability as a controlling 8648000102C1865D.
factor in the composition of sediments: GSA Bulletin, v. 53, p. 1850-1851. Tobi, A. C., 1962, Characteristic patterns of plagioclase twinning: Norsk
Land, L. S., K. L. Milliken, and E. F. McBride, 1987, Diagenetic evolution Geologisk Tidsskrift, v. 42, p. 264-271.
of Cenozoic sandstones, Gulf of Mexico sedimentary basin: Sedimentary Todd, T. W., 1968, Paleoclimatology and the relative stability of feldspar
Geology, v. 50, p. 195-225, doi: 10.1016/0037-0738(87)90033-9. minerals under atmospheric conditions: Journal of Sedimentary
Laves, F., 1950, The lattice and twinning of microcline and other potash Research, v. 38, p. 832-844, doi: 10.1306/74D71A87-2B21-11D7-
feldspars: Journal of Geology, v. 58, p. 548-571, doi: 10.1086/625762. 8648000102C1865D.
Laves, F., 1952, Phase relations of the alkali feldspars: I. Introductory remarks: Trevena, A. S., and W. P. Nash, 1979, Chemistry and provenance
Journal of Geology, v. 60, p. 436-450, doi: 10.1086/625996. of detrital plagioclase: Geology, v. 7, p. 475-478, doi:
Le Pera, E., J. Arribas, S. Critelli, and A. Tortosa, 2001, The effects of source 10.1130/0091-7613(1979)7<475:CAPODP>2.0.CO;2.
rocks and chemical weathering on the petrogenesis of siliciclastic sand Trevena, A. S., and W. P. Nash, 1981, An electron microprobe study of
from the Neto River (Calabria, Italy): Implications for provenance studies: detrital feldspar: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 51, p. 137-149, doi:
Sedimentology, v. 48, p. 357-378, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3091.2001.00368.x. 10.1306/212F7C2F-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D.
Lee, M. R., and I. Parsons, 1998, Microtextural controls of diagenetic alteration Tyrrell, S., A. K. Souders, P. D. W. Haughton, J. S. Daly, and P. M. Shannon,
of detrital alkali feldspars: A case study of the Shap conglomerate (Lower 2010, Sedimentology, sandstone provenance and palaeodrainage on the
Carboniferous), northwest England: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. eastern Rockall Basin margin: Evidence from the Pb isotopic composition
68, p. 198-211, doi: 10.2110/jsr.68.198. of detrital K-feldspar, in B. Vining, and S. C. Pickering, eds., Global
Milliken, K. L., 1992, Chemical behavior of detrital feldspars in mudrocks Petroleum Systems in Space and Time (Petroleum Geology Conference
versus sandstones, Frio Formation (Oligocene), South Texas: Journal of series 7): London, GSL, p. 937-952, doi: 10.1144/0070937.
Sedimentary Research, v. 62, p. 790-801, doi: 10.1306/D42679DD-2B26- van de Kamp, P. C., 2010, Arkose, subarkose, quartz sand, and associated
11D7-8648000102C1865D. muds derived from felsic plutonic rocks in glacial to tropical humid
Morad, S., 1988, Albitized microcline grains of post-depositional and probable climates: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 80, p. 895-918, doi: 10.2110/
detrital origins in Brøttum Formation sandstones (Upper Proterozoic), jsr.2010.081.
Sparagmite Region of southern Norway: Geological Magazine, v. 125, p. Van Der Plas, L., 1966, The Identification of Detrital Feldspars: New York,
229-239, doi: 10.1017/S0016756800010177. Elsevier Publ. Co., 305 p.
Nesbitt, H. W., C. M. Fedo, and G. M. Young, 1997, Quartz and feldspar Vance, J. A., 1961, Polysynthetic twinning in plagioclase: American
stability, steady and non-steady-state weathering, and petrogenesis of Mineralogist, v. 46, p. 1097-1119.
siliciclastic sands and muds: Journal of Geology, v. 105, p. 173-192, doi: Wright, T. L., and D. B. Stewart, 1968, X-ray and optical study of alkali
10.1086/515908. feldspar: I. Determination of composition and structural state from refined
Odom, I. E., T. W. Doe, and R. H. Dott, 1976, Nature of feldspar-grain unit-cell parameters and 2V: American Mineralogist, v. 53, p. 38-87.
size relations in some quartz-rich sandstones: Journal of Sedimentary

FLake, near Moran, Teton Co., Wyoming.

Research, v. 46, p. 862-870, doi: 10.1306/212F7077-2B24-11D7-
acing Page: Lithic clasts from the shore of Jackson
8648000102C1865D.
Parsons, I., 2010, Feldspars defined and described: A pair of posters

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02Grains-Feld.indd 38 1/25/15 7:06 PM

 GRAINS:
ROCK FRAGMENTS (LITHIC FRAGMENTS)

C
H
A
P
T
E
SEDIMENTARY (SRFS)
R

3 METAMORPHIC (MRFS)
IGNEOUS (IRFS)
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 40 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Rock Fragments
Rock fragments (also called lithic fragments or Chemical – deposits which form by direct
composite grains) can be derived from a wide variety of precipitation from water. This includes a variety
lithotypes and commonly have source-specific textures of calcareous deposits including tufas, soil nodules,
and compositions that can be recognized in thin section. oolitic limestones, cave deposits and travertines.
Because of their multicrystalline/granular nature, rock Siliceous materials, including silcretes and inorganic
fragments tend to be more common in the coarser cherts (along with associated megaquartz and
grain-size modes of clastic terrigenous rocks (although, chalcedony), and a variety of evaporite and halide
under the right circumstances, they can even be seen minerals and iron oxides also can form SRFs.
in mudrocks). Given the composite character of lithic Siliciclastic – can be a variety of mineral particles,
fragments, many petrographers use the Gazzi-Dickinson but most sedimentary rock fragments are dominated
method of point counting to record the constituent by quartz, feldspars, heavy minerals, micas and
crystals within the fragments, rather than counting the clays. Fine-grained sedimentary rock fragments
fragments as such (Ingersoll et al., 1984). Rock fragments sometimes contain a high proportion of mica, clay
should be very common in sediments, and they are in and organic material, making them brown in plane
many deposits, but because of their multi-crystalline or light.
multi-granular nature, many succumb to the effects of Other:
weathering, abrasion or later mechanical or chemical Diagenesis can alter the composition of grains. Bright
diagenesis. But because the surviving rock fragments birefringence in argillaceous grains, for example,
yield some of the most direct evidence of contributions may be an indication of an illitic composition (either
from igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary terranes, it inherited from the source rock or locally induced).
is especially important that such grains be accurately
identified. Other similar grains:
Some clayey grains may originate as fecal pellets
and therefore are not rock fragments. Likewise,
Sedimentary Rock Fragments grains of cemented sediment (typically calcareous,
but potentially also phosphatic) that formed
Sedimentary rock fragments (SRFs) consist of eroded penecontemporaneously within the depositional
and transported clasts of biochemical (cherts, carbonates setting of the host sediment (as opposed to having
and coals), chemical (evaporites and oolitic limestones) been eroded and transported from older rocks
or siliciclastic rocks (sandstone, siltstone and claystone). outside the depositional area) are commonly termed
The type of fragments can affect the mechanical stability carbonate intraclasts or phosphatic nodules and are
of the resulting rock (especially mudstone clasts that not counted by many petrographers as true SRFs in
can disaggregate to form pseudomatrix); therefore, rock classification. Carbonate clasts of older material
differentiating between ductile and rigid fragments is reworked from outside the depositional setting are
important to the compactional history as well as to the termed “extraclasts” (as opposed to the internally-
potential to preserve primary porosity. derived “intraclasts”) and are viewed by all workers
Major characteristics: as true SRFs.
Composition: Cemented and compacted sandstones grade
Biochemical – formed by organisms or from into metamorphic quartzite. Chert is dominantly
the remains of organisms (including trapping sedimentary in origin, but it also can result from
and binding by microbes). Carbonate clasts are diagenetic replacement of volcanic grains (pumice in
composed of calcite or dolomite primarily produced, particular) or may form from hydrothermal fluids.
directly or indirectly, by biological or biochemical Texture within the clasts sometimes can give clues to
processes. Most such SRFs are composed of fine- their origin. The compaction of fragments of altered
grained carbonate (mudstones) or are skeletal or igneous rock and micas, or of shales and claystones
pelletal limestones or dolomites. Siliceous organisms may lead to the production of pseudomatrix; more
(diatoms, radiolarians and sponges) are a major rigid grains forcing softer grains into available pore
source of silica for cherts. Soft organic matter, spaces. The presence or absence of quartz silt can help
including plant remains, are common in organic- to distinguish the squashed detrital grains from true
rich shales, coals and peat deposits. matrix.

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: SRFs 41

Lo. Permian Wolfcamp Shale,

Reeves Co., Texas

A fossiliferous carbonate rock fragment in

an organic-rich shaly matrix. Fragments
(extraclasts) of a carbonate shelf margin were
probably slumped or eroded into the adjacent
basin. Based on the angularity of this grain,

CARBONATE
it was not transported a long distance from its
source in light of the fact that carbonate rock
fragments round or break down rapidly during
transport. However, there is an important
exception to that rule—gravity flows (debris
flows, mud slides and the like) where grains
are cushioned by a finer-grained matrix during
transport.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Paleogene Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,

Texas

A variety of carbonate clasts in a quartz arenite.

The carbonate clasts are all substantially
rounded indicating that they were transported
over enough distance to abrade their edges. The
clasts have a variety of compositions ranging
from mudstones to packstones, indicating
that the grains were supplied by the erosion
of multiple units or multiple facies. Since
carbonate SRF’s weather and abrade easily,
there are a limited number of environments in
which they occur in abundance. Those include
many arid-region settings and especially
alluvial fan deposits.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.47 mm

Paleogene Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,

Texas

Diverse, rounded sedimentary lithoclasts in a

fluvial or alluvial fan sandstone. The SRFs
include a dolomitic limestone clast with a
large truncated gastropod shell, carbonate
mudstones (micrites), and terrigenous silt-
stones and claystones. Again, the diversity
of lithoclasts suggests that multiple units or
facies were being eroded to source the clasts,
but transport distance was probably minimal.
If these were intraclasts, most classifications
would not count them as SRFs; but because
they most likely are extraclasts, they generally
are counted as sedimentary rock fragments.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 42 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Paleogene Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,

Texas

A variety of carbonate lithoclasts in a

quartz-rich sandstone. The dark wackestone
fragment shows that these rocks were well
lithified prior to weathering and transport.
The clast contains a calcite-filled fracture that
was clearly formed prior to reworking. These
grains are all extraclasts, eroded from older, but
not very distant, limestone source rocks and
deposited in an alluvial to fluvial environment.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Up. Eocene Oberaudorf Beds, Tirol,

Austria

Spicular chert and carbonate rock fragments

make up this rock. These carbonate clasts are
all extraclasts; they have a variety of different
carbonate fabrics and textures and were fully
lithified prior to erosion and transport. Some
clasts are recrystallized and one has a healed
fracture. All of these features indicate an extra-
basinal origin for the carbonate rock fragments
(the definition of an extraclast). A rock, such
as this, that is dominated by extraclasts is
termed a “calclithite”.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Mid. Jurassic Curtis Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

A carbonate extraclast in a quartz sandstone.

This SRF is a partially glauconitized ooid
and foraminiferal grainstone. The rock was
lithified and partially replaced prior to being
ripped up and reworked into the sediment.
The clast probably was transported a short
distance into a deeper-water environment
with an abundance of clastic material. Note
the abundant microfractures filled with pink-
stained epoxy.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: SRFs 43

Mid. Jurassic Curtis Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

This sample shows a calcitic ooid, a shell

fragment and a micritic limestone clast set in
a quartz sandstone. It commonly is difficult
to differentiate intraclasts (contemporaneous
limestone fragments formed within the
depositional setting) from extraclasts (older
carbonate clasts transported from outside the
depositional basin). Therefore, it is important
to integrate both broader petrographic and field
data to determine the origin of the clasts. These
grains probably are all extraclasts based both
upon their diverse character and the presence
of clear-cut extraclasts in other examples from
this rock (see previous photo).

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Up. Cambrian Sillery Gp., Gaspé

Peninsula, Quebec, Canada

A fine-grained, marly, carbonate rock fragment.

This clast has been partially dolomitized with
several larger dolomite rhombs clearly visible.
During compaction, this grain behaved in a
ductile fashion, deforming plastically into sur-
rounding pore space.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.16 mm

Triassic Skagerrak Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea

Numerous large sedimentary rock fragments

within a conglomerate. This intraformational
conglomerate contains intraclasts that range
from carbonate mudstones to very sandy
mudstones. These clasts were derived from
caliche horizons within the formation and
were reworked into this considerably younger
unit. In the absence of such stratigraphic
information, these compositionally relatively
similar extraclasts could be mistaken for
intraclasts.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.70 mm

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 44 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Triassic Dockum Gp., New Mexico

A compacted calclithite composed almost

entirely of carbonate rock fragments
(extraclasts). These grains are less varied
in composition and texture than those in the
previous examples. This sediment is derived
from a weathered and reworked caliche (a
calcium carbonate-rich soil crust), but one
of substantially older age than the rock into
which it was redeposited. Thus, these grains
can legitimately be called extraclasts. The
red-brown color was caused by infiltration of
iron-oxides into the matrix and some of the
clasts.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.38 mm

Mid. Permian Brushy Canyon Fm.,

Culberson Co., Texas

Several well-rounded detrital dolomite

rock fragments are visible in this quartzose
sandstone. Dolomite is slightly harder than
calcite and survives transport and compaction
better. In this sample, the dolomite clasts
have iron oxide stain on their exterior surface.
The quartz grain in the lower right has well-
developed bipyramidal overgrowths that are
in optical continuity with the detrital core of
the grain. Other grains include polycrystalline
quartz (yellow arrow) and plagioclase (white
arrow). The rock is cemented by both
authigenic quartz and dolomite.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Mid. Oligocene Molasse, Ton

Mergel Beds, Bavaria, Germany

The iron-stained dolomite rhombs in this

photomicrograph are of probable detrital
origin. The iron staining, the slightly rounded
corners and their size-equivalence with the
other detrital components of this rock are
all evidence of a probable detrital origin
for the individual dolomite crystals and
multicrystalline dolomite clasts. The detrital
dolomites are partly enclosed by authigenic
carbonate cements.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.04 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: SRFs 45

Eocene Sanders Canyon Fm.,

Lincoln Co., New Mexico

A detrital dolomite rhomb in a feldspathic

sandstone. The cloudy dolomite rhomb
is considered to be detrital based on the
exceptionally well rounded corners on this
rhomb (and occurrence of other similarly
rounded rhombs in the same sample); the
detrital grain here was overgrown by less
inclusion-rich dolomite cement that filled
porosity in the surrounding area.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.14 mm

Mid. Permian Huledal Fm., Canning

Land, East Greenland

A detrital sandstone clast within a lithic

sandstone. Such sandstone clasts are good
indicators of a sedimentary source, but
sandstone fragments are relatively scarce in

SILICICLASTIC
the rock record, especially considering the
high percentage of the Earth’s surface covered
by terrigenous clastic rocks. Most sandstone
and siltstone fragments (other than quartzite)
tend to break down into their component grains
after even moderate transport distances. This
example shows subangular to angular quartz
fully cemented by carbonate and clay.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Carboniferous (Kulm) Teuschnitzer

Conglomerate, Frankenwald,
Bavaria, Germany

A large sedimentary rock fragment in a

matrix-rich sandstone (a possible debris-flow
deposit). This fragment is a very fine grained
sandstone clast with clay cements. Like all
sandstone clasts, this rock probably did not
travel very far prior to deposition and/or what
transport it underwent may have been as a
largely cushioned, dense gravity flow. Many
of the grains in the matrix are similar to the
grains within the clast.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 46 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Cambrian Riley Fm., Hickory

Sandstone Mbr., Llano Co., Texas

A supermature sandstone containing a well-

rounded sedimentary rock fragment. The
quartz grains on the edge of the SRF are broken
and worn smooth, and the internal grains are
cemented by iron oxides. Because the grain
is exceptionally well rounded, it may well
have survived more than one cycle of erosion
and deposition. The grain has embayed a
chitonophosphatic brachiopod shell and is
encased in calcite cement. This rock directly
overlies a major unconformity and although
it sits directly on Precambrian basement, it
probably was derived from erosion of earlier
sandstones that sat on the unconformity.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Silurian Clinton Ironstone, Giles

Co., Virginia

A detrital siltstone rock fragment (center)

and numerous extremely well-rounded (sec-
ond-cycle) quartz grains are cemented together
by hematite. The presence of very well-
rounded quartz, especially when accompanied
by SRFs, helps to identify sedimentary source
terranes. The angular quartz silt grains in the
SRF are embedded in an exceptionally light-
colored, phosphatic matrix.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Paleogene Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,

Texas

This rock contains a variety of lithic fragments

ranging from a large siltstone clast in the center
to smaller volcanic rock (black arrow), siltstone
and limestone (orange arrow) fragments in the
surrounding sediment (dark-colored and light-
colored respectively in the plane-polarized
image). All the lithic fragments are rounded,
indicating at least moderate-distance transport,
although most of these lithologies are fairly
easily abraded.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.64 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: SRFs 47

Mid. Permian Huledal Fm., Canning

Land, East Greenland

Rounded, laminated siltstone and sandstone

rock fragments within a lithic arenite. This
calcite-cemented conglomerate contains both
sedimentary and igneous rock fragments
reflecting a complex source terrane. This rock
is interpreted as having been deposited in a
fluvial to marginal marine environment that
was fairly proximal to the sources of the clasts.
Note the circumgranular fracturing (marked by
blue-dyed epoxy) that is probably an artifact
of sample handling or thin-section preparation.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Silurian Tuscarora Sandstone,

Lebanon Co., Pennsylvania

A lithic sandstone with a variety of sedi-

mentary rock fragments that range from shale
to siltstone and sandstone. The shale fragments
underwent ductile deformation during com-
paction, in some places getting squeezed into
adjacent pore spaces. The black crystals in this
view are pyrite, formed both as replacement
and as intergranular cement.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Mid. Permian Huledal Fm., Canning

Land, East Greenland

A variety of rock fragments make up this

conglomeratic (granule-grade) rock. Some
of the lithic fragments are igneous (mostly
volcanic); however, most are sedimentary
rock fragments. Visible sedimentary clasts
include argillaceous sandstone, silty shale
and limestone. The shale clasts are extremely
dark, probably related to a high organic-carbon
content.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.45 mm

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 48 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

A shallow marine sandstone with a silty

claystone clast containing grains of K-feldspar,
quartz and glauconite. The SRF was partly
compacted between rigid grains. The size of
this rock fragment is larger than surrounding
detrital quartz. The clay matrix is dark in
color, due, at least in part, to its organic-carbon
content. It is sometimes the case that feldspars
preferentially survive diagenesis within
clay-rich areas, such as this clast, because
the clays minimize contact with reactive pore
fluids.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

A sandstone containing a large siltstone clast

(center), surrounded by other ductile siltstone
and claystone grains. The aligned micas in the
grain may have resulted from hydrodynamic
processes or compaction and are not in
optical alignment as determined under cross-
polarized light. The grain also contains quartz
and K-feldspar as well as authigenic pyrite.
Identification of the true number of lithic grains
in a rock is important for proper sandstone
classification—several slightly deformed to
extensively degraded SRFs are visible in this
field of view.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

Mid. Jurassic Ness Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

A siltstone grain that has been heavily

deformed and squeezed between grains, to
the point where it could be classed as pseudo-
matrix or could be mistaken for detrital clay
and silt. The “clean” pores in the rest of this
sample confirm that this was once a detrital
lithic fragment.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: SRFs 49

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

A shale clast within a litharenite. Many of

the other grains are degraded and compacted.
The darker streaks are an artifact of resin
impregnation along shrinkage fractures in the
grain. The claystone grain contains numerous,
small pyrite framboids (the tiny dark dots best

SHALE
seen in the light-colored layer).

PPL, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.49 mm

Triassic Chinle Fm., eastern

Arizona

Shale sedimentary rock fragments can be

difficult to distinguish from low-rank meta-
morphic fragments, like slate. SRFs tend to
be somewhat softer and more malleable than
metamorphic clasts, so they more commonly
deform in a ductile manner, essentially
“flowing” into surrounding pore space. As very
soft grains, they also are likely to be embayed
by adjacent harder grains. In addition to the
deformational properties, the relatively poor
internal clay crystal orientation also supports a
sedimentary origin for these clasts.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Triassic Chinle Fm., eastern

Arizona

As in the previous photomicrograph, this

shale fragment was plastically deformed and
embayed by surrounding more rigid grains,
mostly chert clasts, during burial and com-
paction. In the cross-polarized light view, the
clay minerals show relatively little consistency
of orientation.

PPL / XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 50 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Cambrian Sillery Gp., Gaspé

Peninsula, Quebec, Canada

In addition to being easily confused with met-

amorphic rock fragments, semiconsolidated
shale fragments also can be confused with rock
matrix (finer-grained interstitial material origi-
nally deposited along with the coarser grains).
In this example, a slightly silty and dolomitic
shale fragment has been so deformed between
adjacent harder grains that the original
boundaries of the clast are no longer visible,
producing pseudomatrix. One of the keys to
recognition is to look at the rest of the slide to
see if the material between all the grains looks
similar (matrix) or varied and more isolated
(pseudomatrix).

PPL, Scale bar = 0.09 mm

Up. Cambrian Sillery Gp., Gaspé

Peninsula, Quebec, Canada

A variety of squashed shale fragments yielding

what appears to be a matrix-rich rock. Com-
paction caused the shale grains to deform
plastically and “flow” into surrounding pores
to form pseudomatrix. In this example, one
can still see some original clast outlines as
well as abrupt differences in the character of
the matrix from one area to another—both are
keys to recognizing pseudomatrix.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.09 mm

Permian basinal sandstone,

Presidio Co., Texas

These sedimentary rock fragments are rela-

tively hard shale (possibly slate) fragments.
The clay minerals in the clasts exhibit consid-
erable preferred orientation. In plane-polarized
light, the center of the image appears to be one
large, albeit oddly-shaped, grain or a patch of
deformed matrix. However, in cross-polarized
light, three distinct grains are visible based
on the different orientations of the strongly
aligned clay minerals in each clast.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: SRFs 51

Permian basinal sandstone,

Presidio Co., Texas

Several squashed rock fragments have flowed

together to form pseudomatrix. The color
variations within the pseudomatrix probably
represent different, now largely merged shale
clasts. In the absence of those variations, it
would be difficult to distinguish this pseudo-
matrix from true primary matrix.

PPL / XPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Lo. Cambrian Unicoi Fm.,

Shenandoah Valley, Virginia

Multiple deformed shale or slate sedimentary

rock fragments are deeply embayed by
adjacent, more rigid grains causing the clay
minerals to deform plastically into open pore
spaces. The strong clay mineral orientation in
these shale clasts may be secondary (that is,
produced in situ during the deformation of this
rock and not inherited from the source of the
clasts).

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Emery

Co., Utah

A well-rounded chert SRF in a quartz arenite.

The plane-polarized light view of the chert
shows a typical brownish color and mottled
appearance that is most likely due to the
abundance of water-filled inclusions common
in cherts and crystal boundary effects in
CHERT

the microcrystalline fabric of chert grains.

In polarized light, the microcrystalline to
fibrous fabric (representing a mix of chert
and chalcedony) is clearly visible. The dark
material in part of this photomicrograph is
hematite cement.

PPL | XPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.17 mm

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 52 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Permian (former Ufimian)

Solikamskaya Horizon, near
Berezniki, Perm region, Russia

Large and slightly rounded chert clasts in a

calclithite. The lower chert grain is uniformly
microcrystalline quartz, but the upper grain has
more variability in crystal size. The circular
ghosts in the upper chert clast are likely after
sponge spicules. Cherts generally are the most
durable of all sedimentary rock fragments;
they survive both substantial transport and
considerable weathering. Thus, they are
the most common rock fragment indicators
of sedimentary provenance and in a mature
sandstone they may be the only indicators of a
sedimentary source component.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.33 mm

Lo. Permian (Wolfcampian) Hueco

Fm., Powwow Conglomerate,
Hudspeth Co., Texas

This lithic arenite contains limestone and chert

SRFs as well as fragmented bioclasts. Some
of the chert clasts contain molds of siliceous
sponge spicules and possible bivalve fragments
(black arrow). The conglomerate has small,
nonferroan carbonate clasts (red); ferroan
calcite cement (blue) and euhedral dolomite
cement (unstained) have occluded all porosity.
Although limestone clasts fare poorly during
transport and chert clasts are more durable,
they commonly occur together where transport
has been short because they typically co-occur
in the source terranes.

PPL | XPL, AFeS, Scale bar = 0.33 mm

Oligocene – Miocene tuffaceous

sandstone, Jackson Co., Oregon

A large, well-rounded chert clast that is far

larger than any of the other grains in this
rock. The chert is highly fractured (fractures
inherited from the source rock and not
produced in situ in this deposit). Fracturing is
very common in cherts because they are among
the hardest and most brittle of all sedimentary
rocks. Thus, fractures are one characteristic
that helps to distinguish chert grains from more
ductile fine-grained shale clasts composed of
low-birefringence clays (e.g., kaolinite). It is,
alas, of little help in distinguishing chert SRFs
from finely crystalline basaltic or silicic VRFs
that also can be extensively fractured.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: SRFs 53

Up. Cretaceous Prince Creek Fm.,

North Slope, Alaska

An SRF-rich, lithic and feldspathic arenite

with abundant chert and shale clasts. The
variety of chert clasts is difficult to recognize
in plane-polarized light because they range
from dark or pale brown to virtually clear white
grains (depending on the number of fluid-filled
or organic inclusions in the chert) — but see
the cross-polarized light photo below for better
identification. Importantly, clay cements rim
the pores and may have helped to prevent sub-
sequent cementation in this rock.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.14 mm

Up. Cretaceous Prince Creek Fm.,

North Slope, Alaska

Same field of view as previous photomicro-

graph, but under cross-polarized light. This
image shows the characteristic speckled
extinction of the tiny quartz crystals that
compose chert. It also shows the variety of
crystal sizes possible in chert grains and those
variations greatly affect how chert appears
under cross-polarized light. Comparison
with the image above shows a correlation
between grain color and birefringence patterns
since both reflect crystal structure and size.
The clay-cement rims noted above are illite/
smectite and show bright birefringence.

XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.14 mm

Up. Eocene Oberaudorf Beds, Tirol,

Austria

The chert clast in this sample contains

numerous siliceous sponge spicules—such
spicules are a common source of opaline silica
for chert formation and a major contributor
to “deeper-water” marine cherts. Dissolution
of the original opal in the sponge spicules
was probably the source of the fibrous silica
in the spicules and the chert that replaced the
original carbonate matrix. Visible in some
of the spicules is a central canal that charac-
terizes originally siliceous sponge spicules;
also apparent are the long- and short-axis cuts
through these cigar-shaped fossil remains.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 54 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Cretaceous Dakota Gp., Moffat Co.,

Colorado

A chalcedony SRF in a quartz arenite. Chal-

cedony was formerly considered to consist
entirely of fibrous microcrystalline quartz. Now
it is thought to be an intergrowth of triclinic
cryptocrystalline quartz and another quartz
polymorph, monoclinic moganite. The shape
and crystal fabric of this grain indicate that it
was a pore- or vug-filling cement, probably in
a limestone. Some dissolution of the encasing
limestone (note carbonate remnants at yellow
arrow) most likely occurred after deposition of
the entire clast; otherwise, this grain probably
would not have survived transport intact.

PPL / XPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.16 mm

Lo. Permian (Wolfcampian) Hueco

Fm., Powwow Conglomerate,
Hudspeth Co., Texas

This is a chalcedony SRF from a cherty

calclithite. Carbonate extraclasts and chert
fragments are the dominant grains in this
rock that formed a basal lag deposit on an
unconformity atop eroded Pennsylvanian
strata. This SRF shows an eroded vug-fill
clast. Botryoids of fibrous chalcedony and
moganite line the vug (note the pale brown
lumpy surfaces visible in plane-polarized
light) and the last stage of filling is megaquartz.
The fibrous and speckled areas are individual
chalcedony and moganite fibers that were cut
parallel or perpendicular to fiber long axes.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Cretaceous Mesaverde Gp.,

Piceance Basin, Colorado

A sedimentary rock fragment consisting

mainly of chalcedony and moganite. The
amount of moganite can vary greatly within
the growth zones of chalcedony. This fragment
shows numerous growth bands that had subtle
compositional variations (possibly zones with
more moganite) making some layers more
soluble than others. Partial leaching of these
layers has produced secondary porosity within
the grain (and filled with blue epoxy giving the
grain an atypical color). Overall, chalcedony
is nearly twice as soluble as quartz under most
conditions.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.16 mm

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 chaPter 3: rock fragmentS: mrfS 55

METAMORPHIC ROCK FRAGMENTS staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite, zoisite, glaucophane

and andalusite.
Metamorphic rock fragments (MRFs) cover a wide Texture: A preferred orientation of crystals suggests
spectrum of grain types derived from high- to low-grade either flow banding (volcanic or intrusive) or
metamorphic terranes. Classification of argillaceous/ growth of crystals under pressure (metamorphic).
micaceous metamorphic rock fragments is based on the Metamorphic grains commonly display some
metamorphic rank, which is a function of texture and foliation (e.g., slaty cleavage) or schistosity. Quartz
sheet silicate mineralogy (Table 3.1). During modal crystals in MRFs may display sutured contacts
analysis, MRFs can be separated into metasedimentary if highly strained. MRF grains may contain high
or meta-igneous or foliated and nonfoliated types. aspect-ratio crystals or may be composed of
Common grain types recognized as MRFs include schist, polygonal equant crystals, depending whether they
gneiss and quartzite clasts. Metachert is sometimes have been annealed.
recognizable, but most chert fragments are classed as Other: Metamorphic rock fragments grade into
SRFs. sedimentary and igneous rock fragments, and their
differentiation can sometimes be a fine art. The
Major characteristics: crystal sizes for gneisses make them difficult to
Composition: Dominated by quartz and sheet silicates identify in finer-grain clast sizes. Most of the grains
(muscovite, biotite and chlorite); gneiss fragments in this chapter are sand sized, but silt-sized MRFs
also contain feldspar. Some exotic constituents can still provide important provenance information.
are diagnostic of a metamorphic origin, such as

Table 3.1: Characteristics of argillaceous/micaceous metamorphic rock fragments

based on their metamorphic rank (modified from Garzanti and Vezzoli, 2003).
Metamorphic Rank Texture Phyllosilicates
None unoriented clay minerals
Very low rough cleavage illite, chlorite
Low strong cleavage sericite
Medium schistosity tiny micas
High crystals <62.5 µm muscovite
Very high crystals >62.5 µm biotite

Lo. Paleozoic andalucite schist,

Carroll Co., New Hampshire

Foliated and crenulated micas in a schist. This

is an example of the type of schistose texture
commonly seen in high-rank metamorphic
rock fragments in which elongate quartz grains
are separated by thin mica plates. Detrital
fragments of such rock types are normally not
very durable and thus rarely survive extensive
transport; however, when such fragments
are found, they are excellent indicators of a
metamorphic source. In this example, the
crenulation effectively represents a secondary
cleavage, resulting from a second deformation
event in the source terrane.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 56 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Silurian Bloomsburg Fm.,

Warren Co., New Jersey

A crenulated metamorphic rock fragment

reworked into a sandstone. The well-foliated
micas in this grain are biotite and chlorite.
This grain is from a high-grade metamorphic
source rock.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.04 mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic Portland

Fm., Middlesex Co., Connecticut

This schistose metamorphic rock fragment

contains scattered, elongate quartz crystals
in a matrix of foliated micas. The micas and
quartz have a preferred orientation normal to
the direction of compression. Schist fragments
tend not to survive extensive transport;
therefore, this clast was probably deposited in
relatively close proximity to its source.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Gp.,

Co. Antrim, Northern Ireland, U.K.

A detrital schist fragment (MRF). This grain

consists almost entirely of muscovite crystals
that are all cut parallel to their foliation,
indicating that this metamorphic rock fragment
was cut almost precisely parallel to schistosity
along a mica-rich layer in the rock fragment.

PPL / XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: MRFs 57

Jurassic Ula Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

An amphibole in a quartz schist rock fragment.

The amphibole is likely hornblende and is
recognized by its green color, pleochroism
and second-order birefringence. The typical
cleavages for amphiboles are not visible
because it is an “inconvenient” orientation.
The rock is also foliated.

PPL | XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07

mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic Portland

Fm., Middlesex Co., Connecticut

A foliated, detrital schist MRF fragment

composed of quartz, muscovite and biotite. The
quartz crystals are elongate, with micas inter-
spersed between the crystals. The proportion
of micas relative to quartz in such fragments
affects the clast’s preservation potential—the
more micas the grain contains, the shorter
the distance over which the grain is likely to
survive weathering and abrasion. Notice also
how most of the muscovite crystals show the
same blue birefringence (an indication of their
uniformity of size and orientation).

PPL / XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic Portland

Fm., Middlesex Co., Connecticut

A metamorphic rock fragment consisting of

foliated quartz-rich schist. Foliation is visible
due to the presence of highly birefringent
micas interspersed with the elongate quartz
crystals that are predominant in this fragment.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 58 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Permian Wegener Halvø Fm.,

Karstryggen area, East Greenland

A metamorphic rock fragment made up of

biotite mica, quartz and garnets. The garnets
(gray crystals) have very high relief and are
isotropic in cross-polarized light. This is a
fragment that is somewhere between a schist
and a gneiss from a medium- to high-grade
metamorphic source terrane. Fragments
like this break down during weathering and
transport and release grains of garnets and
quartz.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Cretaceous, Rieselberger

Flysch, Bavaria, Germany

A schist fragment from a medium- to high-

grade metamorphic terrane. This grain is
composed primarily of muscovite micas
(white with high birefringence) and chlorite
(the pale green mineral; example at arrow).
The chlorite clusters are probably retrograde
replacements of higher-grade garnets and/or
hornblendes. Mica-rich schist grains rarely
survive significant transport unless carried in
suspension with muddy sediments. Note that
the chlorite crystals have anomalous colors in
cross-polarized light. This rock fragment was
cut parallel to the main muscovite foliation.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic Portland

Fm., Middlesex Co., Connecticut

A chlorite, biotite mica and quartz schist

fragment. The disruption of the original
foliation is related to deformation during
burial. Because this grain is structurally
weaker than surrounding quartz grains,
compaction has caused the rock fragment to
deform in a ductile manner and fill the primary
intergranular porosity.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: MRFs 59

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic

Huizachal Fm., Nuevo Leon,
Mexico

The chloritic rock fragments (indicated by red

arrows) in this sandstone were derived from
a probable low-grade metamorphic source
that probably was relatively close to the site
of deposition. Internally, the grains still
preserve foliation and because they are almost
completely chlorite, they have anomalous
ultrablue birefringence. The thin, more brightly
birefringent minerals surrounding some of the
grains are carbonate and illite cements.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic Portland

Fm., Middlesex Co., Connecticut

Several quartz-rich schist and schistose

quartzite metamorphic rock fragments. This is
a medium- to high-grade MRF. Most of the
micas in these grains are muscovite. During
more extensive transport, such grains would
probably break down into silt-size fragments
or their individual constituent quartz crystals.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Jurassic Eldfisk Fm.,

Norwegian sector, North Sea †

This schist fragment has acted in a ductile

manner during compaction. Superficially the
grain resembles a siltstone, but the alignment
of micas and sutured contacts between
constituent quartz grains identifies it as a MRF.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

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 60 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic Portland

Fm., Middlesex Co., Connecticut

A large, quartz-rich, chlorite schist fragment

is present at the center of this image. It is
surrounded by other grains probably also
derived from metamorphic sources, including
a partially chloritized biotite in the upper right.
The schistose grains have deformed in either
ductile or rigid fashions depending on their
competence and rigidity.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Gp.,

Co. Antrim, Northern Ireland, U.K. †

A metamorphic rock fragment (schist) with

well-defined foliation. The rock consists
of layers of K-feldspar (stained yellow)
and biotite sandwiched between quartz rich
layers. The larger area of K-feldspar contains
a plagioclase (black arrow) in the center that
may be a porphyroblast.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.17 mm

Up. Permian Schuchert Dal Fm.,

Jameson Land, East Greenland

A polycrystalline quartz grain that has a meta-

morphic (quartzite) origin as indicated by the
elongation and undulatory extinction of the
individual subcrystals as well as their sutured
boundaries. Quartzites are normally very
stable rocks, but inclusions within individual
rock fragments can decrease resistance to
chemical weathering and mechanical abrasion.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: MRFs 61

Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Gp.,

Co. Antrim, Northern Ireland, U.K.

A fragment of metamorphic quartzite or

polycrystalline quartz. This is probably a
intermediate- to high-grade metamorphic
rock fragment based on the equidimensional,
crenulated quartz crystals; scattered biotite
flakes and dark-green chlorite crystals also are
present. Foliation is visible in both the micas
and the alignment of the quartz crystals.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Gp.,

Co. Antrim, Northern Ireland, U.K.

A fragment of metamorphic schistose quartzite.

This is identifiable as a medium-grade met-
amorphic rock based on the predominantly
equant shapes of the included quartz crystals.
There is foliation present, defined by large
green chlorite crystals and muscovite flakes.

PPL / XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Mid. Permian Wegener Halvø Fm.,

Karstryggen area, East Greenland

A large grain of schistose quartzite. This

metamorphic rock fragment contains
numerous, elongate, crenulate quartz crystals
that are sutured together and interspersed
with scattered flakes of mica. Because tightly
welded quartz dominates this grain, it is less
likely to break down during weathering and
transport than the more micaceous or schistose
MRFs.

PPL / XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 62 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Oligocene Tongriano
Conglomerate, Liguria, Italy

These quartzite grains are composed of finely-

crystalline elongate quartz crystals that are
welded together. Quartzite fragments get
preferentially preserved in the rock record,
because they tend to lack the micas that weaken
grains. Although these grains may break into
smaller fragments, they are normally still
recognizable.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Gp.,

Co. Antrim, Northern Ireland, U.K.

Metamorphic rock fragments are derived from

a continuum of source rock types — especially
between commonly co-located schist and
gneiss. The small size of many MRFs make
it especially difficult to definitively identify
clasts from such settings. In this example, the
clast is a schistose quartzite or gneissic rock
fragment—the individual constituent quartz
crystals are coarsely crystalline as in a gneiss,
but the fragment is dominated by quartz and
contains no feldspar and thus is more likely
derived from a metaquartzite.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.38 mm

Triassic Snadd Fm., Barents Sea,

offshore Norway †

A quartz-rich metamorphic rock fragment

consisting almost entirely of quartz with
interspersed small muscovite crystals. The
quartz displays some sutured contacts, but
is approaching a granoblastic polygonal
aggregate texture typical of high-grade meta-
morphism.

XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: MRFs 63

Mid. Jurassic Fensfjord Fm.,

Norwegian sector, North Sea †

A grain (center left) comprising several

crystals, but composed of sutured quartz and
untwinned plagioclase feldspar. This may be
from a metamorphosed igneous rock or from
a gneiss. The coarser crystal size of gneisses,
sometimes limit their identification, especially
in finer- grained sandstones.

PPL | XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07

mm

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

A granitic-looking grain composed of

K-feldspar (microcline), quartz and pla-
gioclase. The large number of small quartz
crystals suggests that the grain may be meta-
morphic (?gneiss), although it could have an
igneous plutonic origin.

XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic Portland

Fm., Middlesex Co., Connecticut

The metamorphic rock fragments in

this photomicrograph are dominated by
hornblende gneisses. The gneiss clasts are
composed of bands of hornblende, quartz
and feldspar. The pleochroic, blue-green to
olive hornblendes display the typical cleavage
(124°/56°) for amphiboles. Gneisses form as
a result of medium- to high-grade regional
metamorphism. In addition to this clast, there
is a biotite mica that was replaced by chlorite
(red arrow). This lithic-rich sandstone is
cemented by calcite (especially well seen in
the right-hand quarter of the image).

PPL / XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 64 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid.? Permian Huledal Fm.,

Jameson Land, East Greenland

This gneissic-looking rock fragment is

composed mostly of microcline crystals.
While it is possible that this grain is an plutonic
igneous rock fragment, most of the other clasts
within this lithic arenite are either volcanic or
metamorphic rock fragments. This sample has
been partially altered (contact metamorphosed)
by a nearby Cenozoic dike.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Up. Permian Schuchert Dal Fm.,

Jameson Land, East Greenland

A metamorphic rock fragment composed of

quartz, feldspar and chlorite in a lithic arenite.
Within this rock fragment, the chlorites are
aligned and the quartz crystals exhibit undu-
latory and crenulated crystal boundaries.
These fabrics all indicate a metamorphic origin
for the grain. Feldspar (the cloudy grains in
plane-polarized light) has been largely altered
to sericite.

PPL | XPL, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51

mm

Up. Permian Schuchert Dal Fm.,

Jameson Land, East Greenland

A gneiss fragment composed of feldspar and

polycrystalline quartz crystals. The quartz
crystals are strongly undulose, elongated
and have crenulated crystal boundaries.
Feldspars (the cloudy, brownish grains) have
been sericitized and are partially leached.
In addition to MRFs, there are numerous
carbonate bioclasts in this sample that act as
substrates for the zoned, slightly ferroan to
very ferroan calcite cements (stained purple).

PPL, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 chaPter 3: rock fragmentS: irfS 65

IGNEOUS ROCK FRAGMENTS Other – Coarsely crystalline meta-igneous rocks

such as gneisses can resemble granite at the scale
Rock fragments derived from an igneous parent of individual grains, and it may be difficult to
rock include volcanic and plutonic clasts. They can be distinguish between them.
further subdivided for modal analysis into compositional Volcanic Rock Fragments:
types (basalt, rhyolite, granite, gabbro, etc.) and ductile
Major characteristics:
or rigid variants. Volcanic grains are more likely than
Crystal size – Groundmass typically is glassy (non-
most other fragments to be degraded and to act in a
crystalline) to aphanitic (very finely crystalline).
ductile manner. Because igneous rock fragments can
Porphyritic fabrics are common (large crystals in a
be composed of a number of minerals with a range of
much finer groundmass). Phenocrysts in porphyries
sizes, determinations of their mineralogic composition,
tend to be subhedral to euhedral.
crystallinity and texture are key to identifying them.
Composition – May contain feldspar, quartz,
Plutonic Rock Fragments: hornblende, olivine, pyroxene, iron-titanium oxides
Major characteristics: and glass.
Crystal size – Plutonic grains must contain two or Texture – Spherulitic or perlitic fabrics or radiating
more crystals to qualify as a rock fragment, and they clusters of crystals are common. Vesicles may be
are composed of phaneritic crystals (large enough filled (amygdales) or empty, and glass shards can
to be seen with the naked eye). Crystals tend to be display curved faces. Lava clasts may show lath-
roughly the same size and commonly are anhedral like crystals, which are locally aligned (trachytic
to subhedral. As with other rock fragments, they texture). Melt inclusions and resorption features
are more common in coarser-grained modes. may be seen in some crystals.
Composition – Dominated by clasts with granitic Other – Volcanic grains commonly alter to clays
composition (quartz, feldspar, iron-titanium oxides (smectite, illite, chlorite, etc.), and their identification
and mica or hornblende). may become difficult. Unaltered volcanic glass
Textures – Include micrographic and graphic granites, is isotropic, but it may alter either to quartz or to
granophyres, myrmekites and symplectites, K-feldspar. Staining (for K-feldspar) may help to
perthites and antiperthites. identify the presence of what was once volcanic glass
within lava, ignimbrite or pumice grains.

Up. Pennsylvanian Alamitos Fm.,

San Miguel Co., New Mexico

A granule-sized granitic rock fragment. The

grain is composed of quartz and microcline.
These grains were shed from a granite-
cored Ancestral Rockies uplift into a nearby
basin. Note how the crystals are roughly
PLUTONIC

equicrystalline and anhedral in the fragment.

Large grains like this, that haven’t been
broken down into their constituent crystals
during transport, can help in source area
determination.

PPL | XPL, AFeS, Scale bar = 0.64 mm

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 66 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Permian Huledal Fm.,

Karstryggen area, East Greenland

A plutonic rock fragment from a sandstone

that has been somewhat altered by contact
metamorphism along a dike wall. The
feldspars, in particular, have been substantially
vacuolized and sericitized during alteration
(cloudy brownish areas). The vacuolization
emphasizes the need to distinguish
predepositional from postdepositional
alteration. This commonly is done by observing
whether all the potentially susceptible grains
are altered or only a few.

PPL | XPL, AFeS, Scale bar = 0.64 mm

Lo. Miocene Arikaree Fm., Platte

Co., Wyoming

A granitic rock fragment composed of crystals

of plagioclase and quartz. The plagioclase
crystals have albite twinning and are partially
altered to sericite. During weathering, grains
like this can potentially decompose into their
component crystals.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.16 mm

Up. Pennsylvanian Bursum Fm.,

Socorro Co., New Mexico

Plutonic rock fragments composed of quartz

(as at red arrow) and altered plagioclase (as
at yellow arrow). The plagioclase crystals are
vacuolized and partially replaced by sericite.
Many of the grains surrounding this clast are
similar in size to the crystals in the grain,
emphasizing the fact that rock fragments are
found predominantly in the coarser-grained
fractions.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.38 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: IRFs 67

Precambrian Town Mountain

Granite, Llano Co., Texas

An example of a quartz and feldspar

intergrowth with highly embayed quartz from
a granitic source rock. Weathering of the rock,
especially with feldspar dissolution, can create
quartz clasts that look similar to volcanic
quartz, except that these have more inclusions
and may have undulatory extinction.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.38 mm

Paleocene Tang Fm., Møre Basin,

Norwegian Sea †

A grain composed of plagioclase feldspar

(cloudy white) and chlorite (dull green). The
grain may either be derived from a metagranite
or metagabbro, or a high-grade metamorphic
gneiss which has undergone retrograde meta-
morphism. The chlorite contains areas of
brown biotite, which the chlorite may have
replaced, but there is evidence from crystal
shapes that the original mineral was horn-
blende.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

The grain in the center of the image is entirely

composed of feldspar that is dominantly
microcline, but contains areas of albite. The
microcline and the albite are both single
crystals so this could be classed as a perthite
grain. However, because this is likely to be an
intergrowth rather than exsolution lamellae, it
is better classed as an igneous rock fragment.

PPL | XPL, KFS, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar =

0.12 mm

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 68 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Cretaceous Mesaverde Gp.,

Piceance Basin, Colorado

Micrographic and graphic granite textures are

intergrowths of two minerals that have the
appearance of runic writing. In this sample,
quartz crystals (the inclusion-poor crystals)
are intergrown with an alkali feldspar (inclu-
sion-rich). If the fabric is only visible in thin
section, then it is called micrographic; if it
is visible to the naked eye, then it is termed
graphic granite.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.20 mm

Miocene Topanga Fm., Ventura Co.,

California

This granite clast contains granophyric fabric,

another type of micrographic intergrowth.
Granophyric texture is an intergrowth in
which the intergrown crystals appear to be
radiating outward. Quartz intergrowths are in
optical continuity with each other because they
represent a single crystal. Micrographic and
graphic granite is thought to form during the
last stages of crystallization of felsic magmas.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Up. Pennsylvanian – Lo. Permian

Granite Wash, southern Oklahoma

Identification of feldspar/quartz intergrowths

can be problematic, because the textures can
overlap. In this clast, some of the intergrowth
textures might be described as a myrmekitic
(worm-like to globular) or granophyric
(radiating). These intergrowths can provide
information on the provenance of the grains.
Granophyric textures are thought to form in
cooler magma chambers containing volatiles/
water or to be associated with bolides.
Myrmekite is thought to be a product of
metasomatism (alteration of felsic rocks by hot
fluids) or to form during deformation.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.22 mm

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 chaPter 3: rock fragmentS: irfS 69

Up. Pennsylvanian – Lo. Permian

Granite Wash, southern Oklahoma

A granitic clast with a granophyric texture.

Note the well-developed radiating fabrics
of quartz crystals intergrown with alkali
feldspars. The quartz is relatively inclu-
sion-free compared to the feldspars. In this
case, the grains have fabrics that are traceable
back to a specific source rock, the Long
Mountain Granite. The granite is thought to
have formed by under-cooling of the felsic
melt by 70–150°C (Morgan and London,
2012).

XPL, Scale bar = 0.22 mm

Eocene Thumbli Fm., Rajasthan,

India

A grain showing micrographic intergrowth

of K-feldspar and quartz. The feldspar is in
optical continuity, but the quartz is not, sug-
gesting that the feldspar is a single crystal and
has intergrown with several quartz crystals.
Porosity has been created in the grain through
selective dissolution of parts of the K-feldspar,
a process which could ultimately leave clusters
of angular quartz “grains” in a secondary pore.

PPL | XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.06

mm

Mid.? Permian Huledal Fm.,

Canning Land, East Greenland

A very large volcanic rock fragment, probably

a rhyolite porphyry fills the entire field of
view in this image. This fragment contains
euhedral, embayed volcanic quartz (example
at yellow arrow) and altered euhedral pla-
VOLCANIC

gioclase phenocrysts (example at red arrow)

in an aphanitic matrix. Within the embayed
quartz crystal near the center of each view, a
melt inclusion (the dark rhombic feature) is
visible under cross-polarized light. Chlorite
(green crystals) occurs as a replacement of
precursor amphibole.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 70 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid.? Permian Huledal Fm.,

Canning Land, East Greenland

A large volcanic rock fragment, probably a

rhyolite porphyry. This fragment contains
a euhedral (hexagonal), embayed, volcanic
quartz grain and altered phenocrysts in an
aphanitic matrix. Chlorite (green crystals) and
iron oxides occur as replacements of precursor
amphiboles. The quartz crystal contains a melt
inclusion; a clear indicator of this lithic frag-
ment’s volcanic origin.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Mid. Eocene – Lo. Oligocene

Spears Gp., Socorro Co., New
Mexico

A sandstone with abundant volcanic clasts

of andesitic porphyry and loose plagioclase
crystals derived from a volcanic source.
The lithic fragments also contain crystals
of clinopyroxene (brightly birefringent) and
plagioclase within an aphanitic groundmass.
These sediments were deposited as part of
an Eocene caldera complex in central New
Mexico.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.34 mm

Lo. Oligocene Deborah Volcanic

Fm., near Oamaru, Otago, New
Zealand

These volcanic rock fragments formed

through marine erosion of pillow basalts. The
glass matrix is less stable than the entrained
plagioclase and pyroxene (augite?) crystals,
and alteration rims are common, here consisting
of palagonite (bright yellow) and an outer
discontinuous, fibrous zeolite mineral, mainly
phillipsite. The palagonite is a heterogeneous
alteration product of basaltic glasses, that may,
in part, be smectitic. Micro-fibrous, spherulitic
calcite cements fill the remaining porosity.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.64 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: IRFs 71

Lo. Oligocene Deborah Volcanic

Fm., Otago, New Zealand

Amygdaloidal basaltic glass (tachylite) clasts

containing slightly altered pyroxene (augite?)
phenocrysts. Unlike the previous example,
the glass does not have a well-developed
alteration rim, but minor alteration (orange-
brown) within the grains may be palagonite.
The vesicles (holes) are mainly filled by
isopachous, marine calcite cements with
slightly undulatory extinction. The same type
of calcite cement fills the primary intergranular
porosity. Some of the vesicles are additionally
filled with low birefringence to near-isotropic
zeolite minerals.

PPL | XPL, AFeS, Scale bar = 0.64 mm

Mid. Eocene – Lo. Oligocene

Spears Gp., Socorro Co., New
Mexico

Reworked volcanic rock fragments in a

lithic arenite. The volcanic clasts contain
euhedral plagioclase (example at red arrow)
and amphibole (example at yellow arrow)
phenocrysts in an aphanitic groundmass.
These grains are well rounded, indicating
some transport prior to burial, but the feldspar
exhibits little alteration, possibly related to
inhibition of pore-water entry because of the
extensive fine-grained matrix. Note also the
opaque reaction rims on the amphibole grains
(also visible at yellow arrow), caused by dehy-
dration of ascending magma.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.34 mm

Mid. Eocene – Lo. Oligocene

Spears Gp., Socorro Co., New
Mexico

Plagioclase and euhedral amphibole

phenocrysts in porphyritic volcanic rock
fragments. As in the previous example, these
amphibole grains have opaque reaction rims,
caused by dehydration of ascending magma.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.14 mm

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 72 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid.? Permian Huledal Fm.,

Canning Land, East Greenland

A volcanic rock fragment within the basal

conglomerate between Permian sedimentary
rocks and Devonian basement rocks. This
andesitic porphyry consists of large phenocrysts
floating in a finely crystalline to glassy matrix.
The phenocrysts are mainly pleochroic biotite
crystals that have been slightly altered (note
the dark reaction rims around the crystals that
were produced by hot, magmatic alteration).

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Cretaceous Ildefonso Fm.,

Ponce-Coamo area, Puerto Rico

Carbonate-cemented volcanic rock fragments

in a lithic arenite. Large euhedral phenocrysts
of plagioclase are mixed with well-rounded
aphanitic volcanic and carbonate rock
fragments.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Up. Cretaceous Ildefonso Fm.,

Ponce-Coamo area, Puerto Rico

These well-rounded fragments of basic to

intermediate volcanic rocks were derived
from island arc volcanism in the Caribbean
region. The large grain in the center contains
laths of altered feldspar in a finely crystalline
(aphanitic) matrix. The other grains contain
laths of plagioclase but are more finely crys-
talline and must be carefully distinguished
from detrital chert or clay clasts. The cement
in this sample is calcite.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: IRFs 73

Mid. Eocene – Lo. Oligocene,

Spears Gp., Catron Co., New
Mexico

A rounded volcanic rock fragment in a volcanic

arenite. The grain is an andesite porphyry
containing scattered clinopyroxenes and larger
feldspar phenocrysts. The groundmass is
made up of a felted mass of finely crystalline
plagioclase crystals and altered volcanic glass.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Mid.? Permian Huledal Fm.,

Jameson Land, East Greenland

A rounded porphyritic volcanic rock fragment

in a calcite-cemented lithic arenite. The
green phenocrysts in the aphanitic matrix are
chlorite. Chlorite is a common replacement
mineral within mafic rocks; here, it is probably
replacing pyroxene phenocrysts. The green
color, strong pleochroism and anomalous
birefringence of chlorite generally make it
easy to identify in thin section. In addition to
the chlorite, iron oxides may also have formed
during diagenetic alteration.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Up. Permian Schuchert Dal Fm.,

Jameson Land, East Greenland

Volcanic rock fragments (mostly devitrified

glass) in a lithic arenite. The large grain on
the left is a VRF containing clasts of devitrified
pumice (lighter areas) with a few scattered
phenocrysts. Pumice is highly vesicular and
is formed during explosive volcanic eruptions.
These fragments appear to have been engulfed
by a later lava or ash flow.

PPL | XPL, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51

mm

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 74 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Cretaceous Shumagin Fm.,

Shumagin Islands, Alaska

These trachyte fragments consists of a felted

network of small, twinned plagioclase laths in
an aphanitic matrix. These clasts were derived
from a basaltic to andesitic island-arc terrane
and, like virtually all VRFs, were susceptible
to destruction during transport and weathering.
Because these clasts are abundant, this unit
may have been deposited close to its volcanic
source. Clasts like this can, at first glance, be
confused with chert or shale/claystone clasts,
but the plagioclase laths are clear indicators of
a volcanic origin.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

Up. Cretaceous Ildefonso Fm.,

Ponce-Coamo area, Puerto Rico

A fragment of a trachyte with an even more

finely-crystalline texture, here displayed in
clasts derived from an andesitic island-arc
volcanic complex. Both the brownish color in
plane-polarized light and the granular, black to
gray fabric in cross-polarized light make these
grains appear very similar to chert fragments
at first glance. Examination at higher mag-
nification is needed to resolve the small, but
distinctive, lath-shaped plagioclase crystals
that characterize these grains but would not be
found in chert clasts.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.24 mm

Up. Pennsylvanian – Lo. Permian

Granite Wash, southern Oklahoma

A volcanic rock clast containing spherulitic

fabrics. These features are common to felsic
melts that cooled quickly. In this case, the
spherulites appear to have nucleated on previ-
ously formed crystals.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.44 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: IRFs 75

Up. Pennsylvanian – Lo. Permian

Granite Wash, southern Oklahoma

A volcanic rock fragment of devitrified glass.

This grain contains colorless, needle-like
crystals that may be recrystallized tridymite.
Tridymite is one of the high-temperature
polymorphs of quartz and commonly forms
randomly-aligned networks of crystals in
glass. During devitrification (changing of an
amorphous material to a crystalline one), the
tridymite crystals convert to quartz. Rock
fragments like this are difficult to tell apart
from sedimentary cherts, but needle-like pla-
gioclase crystals and spherulitic fabrics are key
to identifying them as volcanic rock fragments.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.09 mm

Triassic Snadd Fm., Barents Sea,

offshore Norway †

A rock fragment of lava, which is partly

degraded but has acted as a rigid grain during
compaction. Areas of groundmass which
contained glass are now K-feldspar (shown
by the pale yellow stain) and many of the
plagioclase phenocrysts are replaced by
authigenic chlorite. The area of chlorite-rich
clay to the left of the lava grain is likely to
be a volcanic grain that has been extensively
degraded and compacted.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Paleocene, Rajasthan, India

A volcanic rock fragment with a possible

dacitic composition. The grain is porphyritic
and contains lath-shaped phenocrysts of pla-
gioclase in a largely plagioclase groundmass.
The plagioclase phenocrysts within this clast
exhibit a slight preferred orientation because
they were aligned by lava flowage.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.49 mm

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 76 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Paleocene, Rajasthan, India

A former glassy, welded tuff (ignimbrite)

which is now devitrified to K-feldspar and
microcrystalline quartz. The tuff contains
euhedral quartz crystals and curved shards of
glass in a welded glassy matrix. Some of the
longer, aligned quartz areas may be stretched
vesicles. The grain is surrounded by, and
partly replaced by, ferroan calcite that has
precipitated along fractures between the grain
and the matrix.

PPL, AFeS, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.40

mm

Paleocene, Rajasthan, India

A devitrified, welded tuff grain in a lithic

sandstone composed of abundant volcani-
cally-derived material. The grain shows
deformation of glass shards and bubbles
(vesicles). During welding, the glass shards
and bubbles collapse and then become aligned
and stretched. An axiolitic texture is also seen
as welding probably occurred before devitrifi-
cation began, and the devitrification extended
across individual shard boundaries, obliter-
ating shard structures.

PPL, KFS, Scale bar = 0.49 mm

Paleocene, Rajasthan, India

Spherulitic lava (probably rhyolite), with

amygdales. The amygdales are filled by
chalcedony and megaquartz cements. The
spherulites themselves include single and
compound forms. They are commonly
composed of microlites of both feldspar
and quartz, radiating from a nucleus. When
elongate spherulites are observed, they are
termed axiolites.

PPL, KFS, Scale bar = 0.49 mm

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 Chapter 3: Rock Fragments: IRFs 77

Pleistocene San Antonio Pumice,

Socorro Co., New Mexico

This rock is made up of remarkably delicate

and porous pumice fragments derived from
a 1.6 Ma Jemez volcanic field eruption. The
fragments are thought to have been transported
by low-viscosity debris flows more than
220 km (137 mi) from their source (Cather,
1988). In addition to pumice fragments, this
rock contains some euhedral to subhedral
volcanic quartz crystals and precipitated clay
and carbonate cements. Pumice forms during
explosive volcanic events where gases rapidly
exsolve from magmas, forming and preserving
enormous numbers of micro-vessicles as the
magma cools.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Pleistocene San Antonio Pumice,

Socorro Co., New Mexico

The center of the photomicrograph shows

a highly vesiculated pumice clast from the
same debris flow shown in the prior image.
It is surrounded by a mixture of fragmented
glass shards and volcanic quartz that have
been cemented by microcrystalline carbonate
cements and clays. Most pumice has a
rhyolitic composition, and because of the very
porous, vesicular nature of this volcanic glass,
it is able to float on water. Normally, pumice
is too fragile to survive long-distance transport
with other rock fragments, but it clearly can
survive when cushioned in debris flows.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Pleistocene San Antonio Pumice,

Socorro Co., New Mexico

The fragmented and rounded pumice grains

here are surrounded by glass shards and
volcanic quartz grains. Unlike the previous
examples, this sample is from a unit that may
have undergone fluvial reworking. The shards
in this sample also are the result of explosive
eruptions, where vesicle walls were shattered
into arcuate fragments. Depending on the size
of the fragments, they can be carried by wind
or water great distances from their source.
Glass shards are hydrophyllic and are therefore
unstable in near surface environments, ulti-
mately becoming devitrified, replaced or
dissolved.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 78 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

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Sedimentary Research, v. 55, p. 616-621]. tomicrograph of pseudohexagonal biotite crystals in a
Lee, Y. I., and G. de V. Klein, 1986, Diagenesis of sandstones in the back- Cenozoic intrusive from Clarke Co., Nevada (PPL).

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 chaPter 4: acceSSory MineralS 79

GRAINS:
ACCESSORY MINERALS

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

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 80 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

ACCESSORY MINERALS
Accessory minerals include all the many detrital biotite). Heavy minerals are vastly more numerous, and
minerals that are found in clastic terrigenous rocks that can be grouped into ultrastable, intermediate stability,
do not contribute directly to rock classification (thus, and unstable categories. The ultrastable minerals are the
primarily minerals other than quartz and feldspar). ultimate survivors, even more stable than quartz under
Although thousands of minerals could potentially fall most conditions — thus, they are found in most clastic
under that definition; practically, a limited number are terrigenous rocks. The intermediate group has varied
found with any great frequency. Accessory minerals as a levels of survivability, but most such minerals can be
whole typically make up less than 1% (rarely more than degraded or removed under specific conditions; minerals
2%) of most terrigenous sedimentary rocks. Quartz in the unstable group survive only under very favorable
arenites commonly have the fewest accessory minerals conditions (minimal mechanical and chemical stresses).
(as little as 0.05% in some cases); arkoses are somewhat There are so many detrital accessory minerals
richer in accessories, and lithic arenites generally have that occur in clastic terrigenous rocks that it is simply
the highest levels. This results from the fact that most impossible to provide a brief yet usable summary of the
accessory minerals, like some feldspars and lithic mineralogical features and optical characteristics of all
fragments, lack the abrasion resistance or chemical these minerals. We provide instead a chart of the relative
stability to survive erosion, transport and diagenesis. stabilities of the most common accessory minerals (Table
Accessory minerals can be examined in thin sections; 4.1). In addition, characteristic mineral properties
alternatively, they can be concentrated by mechanical are described in the individual photo captions for each
(shaker table) or flotation (heavy liquid) methods mineral illustrated. For additional information readers
(see, for example, Munsterman and Kerstholt, 1996; are encouraged to consult the references at the end of this
Koroznikova et al., 2008) and can then be viewed with chapter or the more general mineralogy texts listed in the
stereoscopic microscopes, SEM or other methods. Thin- bibliography in the introduction to this book.
section examination shows the grains in the context of
rock fabric, but such minerals can be quite scarce in Provenance:
any single section. Disaggregation and concentration is Again, with the abundance of minerals involved,
much more effective for evaluating the full assemblage it is impossible in this text to detail the provenance
of such minerals in rock or sand samples and also allows implication of the entire spectrum of accessory minerals.
identification by x-ray or geochemical methods. Nonetheless, they are among the most important clues
Because accessory minerals are so commonly studied to the recognition of source terranes, despite the fact
as separates, they generally are divided into light and that many of the most diagnostic minerals are subject to
heavy minerals with a boundary drawn by various alteration or removal through chemical and mechanical
workers at specific gravities between 2.85 and 3 (they processes acting during the erosion, transport, deposition
also are commonly divided into opaque and nonopaque and burial stages in the life of these grains.
minerals). The most commonly encountered detrital light An overall summary of the diagnostic sources for
accessory minerals are micas (mainly muscovite and also some heavy minerals is shown in Table 4.2. Beyond that,

Table 4.1: The common accessory minerals and their relative stability (adapted from
material summarized in Pettijohn et al., 1987).

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 chaPter 4: acceSSory MineralS 81

two approaches have been shown to be most useful in specific compositional patterns in amphibole, apatite,
provenance studies (Morton and Hallsworth, 1999). clinopyroxene, garnet, tourmaline and zircon, or
The first uses the entire heavy mineral suite and looks geochronologic determinations on such grains, to
at relative abundance ratios of hydraulically equivalent provenance delineation (see papers in the specific mineral
grains within the same relative stability suites (Table sections of the bibliography for this chapter).
4.1). The second, almost opposite yet complementary, For ease of use, this chapter has been arranged
approach is to examine in detail the color, habit and following the mineral groupings in Table 4.1. Light
internal structural varieties within single mineral micaceous minerals are followed by heavy, non-opaque
groups (tourmaline, zircon, etc.) and also to do single– minerals in order of their decreasing stability, and
crystal geochemical work, including geochronology, opaque minerals complete the chapter.
on those grains. A number of recent papers have tied

Table 4.2: Source terranes of common accessory minerals (adapted from Feo-Codecido, 1956 and
Pettijohn et al., 1987). Names in red are the ultrastable minerals, and the names in green generally
are classed as light minerals.

Up. Pennsylvanian Bursum Fm.,

Socorro Co., New Mexico

A foliated grain of detrital muscovite.

Muscovite is the most common detrital
mica in sedimentary rocks, because it has
the greatest chemical stability. Unlike other
LIGHT MINERALS

micas, it is colorless in plane-polarized light

and shows bright blue to yellow second-order
birefringence under cross-polarized light.
Muscovite flakes commonly have a layered
internal structure (one perfect cleavage) when
cut across foliation and show a “speckled”
appearance, similar to birch bark, in plane- and
cross-polarized light.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.16 mm

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 82 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Pennsylvanian Bursum Fm.,

C Socorro Co., New Mexico

A large, detrital muscovite (M) surrounded

by monocrystalline quartz grains (Q) and
Q cemented by highly birefringent calcite (C)
and opaque iron-oxides. Muscovite is biaxial
negative, and it has low positive relief and
one direction of perfect cleavage. Muscovite
is a common rock-forming mineral in
granites, schists, gneisses, pegmatites and is a
replacement mineral in hydrothermal systems.
Sericite, a normally finely crystalline alteration
product of feldspars, is optically and chemi-
M cally similar to muscovite.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.64 mm

Up. Triassic New Haven Arkose,

New Haven Co., Connecticut

Detrital muscovite (and smaller biotite) grains

in a lithic sandstone. Muscovite is usually
colorless in thin section, but some grains can be
slightly colored (pale brown, red, yellow). The
colored varieties also are sometimes weakly
pleochroic. This grain has the “birds-eye” or
“birch bark” speckling in cross-polarized light
that is common to both muscovite and biotite
micas. Muscovite is a very ductile mineral, and
during burial and compaction, muscovites are
commonly indented or deformed by stronger
and more rigid grains.

PPL / XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Up. Triassic New Haven Arkose,

New Haven Co., Connecticut

A large detrital muscovite grain with slightly

lower than normal birefringence related to the
grain being cut too thin during thin-section
preparation. Mica grains that are oriented
parallel to the basal cleavage (which this
one is not) also can have lower birefringence
colors. In addition to muscovite, this rock also
contains small, deformed green chlorite and
biotite grains.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 4: Accessory Minerals 83

Mid. Jurassic Ness Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

Sandstones rarely contain more than 2% mica.

This example is particularly micaceous, with
concentrated layers of both muscovite and
biotite. The micas are largely unaltered but are
compacted and deformed between rigid detrital
grains. The opaque areas are aggregates of
authigenic, cubic pyrite crystals. Porosity
is present within the rest of the sample, but
where the micas are abundant and matrix
is absent, compaction is more pronounced,
and macroporosity was nearly completely
destroyed.

PPL, BDI, KFS, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

Lo. Permian Cutler Fm., Mesa Co.,

Colorado

Abundant detrital biotite grains in a sandstone.

Like muscovite, biotite commonly has a
speckled appearance in both plane- and
cross-polarized light. Biotite is biaxial
negative, but those two minerals are easily
distinguished by color (muscovite is colorless
or very weakly colored; biotite typically is
strongly colored brown or green). In addition,
biotite is strongly pleochroic in most thin-
section orientations. Although muscovite has
slightly higher birefringence, the color of the
biotite masks the true interference colors and
gives anomalous birefringence.

PPL / XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Oligocene? volcanic sandstone,

Jackson Co., Oregon

Biotite is normally strongly pleochroic. Pleo-

chroism is the changing of a mineral’s color
as the microscope stage is rotated under
plane-polarized light. As light travels through
a grain, it is absorbed variably by the crystal
axes resulting in a change of color. In the
first image, the biotite grain is a dark brown,
but after turning the microscope stage 90°,
the grain has turned a much lighter yellowish
brown.

PPL | PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

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 84 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Ordovician? mica schist, New

Haven Co., Connecticut

An example of strongly pleochroic biotite

from a schistose metamorphic source rock.
In this case, the biotite grains shift from a
dark green color to a pale yellow/brown color
through the 90° stage rotation. When rocks
such as this erode, individual biotite grains
can be liberated or biotites can be retained as
inclusions in quartzose rock fragments. Biotite
weathers readily, and if especially abundant in
a sediment, one should suspect a relatively
proximal volcanic or metamorphic source.

PPL | PPL, PFS, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Ordovician? mica schist, New

Haven Co., Connecticut

Pleochroic halos (also termed radiation halos)

in biotite crystals. These black circular
areas within the dark-brown biotite crystals
represent zones of radiation damage that form
around minute inclusions of zircon, apatite,
monazite or other minerals that contain radio-
active elements. These large biotite crystals
are surrounded by colorless muscovite.

PPL, PFS, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Cenozoic intrusive rock, Clarke

Co., Nevada

Euhedral pseudohexagonal biotite crystals

are found mainly in volcanic rocks (as in this
shallow intrusive). Such euhedral crystals
are rarely seen in sedimentary rocks (in part
because, as platy minerals, most mica flakes
such as these lie parallel to bedding and most
thin sections are not cut parallel to bedding).
When found in sedimentary rocks, however,
pseudohexagonal biotite is a good indicator
of a volcanic source. More generally, biotite
can be derived from a wide variety of source
rocks—schists, gneisses, contact metamorphic
rocks, granites, rhyolites, basalts and hydro-
thermally altered deposits.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 4: Accessory Minerals 85

Up. Cretaceous (Maastrichtian)

Springar Fm., Møre Basin,
Norwegian Sea †

A mechanically deformed biotite grain that has

been partly compacted, so that the end of the
grain is kinked and splayed. Micas are prone
to kinking and ductile deformation, and they
commonly start to expand into available pore
space with increasing temperature or changes
in pore water chemistry.

PPL | XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.08

mm

Lo. Permian Cutler Fm., Mesa Co.,

Colorado

Chlorite (another phyllosilicate) forms on its

own or as a replacement of biotite (as in this
case). Chlorite also has to be distinguished
from green biotites (crystals that have lost
Fe). Chlorite group minerals have variable
chemistry (e.g., Mg-rich clinochore or Fe-rich
chamosite), and they can be biaxial negative
or positive. Chlorite can be colorless, green
or yellow, and pleochroism varies from weak
to strong. Chlorite commonly has anomalous
birefringence colors, in particular ultrablue
(also called Berlin blue), as seen here, or
brownish colors. Other chlorites have fairly
characteristic first-order birefringence colors.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

Up. Cretaceous Mesaverde Gp.,

Piceance Basin, Colorado

In this view, the large green chlorite grain is

probably a replacement of detrital biotite.
Like other phyllosilicate minerals, this grain
has well-developed cleavage and occurs
in booklets. This grain has anomalous
birefringence ranging from blue to greenish
brown. There also are some pale green
authigenic chlorite cements between detrital
quartz grains in this sample.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

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 86 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Miocene Upper Marine Molasse,

Switzerland

Chlorite behaves in a ductile manner, much like

muscovite and biotite. Here, a chloritic grain
(probably an altered biotite) is compressed
between adjacent grains of chert (above left)
and quartz (below right).

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

Carboniferous Dilsburger Beds,

Saar Basin, Germany

This deformed biotite grain is more extensively

replaced by chlorite (note the anomalous
birefringence colors). This grain was deformed
during burial causing it to expand into adjacent
porous areas.

PPL / XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Oligocene? volcanic sandstone,

Jackson Co., Oregon

This grain of chlorite is likely a replacement of

another grain of uncertain origin. Chlorite is a
common replacement in many ferromagnesian
minerals. In this grain, the anomalous
“ultrablue” birefringence is clearly visible.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

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 chaPter 4: acceSSory MineralS 87

Holocene beach sediment, Orange

Co., California

A very slightly rounded, detrital zircon crystal

HEAVY MINERALS: ULTRASTABLE

in a thick grain mount. Zircon grains are among
the most durable of heavy minerals and can
exhibit almost unaltered dipyramidal prismatic
forms, as in this grain. Zircon is uniaxial
positive and has extremely high relief and
birefringence. Cleavage is imperfect to poor
and zircon, like quartz, commonly displays
conchoidal fracture (note the curved surfaces
in this grain). Most zircons are colorless,
but some are pale yellow, brown, pink or
purple and may show slight pleochroism in
grain mounts. Zircon can be confused with
monazite, but monazite is biaxial positive.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.03 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

A cut through the c-axis of a rounded zircon

crystal showing growth zoning within the
crystal. Zircon can be initially sourced from
igneous and metamorphic rocks, but because
of its durability, it also can survive multiple
cycles of reworking from sedimentary sources.
The radiation emitted by uranium and thorium
contained in zircons can cause pleochroic
halos in associated minerals (as in a biotite
crystal shown earlier in this chapter). The dark
margins around the zircon are a result of the
great relief difference between zircon and the
adjacent quartz and feldspar.

PPL | XPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Up. Cretaceous Mesaverde Gp.,

McKinley Co., New Mexico

Two zircons in a glauconitic sandstone.

Zircons, although rarely abundant, are among
the most ubiquitous components of sedi-
mentary rocks because of their great physical
and chemical stability. Zircon is a tetragonal
mineral, and the zircon in the lower left corner
exhibits a euhedral tetragonal outline. The
other zircon is slightly rounded but still shows
a dipyramidal outline. In high-energy environ-
ments, including beaches and rivers, zircons
can be concentrated in placer deposits rich in
heavy minerals because zircons have a high
specific gravity (4.6–4.7 g/cc as compared
with 2.65 g/cc for quartz).

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

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 88 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

This well-rounded zircon grain, most likely

derived from a preexisting sandstone (second
cycle), has numerous small depressions
resulting from grain collisions. The high relief
of zircon is evident by the black line around
the grain and the surrounding quartz grains
being out of focus when the zircon is in focus.
The color bands (in cross-polarized light) are
an indication of the interference order. This
example is third order.

PPL | XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.03

mm

Pennsylvanian Alamitos Fm., San

Miguel Co., New Mexico

Tourmalines are a group of ultrastable heavy

minerals that are very common in sediments.
In plane-polarized light, tourmaline displays
a wide variety of colors from colorless,
pink, yellow, green, blue, brown and shades
in between. Tourmaline commonly is very
visible in thin section because of its color.
Colored crystals are strongly pleochroic, and
only the very pale to colorless grains lack
pleochroism. Note the color change as this
tourmaline was rotated about 45° between the
left and center images. The third image shows
tourmaline’s birefringence—high first-order to
low second-order colors.

PPL | PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

Up. Triassic New Haven Arkose,

New Haven Co., Connecticut

This euhedral tourmaline grain is wedged

between quartz and muscovite grains.
Tourmaline is a uniaxial negative mineral,
occurs as prismatic crystals, commonly with a
beveled trigonal outline and moderately high
relief. This grain is cut perpendicular to the
c-axis, making it look isotropic. Tourmalines
are common in heavy mineral placer deposits
because of their chemical and mechanical
stability. Tourmalines form in a variety of
environments including pegmatites, felsic
plutonic rocks, metamorphic rocks and skarns;
additionally, grains can show authigenic
overgrowths that form during burial diagenesis.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

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 Chapter 4: Accessory Minerals 89

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

A brown tourmaline grain (probably an

Mg-rich variety called dravite), which displays
a marked pleochroism, where it turns from
dark brown to very pale brown through a 90°
stage rotation. The grain displays moderately
high relief and some minor inclusions. There
is a hint of a poorly developed cleavage, but
generally tourmaline can be distinguished
from biotite or hornblende because it is unixial
negative and has poor cleavage.

PPL | PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07

mm

Jurassic (Oxfordian) Melke Fm.,

Møre Basin, Norwegian Sea †

This green tourmaline (probably common

schorl) grain is a fractured crystal with inclu-
sions of smaller euhedral opaques and quartz.
The birefringence of the grain is lower than
usual due to its orientation, and it superficially
resembles some hornblende grains.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic Portland

Fm., Middlesex Co., Connecticut

Rutile is another heavy mineral that is common,

both as inclusions in other minerals and as
individual detrital grains. Rutile is a uniaxial
positive mineral that has very high relief and
in plane light ranges in color from yellow to
red-brown to black. It has extreme birefrin-
gence (commonly difficult to see because of
mineral coloration), some pleochroism and
two directions of cleavage. Rutile forms as
prismatic crystals with striations or felted
masses of acicular crystals. Rutile commonly
has contact twins with two, six or eight inter-
secting crystals. In this example, most of the
twins are two crystals.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

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 90 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Jurassic Ness Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

A partially dissolved rutile grain (far left).

Rutile, although mechanically very stable, is
prone to dissolution during burial diagenesis.
A single cleavage is seen in this rutile, although
the color is so deep, it is almost opaque. This
rutile grain is associated with a number of
small crystals of anatase (titanium oxide) that
have precipitated in nearby pores (upper right).
It is likely that the titanium for the anatase was
sourced from the rutile. Anatase is a uniaxial
negative mineral with high relief and birefrin-
gence, and ranges from colorless to brown, red
or blue/green.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Jurassic Ile Fm., Norwegian sector,

North Sea †

This yellow-brown rutile grain looks similar in

both plane- and cross-polarized light, because
the high birefringence is masked by the deep
color of the mineral. Rutile is an extremely
common detrital heavy mineral derived mainly
from high-temperature acidic igneous rocks,
crystalline metamorphic rocks, pegmatites or
in-situ decomposition of ilmenite.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.03 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

Rutile commonly occurs as long acicular nee-

dle-shaped inclusions in other minerals, as in
this example in a quartz grain. Such inclusions
can be easily overlooked at lower magnifica-
tions in either plane- or cross-polarized light.
Rutilated quartz grains can originate in a wide
variety of source terranes, especially in hydro-
thermal, plutonic and metamorphic rocks, but
they are uncommon in extrusive volcanics.

PPL | XPL, PFS, KFS, Scale bar = 0.05

mm

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 Chapter 4: Accessory Minerals 91

Cretaceous Dakota Gp., Moffat Co.,

Colorado

Long acicular needles of rutile here stand out

under fluorescence. Although these rutile
inclusions may appear to be contact twins, the
crystals are not in the same plane with each
other and therefore do not intersect.

FL 470, RDI, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Pennsylvanian Alamitos Fm., San

Miguel Co., New Mexico

This detrital rutile is made up of prismatic

crystals of rutile with contact twins. The color
of these reddish brown crystals masks their
very high birefringence. In this example, the
rutile crystals may have been intergrown with
another mineral or they may have replaced a
detrital ilmenite grain. Later, that mineral
was leached and the pores were subsequently
infilled by slightly ferroan calcite cement.

PPL, AFeS, Scale bar = 0.16 mm

Eocene Thumbli Fm., Rajasthan,

India

This detrital rutile grain displays a very finely

crystalline lattice of rutile contact twins under
mixed back-scattered electron/scanning
electron microscopic imaging. The rutile,
which probably replaces ilmenite, is intergrown
with iron oxides (hematite or magnetite).

BSE(SEM), Scale bar = 12.7 µm

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 92 PetrograPhy of SandStoneS and aSSociated rockS

Mid. Jurassic Ness Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

A partly degraded and dissolved rutile grain. It

is not known what the intergrown mineral was,
but it could have been another titanium-rich
mineral, such as ilmenite.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Mid. Eocene – Lo. Oligocene Lower

Spears Gp., Socorro Co., New
HEAVY MINERALS: INTERMEDIATE STABILITY

Mexico

A euhedral (hexagonal) apatite crystal in

a volcaniclastic sandstone (yellow arrow).
Apatite is actually a group of minerals that
include, among others, calcium fluorapatite
and hydroxylapatite. Apatite group minerals
are the most common calcium phosphate
accessory mineral. They are found in a wide
variety of environments including almost
every type of igneous rock, contact metamor-
phosed carbonate rocks, hydrothermal veins,
sedimentary phosphorites, laterites and bone
material. Apatite can look like colorless tour-
maline, but apatite has lower birefringence.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Oligocene Fish Canyon Tuff,

Colorado

These apatite inclusions in biotite have

hexagonal outlines, imperfect cleavage,
moderate relief and very low birefringence.
Apatite is uniaxial negative and commonly has
weak to no pleochroism. Apatite commonly is
found as detrital grains in sedimentary rocks (it
generally is stable during burial although it can
be significantly degraded during prolonged
surficial weathering). Apatite is widely used in
provenance and thermal history studies (e.g.,
Green et al., 1989; Morton and Yaxley, 2007).

XPL, Scale bar = 0.01 mm

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 Chapter 4: Accessory Minerals 93

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

A well-rounded detrital apatite grain that

displays higher relief than the surrounding
quartz grains. Apatite shows a characteristic
dull gray birefringence that is almost bluish.
As a heavy mineral, apatite is moderately
stable and is relatively common, even in
mature sandstones.

PPL | XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.04

mm

Pliocene sandstone, Santa Barbara

Co., California

Apatite frequently occurs as inclusions in other

minerals. Apatite, here, is seen as inclusions
in a detrital feldspar grain within this bitumen-
impregnated sandstone. The inclusions are
clearly visible, because they have a slightly
lower birefringence and a higher relief than the
feldspar grain.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

Precambrian (Proterozoic) Ortega

Fm., New Mexico

This image shows epidote crystals from a

quartz vein in a metaquartzite rock. Epidote
has high relief, strong pleochroism, perfect
basal cleavage and yellow to green color. It
is a biaxial negative mineral with very high
(third-order) birefringence. Epidote is derived
mainly from altered igneous rocks, hydro-
thermal veins and crystalline metamorphic
terranes.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.03 mm

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 94 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Eocene Lo. Spears Gp., Socorro

Co., New Mexico

This volcaniclastic sandstone has undergone

substantial hydrothermal (propylitic) alter-
ation. Under such conditions, epidote
commonly forms as an alteration product of
hornblende, plagioclase and clinopyroxene
and thus can be mistaken for detrital epidote
grains (as with the epidote-replaced grain in
the center of these images). The feldspars in
this view were substantially altered to sericite
(a fine-grained white mica). In thin section,
epidote can be difficult to identify because of
the granular character of replacements such as
this, but the birefringence is the key factor in
identification.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.17 mm

Paleozoic schist, Massachusetts

Zoisite, a member of the epidote group,

is shown here in a source rock. It is an
orthorhombic, biaxial positive mineral and
occurs as prismatic crystals to massive
clusters. In plane-ploarized light, zoisite is
colorless, pink to pale blue and has high relief.
Under cross-polarized light, it has anomalous
birefringence colors (ultrablue) that are clearly
shown in this example. Zoisite has perfect
basal cleavage and conchoidal fracture. It is
a mineral commonly found in medium-grade
metamorphic schists and some blueschists.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.14 mm

Lo. Permian Cutler Fm., Mesa Co.,

Colorado

This detrital metamorphic grain, comprised of

zoisite (yellow arrow) and muscovite (white
arrow), is in a compacted immature sandstone.
Zoisite displays perfect basal cleavage and
anomalous ultrablue birefringence. Zoisite
is brittle and does not withstand significant
mechanical transport. In this view, the clays
behaved in a ductile manner during com-
paction, bending around more rigid grains; the
zoisite, however, shows brittle deformation.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 4: Accessory Minerals 95

Holocene beach sediment, Orange

Co., California

Clinozoisite is another member of the epidote

group and is seen here in a grain mount. It
is pale green to colorless and has anomalous
pale ultrablue to high first-order birefringence.
Birefringence is dependent on the iron content
of the crystal, the more iron, the higher the
birefringence. It has perfect basal cleavage,
high relief, slightly oblique extinction (unlike
zoisite) and is biaxial positive. Clinozoisite is
relatively common in sediments, and is derived
mainly from schists and metamorphosed basic
volcanic rocks. It is frequently mistaken for
zoisite.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Pennsylvanian Alamitos Fm., San

Miguel Co., New Mexico
Garnet is a general name applied to large
group of isometric minerals. Garnet has
dodecahedral or trapezohedral habit, very
high relief and conchoidal fracture. In plane
light, garnet has a wide range of colors, from
colorless to shades of red, yellow, green,
brown and black. Under cross-polarized light,
garnet is isotropic (i.e., has no birefringence),
so it generally is easy to identify. The garnet
grain at center of this image is euhedral and
colorless with conchoidal fracture and mineral
inclusions. Garnet has intermediate stability
and commonly shows crystal faces even on
detrital grains. The grain at far left is rutile
(yellow arrow).
PPL, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic Portland

Fm., Middlesex Co., Connecticut

The reworked garnet porphyroblast (a crystal

of metamorphic origin) in this image has
some of its original crystal faces preserved,
is isotropic (in cross-polarized light) and
contains abundant mineral inclusions (mainly
quartz). It is common for garnet to contain
solid (quartz, mica or other minerals) and/or
fluid inclusions. Garnets are found in a wide
variety of regional and contact metamorphic
rocks as well as igneous rocks. They also form
in granitic pegmatites, and pyrope is a common
constituent of ultrabasic igneous rocks.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

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 96 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic Portland

Fm., Middlesex Co., Connecticut

Garnet is frequently zoned with normal,

oscillatory and sector zoning as the most
common forms. This reworked porphyroblast
has a core that has textural sector zoning
followed by further growth with no evident
zoning. Textural sector zoning is marked
here by inclusion-rich (hourglass shaped) and
inclusion-poor sectors.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.20 mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic Portland

Fm., Middlesex Co., Connecticut

A garnet grain with linear trends of inclusions

that formed during crystal growth. Garnet has
moderate grain stability, and porphyroblasts
commonly are rounded or broken during
chemical weathering and mechanical abrasion.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Jurassic (Oxfordian) Melke Fm.,

Møre Basin, Norwegian Sea †

A garnet grain with inclusions, which suggest

that it may be a porphyroblast from a meta-
morphic rock. The grain shows a pale pinkish
color and high relief in plane-polarized light.
Not all garnets exhibit color light, and colors
of most garnets tend to be quite pale at the
thickness of a thin section. The ragged margins
are something that typify many garnet grains
and help identify them.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

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 Chapter 4: Accessory Minerals 97

Holocene beach sediment, New

Haven Co., Connecticut

A brownish pink garnet grain as viewed in

a grain mount. Because of their relative
stability, garnet is common in placer deposits
such as this. Garnets of this color generally
are almandine or grossular, and the color here
is more intense than in previous photographs,
because this is a complete 3-D grain from a
grain mount it is far thicker than the 30-µm-
thick grains seen in previous thin-section
photomicrographs. Another advantage of
grain mounts is that individual grains can be
sampled for a variety of optical or geochemical
analyses.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

Ordovician? Zoar Gneiss, New

Haven Co., Connecticut

A kyanite crystal surrounded by quartz crystals

in a metamorphic rock. Kyanite has high relief
and two cleavages (one perfect and one good,
but uneven). It is normally colorless, but it
also occurs in pale shades of blue, yellow and
red. Kyanite is weakly pleochroic, biaxial
negative and has up to first-order orange-red
birefringence. Kyanite is only found in mod-
erately high-grade metamorphic source areas
and thus is a valuable provenance indicator. It
has moderate chemical stability, but relatively
low abrasion resistance.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Mesozoic (Jurassic?)
metaquartzite, Imperial Co.,
California

Kyanite typically forms long and bladed

crystals in metamorphic rocks (in this case,
a metaquartzite). These kyanite crystals also
contain abundant quartz inclusions, that may
be present here because the premetamorphic
rock was a sandstone. Kyanite and pyroxene
can be hard to distinguish from one another,
but kyanite has higher relief, 85° cleavages,
and lower birefringence.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 98 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Holocene beach sediment, New

Haven Co., Connecticut

This detrital kyanite crystal in a grain mount

has high relief, excellent cleavage, bladed
habit and very pale blue color. Because this is
a grain mount, the crystal is much thicker than
30 µm, and therefore, the pleochroism of the
thickest part of grain is much higher than in a
standard thin section. The angularity and lack
of alteration indicate that the grain is first-cycle
and has probably undergone little chemical
weathering and short transport (indeed, the
site of deposition is just kilometers to tens of
kilometers from kyanite-bearing source rocks).

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

A monazite grain surrounded by degraded oil.

The emission of radiation from the monazite
grain has degraded the bitumen. Both zircon
and monazite are variably radioactive, and
this feature is often seen with both minerals.
Monazite has very similar relief and
birefringence to zircon and titanite but can be
distinguished by its inclined extinction angle
and biaxial positive crystals. They can also be
differentiated by the fact that titanite has deeper
color and zircon has a straight extinction angle
and is uniaxial.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Ordovician-Silurian sillimanite
schist, New Haven Co.,
Connecticut

Sillimanite generally is finely fibrous (called

fibrolite) to acicular. It is light brown to
colorless, has high relief and is slightly
pleochroic. Under cross-polarized light, it
is biaxial positive and has parallel extinction
with up to low second-order colors (more
commonly it has upper first-order colors
where it is finely crystalline). Sillimanite is
found mainly in high-grade aluminous schists
and some contact metamorphic rocks. It has
moderate chemical stability but relatively low
abrasion resistance. In this sample, biotite,
muscovite and quartz also are visible.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 4: Accessory Minerals 99

Ordovician? Zoar Gneiss, New

Haven Co., Connecticut

A euhedral staurolite crystal (center) is sur-

rounded by quartz (colorless) and muscovite
(stained red in this section). Staurolite has
brownish yellow color, moderate relief,
moderate pleochroism, abundant inclusions
and prismatic crystal habit with one direction
of poorly developed cleavage and conchoidal
fracture. Staurolite birefringence is first-order
orange, and it is biaxial positive with positive
elongation. Detrital specimens commonly
show some surficial alteration to chlorite. It
is an excellent indicator of a schistose meta-
morphic source. During transport, staurolite
abrades quickly.

PPL | XPL, KFS, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Precambrian (1.1 Ga) Fordham

Gneiss, Westchester Co., New York

These wedge-shaped to prismatic titanite

crystals (formerly known as sphene) are signif-
icant constituents of this gneissic/skarn source
rock. Titanite is a common accessory heavy
mineral in felsic to intermediate plutonic
rocks, pegmatites, skarns, gneisses and schists.
In sedimentary rocks, it occurs as detrital
grains, cements and replacements. Titanite is
a biaxial positive mineral with very high relief
and birefringence. In thin section, it can be
colorless, yellow, brown or reddish brown and
is pleochroic. It has one direction of cleavage
and one direction of parting; in addition, it
frequently has contact twins.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.43 mm

Mid. Jurassic Ness Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

A detrital grain of titanite that displays very

high relief. The brownish color is common, and
the birefringence, although high, is sometimes
masked by the color of the mineral. This grain
displays possible cleavage with hints of a
diamond shaped cross-hatched pattern.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

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 100 PetrograPhy of SandStoneS and aSSociated rockS

Mid. Permian Wegener Halvø Fm.,

Karstryggen area, East Greenland

A rounded titanite grain in a sandstone; the

titanite was shattered along cleavage/parting
planes during burial and compaction. Because
of its strong color, it looks similar in plane-
and cross-polarized light. The grain was later
surrounded by nonferroan to ferroan calcite
cements.

PPL | XPL, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10

mm

Jurassic Tilje Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

The birefringence of titanite is very high,

making it difficult to determine interference
color order (especially because the expected
high-order, pastel interference colors are easily
mask). One distinguishing factor is that its
appearance in cross-polarized light is very
similar to that in plane-polarized light.

PPL | XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12

mm

Lo. Miocene Arikaree Fm., Platte

Co., Wyoming
Amphiboles are a large group of orthorhombic
and monoclinic minerals that generally have
HEAVY MINERALS: UNSTABLE

two cleavages intersecting at 124° (as in the

center yellow grain); amphiboles also have
stronger pleochroism than pyroxenes. In
this pair of photomicrographs, all the colored
grains are hornblende (a common amphibole).
The yellow grain is a typical basal section
through a hornblende crystal. These crystals
exhibit strong pleochroism (visible in these
two images with approximately 90° of stage
rotation). Amphiboles are a large, diverse
group of minerals, and they occur in a wide
range of igneous and metamorphic environ-
ments.
PPL | PPL, Scale bar = 0.09 mm

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 Chapter 4: Accessory Minerals 101

Oligocene Up. Spears Gp., Socorro

Co., New Mexico

This hornblende grain may have started out as

a euhedral crystal from a volcanic source, but
it was extensively rounded during transport.
The dark alteration rim was formed by hydro-
thermal alteration. The two characteristic
cleavages of the basal section (124°/56°) are
clearly displayed here. Hornblende can be
biaxial negative or positive. Hornblende is
the most common amphibole in acidic to inter-
mediate igneous rocks, and it is common in
moderate- to high-grade regional metamorphic
rocks. Because of its chemical and mechanical
instability, hornblende tends to occur only in
relatively immature sediments.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.14 mm

Precambrian (1.1 Ga) Fordham

Gneiss, Westchester Co., New York

The amphiboles in this section are hornblende.

Once again, the high relief of hornblende is
visible as is the strong pleochroism and the two
cleavage directions at 124° and 56°. Horn-
blende is a common metamorphic mineral
occurring in metamorphosed sedimentary and
plutonic igneous rocks. Surficial alteration of
hornblende to chlorite and epidote is common.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Holocene beach sediment, Orange

Co., California

Glaucophane is a monoclinic amphibole with

distinctive coloration, both in plane- and
cross-polarized light. It is biaxial negative, has
moderate to high relief, is strongly pleochroic
in shades of blue, lavender and yellow and has
high first-order birefringence or anomalous
ultrablue color. The pleochroism is visible
in the left and center images that have 90°
relative rotation; the ultrablue birefringence
is seen in the last image. Glaucophane is
common in blueschist facies (low temperature,
high pressure), greenschists, ecologites and as
an alteration product of pyroxenes.

PPL | PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 102 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Oligocene Up. Spears Gp., Socorro

Co., New Mexico

A zoned orthopyroxene crystal (center) in a

volcaniclastic sandstone. Orthopyroxenes can
be biaxial positive (enstatite and ferrosilite)
or biaxial negative (bronzite, hypersthene,
eulite). They have high relief, two cleavages
at 90° and their birefringence ranges from gray
to high first-order colors with increasing iron
content. They also have parallel extinction,
are pleochroic and are colorless to pale green,
brown or pink in thin section. Orthopyroxenes
are found in basic to ultrabasic igneous rocks
and high-grade metamorphics. Most of the
rest of the grains in this rock are plagioclase.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.17 mm

Oligocene Up. Spears Gp., Socorro

Co., New Mexico

A volcaniclastic sandstone containing

clinopyroxene (up to second-order blue to
green; examples at white arrows) along with
laths of plagioclase and an amphibole (red
arrow). Clinopyroxenes are monoclinic, occur
as tabular crystals, have two cleavages at 90°,
and are most commonly biaxial positive. All
clinopyroxenes have high relief, inclined
extinction, can be non- to strongly pleochroic
and are colorless to yellow, green or brown.
They are sourced from intermediate to
ultrabasic volcanic rocks, acidic igneous rocks
and intermediate- to high-grade metamorphic
rocks.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Mid. Eocene – Lo. Oligocene

Spears Gp., Catron Co., New
Mexico

This euhedral crystal of augite is very

pale green in plane-polarized light and has
conchoidal fracture. Augite, a clinopyroxene,
can be pleochroic in shades of pale green to
pale brown. It has high relief and two direc-
tions of cleavage (at 90°). Augite is biaxial
positive, and under cross-polarized light, it has
high first- to low second-order colors. Augite
is common in basic and ultrabasic igneous
rocks and high-grade metamorphic rocks. This
phenocryst is set in an andesitic volcanic rock
fragment.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 4: Accessory Minerals 103

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic,

Huizachal Fm., Tamaulipas, Mexico

An igneous rock fragment with an intergrowth

of radiating augite crystals encased by
plagioclase. This rock fragment is a plume-like
symplectic intergrowth of the two minerals
and such intergrowths commonly form as
late crystallization products within magma
chambers or within metamorphic reaction
rims.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Lo. Miocene Arikaree Fm., Platte

Co., Wyoming

Two members of the clinopyroxene group

are strongly pleochroic, aegirine-augite and
aegirine. In this example, there are three
clinopyroxene grains at different optical
orientations (similar to rotating the stage)
exhibiting strong pleochroism. Based on
their pleochroism, birefringence (first-order
yellow), and characteristic 90° cleavages
these grains are aegirine-augite (aegirine has
a much higher birefringence with second- to
third-order colors). Aegirine-augite is found in
alkaline igneous rocks and pegmatites as well
as some glaucophane schists.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.09 mm

Holocene beach sediment, Orange

Co., California

This olivine grain in modern beach sediment

is pale green and has up to third-order
birefringence, high relief and conchoidal
fracture (curved cracks). Olivine is colorless,
pale yellow to pale green, is nonpleochroic to
slightly pleochroic and has two poor cleavages.
Fayalite forms eight-sided crystals, and forsterite
usually occurs as granular masses. They are
common in basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks
and far less common in intermediate and acidic
igneous rocks and metamorphosed carbonate
and iron-rich deposits. It is very rare to find
detrital olivine in sedimentary rocks following
even moderate burial.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

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 104 PetrograPhy of SandStoneS and aSSociated rockS

Lo. Permian Abo Fm., Otero Co.,

New Mexico

Opaque detrital heavy minerals can be

abundant in sedimentary rocks, especially
where concentrated in placers, and they are
best examined in reflected light. The iron
oxides seen here were illuminated with oblique
OPAQUES

reflected light (a simple LED light directed

between the slide and the microscope objective).
The grains here are magnetite (silvery) with
some limonitic alteration (brownish yellow).
Many opaque grains (especially pyrite) are of
authigenic origin. Thus, thin section study can
be useful in distinguishing detrital grains from
authigenic precipitates.

PPL | ORL, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

Holocene beach sediment, New

Haven Co., Connecticut

A grain mount of detrital magnetite in trans-

mitted and oblique reflected light. Identifi-
cation of heavy minerals is facilitated, in many
cases, by crushing the rock and concentrating
the heavy minerals by heavy liquid flotation or
by mechanical mineral-separation techniques.
Separated grains can be examined in refractive
index oils or in polished mounts. Magnetite
shows a metallic, silver-black color when
viewed in reflected light, although colors can
vary with the color spectrum of the light source
used.

PPL | ORL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Up. Triassic – Lo. Jurassic

Huizachal Fm., Nuevo León,
Mexico

The detrital opaque minerals visible here were

concentrated into laminae that are typical
of placer deposits. These grains are mostly
magnetite, a mineral that is silver-black in
reflected light. Placer deposits are made
up of chemically stable heavy minerals that
have been gravitationally concentrated during
transport.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 4: Accessory Minerals 105

Cited References and Additional Information Sources

Accessory detrital minerals - general: Morton, A. C., 1984, Stability of detrital heavy minerals in Tertiary sand-
Briggs, L. I., 1965, Heavy mineral correlations and provenances: Journal stones from the North Sea Basin: Clay Minerals, v. 19, p. 287-308, doi:
of Sedimentary Research, v. 35, p. 939-955, doi: 10.1306/74D713B6- 10.1180/claymin.1984.019.3.04.
2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D. Morton, A. C., 1985, Heavy minerals in provenance studies, in G. G. Zuf-
Cerveny, P. F., N. M. Johnson, R. A. K. Tahirkheli, and N. R. Bonis, 1989, fa, ed., Provenance of Arenites (NATO Science Series C): Dordrecht,
Tectonic and geomorphic implications of Siwalik Group heavy miner- Netherlands, D. Reidel Publishing, p. 249-277, doi: 10.1007/978-94-
als, Potwar Plateau, Pakistan, in L. L. Malinconico, Jr., and R. J. Lillie, 017-2809-6_12.
eds., Tectonics of the Western Himalayas: Boulder, GSA Special Paper Morton, A. C., and C. R. Hallsworth, 1999, Processes controlling the com-
232, p. 129-136, doi: 10.1130/SPE232-p129. position of heavy mineral assemblages in sandstones: Sedimentary Ge-
Feo-Codecido, G., 1956, Heavy-mineral techniques and their application ology, v. 124, p. 3-29, doi: 10.1016/S0037-0738(98)00118-3.
to Venezuelan stratigraphy: AAPG Bulletin, v. 40, p. 984-1000. Morton, A. C., and A. Hurst, 1995, Correlation of sandstones using heavy
Garzanti, E., and S. Andò, 2007, Heavy mineral concentration in mod- minerals: An example from the Statfjord Formation of the Snorre Field,
ern sands: Implications for provenance interpretation, in M. A. Mange, northern North Sea, in R. E. Dunay, and E. A. Hailwood, eds., Non-bio-
and D. T. Wright, eds., Heavy Minerals in Use (Developments in stratigraphical Methods of Dating and Correlation: London, GSL Spe-
Sedimentology 58): New York, Elsevier, p. 517-545, doi: 10.1016/ cial Publication 89, p. 3-22, doi: 10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.089.01.02.
S0070-4571(07)58020-9. Morton, A. C., and M. J. Johnsson, 1994, Identifying provenance-specific
Hubert, J. F., 1962, A zircon-tourmaline-rutile maturity index and the in- features of detrital heavy mineral assemblages in sandstones: Sedimen-
terdependence of the composition of heavy mineral assemblages with tary Geology, v. 90, p. 241-256, doi: 10.1016/0037-0738(94)90041-8.
the gross composition and texture of sandstones: Journal of Sedimen- Morton, A. C., S. McFadyen, A. Hurst, J. Pyle, and P. Rose, 2014, Con-
tary Research, v. 32, p. 440-450, doi: 10.1306/74D70CE5-2B21-11D7- straining the origin of reservoirs formed by sandstone intrusion: In-
8648000102C1865D. sights from heavy mineral studies of the Eocene in the Forties area,
Komar, P. D., K. E. Clemens, Zhenlin Li, and Shyuer-ming Shih, 1989, UK Central North Sea: AAPG Bulletin, v. 98, p. 545-561, doi:
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assemblages: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 59, p. 590-596, doi: Munsterman, D., and S. Kerstholt, 1996, Sodium polytungstate, a new
10.1306/212F8FF8-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D. non-toxic alternative to bromoform in heavy liquid separation: Review
Koroznikova, L., C. Klutke, S. McKnight, and S. Hall, 2008, The use of of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 91, p. 417-422, doi: 10.1016/0034-
low-toxic heavy suspensions in mineral sands evaluation and zircon 6667(95)00093-3.
fractionation: Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Met- Naeser, N. D., and T. H. McCulloh, eds., 1988, Thermal History of Sedi-
allurgy, v. 108, p. 25-34. mentary Basins: New York, Springer-Verlag, 500 p.
Mange, M. A., and H. F. W. Maurer, 1992, Heavy Minerals in Colour: Pettijohn, F. J., P. E. Potter, and R. Siever, 1987, Sand and Sandstones
London, Chapman & Hall, 147 p., doi: 10.1007/978-94-011-2308-2. (2nd Edition): New York, Springer-Verlag, 553 p.
Mange, M. A., and A. C. Morton, 2007a, Geochemistry of heavy minerals, Uddin, A., and N. Lundberg, 1998, Unroofing history of the eastern Hima-
in M. A. Mange, and D. T. Wright, eds., Heavy Minerals in Use (Devel- laya and the Indo-Burmese ranges: Heavy-mineral study of Cenozoic
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10.1016/S0070-4571(07)58013-1. Research, v. 68, p. 465-472, doi: 10.2110/jsr.68.465.
Mange, M. A., and A. C. Morton, 2007b, High resolution heavy mineral van Andel, T. H., 1959, Reflections on the interpretation of heavy miner-
analysis (HRHMA): A brief summary, in M. A. Mange, and D. T. Wright, al analyses: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 29, p. 153-163, doi:
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Mange-Rajetzky, M. A., 1995, Subdivision and correlation of monoto- of Sedimentary Research, v. 69, p. 563-575, doi: 10.2110/jsr.69.563.
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Mexico: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 58, p. 992-1002, doi: 10.2110/jsr.2007.091.
10.1306/212F8EE0-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D. Weibel, R., and H. Friis, 2007, Alteration of opaque heavy minerals as a
Milliken, K. L., 2007, Provenance and diagenesis of heavy minerals, Ce- reflection of the geochemical conditions in depositional and diagenetic
nozoic units of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico sedimentary basin, in environments, in M. A. Mange, and D. T. Wright, eds., Heavy Minerals
M. A. Mange, and D. T. Wright, eds., Heavy Minerals in Use (Devel- in Use (Developments in Sedimentology 58): Amsterdam, Elsevier, p.
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Province, South Texas: Sedimentary Geology, v. 68, p. 187-199, doi: chemistry of lithic sandstones from the New England Fold Belt (east
10.1016/0037-0738(90)90111-6. Australia): A Paleozoic forearc terrane: GSA Bulletin, v. 94, p. 1199-
Molinaroli, E., and A. Basu, 1993, Toward quantitative provenance analy- 1214, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1983)94<1199:MCADCG>2.0.CO;2.
sis: A brief review and case study, in M. J. Johnsson, and A. Basu, eds., Krawinkel, H., S. Wozazek, J. Krawinkel, and W. Hellmann, 1999,
Processes Controlling the Composition of Clastic Sediments: Boulder, Heavy-mineral analysis and clinopyroxene geochemistry applied to
CO, GSA Special Paper 284, p. 323-334, doi: 10.1130/SPE284-p323. provenance analysis of lithic sandstones from the Azuero–Soná Com-

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(Erbendorf Paleozoic, NE-Bavaria, Germany): Consequences for prov- ogy, v. 171, p. 37-58, doi: 10.1016/j.sedgeo.2004.05.009.
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136. Tourmaline:
Krynine, P. D., 1946, The tourmaline group in sediments: Journal of Ge-
Apatite: ology, v. 54, p. 65-87.
Gleadow, A. J. W., D. X. Belton, B. P. Kohn, and R. W. Brown, 2002, Marschall, H. R., and Shao-Yong Jiang, 2011, Tourmaline isotopes: No
Fission track dating of phosphate minerals and the thermochronology element left behind: Elements, v. 7, p. 313-319, doi: 10.2113/gsele-
of apatite: Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, v. 48, p. 579-630, ments.7.5.313.
doi: 10.2138/rmg.2002.48.16. Preston, J., A. Hartley, M. Mange-Rajetzky, M. Hole, G. May, S. Buck,
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Apatite fission-track analysis as a paleotemperature indicator for hy- stones from the Beryl Field, northern North Sea: Mineralogical, geo-
drocarbon exploration, in N. D. Naeser, and T. H. McCulloh, eds., chemical, and sedimentological constraints: Journal of Sedimentary
Thermal History of Sedimentary Basins: Methods and Case Histories: Research, v. 72, p. 18-29, doi: 10.1306/042201720018.
New York, Springer-Verlag, p. 181-195, doi: 10.1007/978-1-4612- van Hinsberg, V. J., D. J. Henry, and H. R. Marschall, 2011, Tourmaline:
3492-0_11. An ideal indicator of its host environment: The Canadian Mineralogist,
Morton, A., and G. Yaxley, 2007, Detrital apatite geochemistry and its v. 49, p. 1-16, doi: 10.3749/canmin.49.1.1.
application in provenance studies, in J. Arribas, S. Critelli, and M. J.
Johnsson, eds., Sedimentary Provenance and Petrogenesis: Perspec- Zircon:
tives from Petrography and Geochemistry: Boulder, CO, GSA Special Bernet, M., and J. I. Garver, 2005, Fission-track analysis of detrital zir-
Paper 420, p. 319-344, doi: 10.1130/2006.2420(19). con: Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, v. 58, p. 205-237, doi:
Naeser, C. W., 1979, Thermal history of sedimentary basins: Fission track 10.2138/rmg.2005.58.8.
dating of subsurface rocks, in P. A. Scholle, and P. Schluger, eds., As- Corfu, F., J. M. Hanchar, P. W. O. Hoskin, and P. Kinny, 2003, Atlas of
pects of Diagenesis: Tulsa, SEPM Special Publication 26, p. 109-112, zircon textures, in J. M. Hanchar, and P. W. O. Hoskin, eds., Zircon
doi: 10.2110/pec.79.26.0109. (Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 53): Chantilly, VA, Miner-
alogical Society of America, p. 469-500, doi: 10.2113/0530469.
Garnet: Dickinson, W. R., and G. E. Gehrels, 2008, Sediment delivery to the Cor-
Morton, A. C., 1985, A new approach to provenance studies: Electron dilleran foreland basin: Insights from U-Pb ages of detrital zircons in
microprobe analysis of detrital garnets from Middle Jurassic sand- Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous strata of the Colorado Plateau: Ameri-
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doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3091.1985.tb00470.x. Fedo, C. M., K. N. Sircombe, and R. H. Rainbird, 2003, Detrital zircon
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garnet suites in the Paleocene Forties Sandstone, central North chemistry, v. 53, p. 277-303, doi: 10.2113/0530277.
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10.1306/212F8CD8-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D. of zircon and its use as a provenance indicator: Geology, v. 28, p. 627-
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in Scottish and Norwegian basement terrains: A framework for inter- 2541(01)00341-2.
pretation of North Sea sandstone provenance: Marine and Petroleum McAteer, C. A., J. S. Daly, M. J. Flowerdew, J. N. Connelly, T. B. Housh,
Geology, v. 21, p. 393-410, doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2004.01.001. and M. J. Whitehouse, 2010, Detrital zircon, detrital titanite and ig-
Takeuchi, M., 1994, Changes in garnet chemistry show a progressive de- neous clast U–Pb geochronology and basement–cover relationships of
nudation of the source areas for Permian-Jurassic sandstones, southern the Colonsay Group, SW Scotland: Laurentian provenance and cor-
Kitakami Terrane, Japan: Sedimentary Geology, v. 93, p. 85-105, doi: relation with the Neoproterozoic Dalradian Supergroup: Precambrian
10.1016/0037-0738(94)90030-2. Research, v. 181, p. 21-42, doi: 10.1016/j.precamres.2010.05.013.
Naeser, N. D., P. K. Zeitler, C. W. Naeser, and P. F. Cerveny, 1987, Prov-
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Basu, A., and E. Molinaroli, 1989, Provenance characteristics of detrital procedures: International Journal of Radiation Applications and Instru-
opaque Fe-Ti oxide minerals: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 59, mentation, Part D, Nuclear Tracks and Radiation Measurements, v. 13,
p. 922-934, doi: 10.1306/212F90B6-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D. p. 121-126, doi: 10.1016/1359-0189(87)90022-7.
Jamieson, J. C., and B. Olinger, 1969, Pressure–temperature studies of Owen, M. R., 1987, Hafnium content of detrital zircons, a new tool for
anatase, brookite, rutile and TiO2 (II): A discussion: American Mineral- provenance study: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 57, p. 824-830,
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Morad, S., and A. A. Aldahan, 1986, Alteration of detrital Fe-Ti ox-
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FCretaceous Nahr Umr Fm., offshore Qatar (PPL).

10.1130/0016-7606(1986)97<567:AODFOI>2.0.CO;2.
Morton, A., and S. Chenery, 2009, Detrital rutile geochemistry and ther- acing Page – Top: A chamositic ooid from the Lo.
mometry as guides to provenance of Jurassic–Paleocene sandstones of
the Norwegian Sea: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 79, p. 540- Bottom – Interbedded Up. Jurassic radiolarites and si-
553, doi: 10.2110/jsr.2009.054.
Triebold, S., G. L. Luvizotto, R. Tolosana-Delgado, T. Zack, and H. von liceous mudstones, Elba, Italy. Photograph from E. L.
Eynatten, 2011, Discrimination of TiO2 polymorphs in sedimentary and Winterer.

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 chaPter 6: Sand & SandStone textureS 147

SAND & SANDSTONE TEXTURES

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

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 148 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Texture, Fabric, Matrix, Maturity and Textural

Classification
Introduction – The term “texture” encompasses a follow up on unconsolidated sediment studies (especially
wide range of attributes of sediments/rocks and their con- the excellent overview of statistical measures provided in
stituent grains, including grain size and sorting, particle Folk, 1980) and almost all textbooks on sands and sand-
morphology (form and sphericity, rounding, and surface stones include discussions of these topics.
texture), grain orientation, imbrication and packing. Grain size – There is a standard grain size chart for
All of those properties have significance in interpreting sediments and sedimentary rocks, termed the Wentworth
transport processes and depositional settings of sedi- or Udden-Wentworth scale as it is based on the work of
mentary rocks, but they also have economic importance Udden (1914) as refined by Wentworth (1922). In the
in a wide variety of fields ranging from engineering of version shown in Table 6.1, a column of phi (φ) equiva-
construction and road materials to understanding and lents (from Krumbein, 1938) is included (φ = – log2 grain
predicting the porosity and permeability relationships of diameter in mm). The Wentworth classification, which
such materials in petroleum exploration/production or is widely applied in North America and many other ar-
hydrologic contexts. eas, uses the measured or estimated average grain size to
Most textural properties mentioned above are best provide a grain-size term for the entire sediment (shown
measured in unconsolidated or easily disaggregateable in the fourth column) or rock (shown in the last column).
materials where grains can be size-sorted by sieving, Thus, for example, an unconsolidated sediment could be
settling, laser particle analysis or other techniques or called a “very coarse sand” or a “medium silt” whereas
where individual grains can be viewed in three dimen- lithified rocks of the same grain size would be termed a
sions. These properties generally are far more difficult “very coarse sandstone” or a “medium siltstone”. As will
to measure accurately in thin sections of consolidated be seen in the sorting section, this name can be further
rocks. To use just one example, the size of a grain in thin modified to include terms that better express the range of
section can never exceed the longest axis of the grain but sizes in either sediment or rock. But it should be noted
it can easily be shorter because most cuts through grains again that these are only textural names for terrigenous
are tangential or oblique to that axis. So, in most cases, sediments or rocks—these terms do not reflect composi-
the basic size-, sorting- and shape-related properties of tion in any way. There are many compositional classi-
grains are merely estimated in thin sections through the fications, but they are separately covered in Chapter 7.
use of visual comparators. Even there, the most useful Table 6.2 shows a second widely-used grain size clas-
comparators are ones that have been specifically correct- sification, an International Standards Chart that was
ed for thin-section use. Detailed direct measurements designed mainly for soils, but is also used for natural
on grain size and shape can, of course, be done using and engineered materials including sediments and rocks
thin-section microscopy, especially through point-count- (the latter by adding the suffix “stone” to the sediment
ing large numbers of grains, but there too, correction names). Part of the point of including both charts is to
factors must be used to overcome, to the degree possi- highlight the fact that the clay-silt boundaries differ in
ble, the two-dimensional (2-D) view of three-dimensional the two classifications, as do the specific usages of divi-
(3-D) grains afforded in thin sections (see Harrell and sions within sands, silts and gravels. Thus, when using
Eriksson, 1979; Johnson, 1994). Advances in comput- either classification to communicate with others (the ba-
erized photomicrographic image analysis can make the sic point of having classifications), it is imperative to state
process of measurement and measurement correction which classification you are using.
both more accurate and far less time consuming (see, for The measurement of the average grain size of rocks in
example, Schäfer and Teyssen, 1987; Seelos and Sirocko, thin sections is certainly more laborious than sieving or
2005; Syvitski, 2007). settling tube analysis of unconsolidated materials. Grain
An enormous amount of effort was made in the peri- size can be studied under the microscope on a grain-by-
od from the 1930s to the 1970s to perfect textural mea- grain basis, using a calibrated eyepiece micrometer, a
surements and to find reliable statistical measures that transparent grain size gauge or some other measuring
could be used to identify specific environments of deposi- technique. Where accurate measurements are not of
tion. That work still finds application in soft and uncon- great importance, one can simply determine the dimen-
solidated sediments, but it will not be discussed in detail sions of a few grains that visually appear to be of “aver-
in this book, because it is of lesser applicability to petro- age size”. One also can pick grains at the large and small
graphic studies of hard rocks. A number of papers in the ends of the spectrum of grains and measure those as well.
bibliography at the close of this section can be used to Those few measurements can easily be corrected for the

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 Chapter 6: Sand & Sandstone Textures 149

Table 6.1: The Udden-Wentworth grain size scale for clastic terrigenous sediments and rocks. It
is based on publications of Udden (1918) and Wentworth (1922) with the addition of a phi scale
from Krumbein (1938).

Table 6.2: The International Standards Chart (BS EN ISO 14688-1:2002) for
description of grain sizes in soils and other granular materials.

2-D/3-D effect noted above by using equations provided dreds of grains will be needed. Some modern, automated
in Harrell and Eriksson (1979) or Johnson (1994). For procedures for doing that are outlined in the aforemen-
many purposes, such approximations are time and cost tioned references.
effective solutions for estimating grain size. If more Grain sorting – This is a measure of the distribution
accurate, statistically valid grain size distributions are (total range and modes) of grain sizes in any given sed-
required, then point counting and measurement of hun- iment or rock sample—the better the sorting, the nar-

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 150 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

rower the range of size grades in the sample. Sorting can ments and rocks).
be expressed quantitatively in terms of diameter ratios The measurement of sorting on unconsolidated sam-
between the smallest and largest significant grain pop- ples is normally done by statistical analysis of data from
ulations in a sample (or the standard deviation from the sieving and other methods of measuring the full range
mean grain size of a sample). More commonly however, of grain sizes in a sample. But in thin section studies,
it is verbally described as steps on a scale ranging from sorting is normally estimated through the use of a com-
very well sorted to very poorly sorted samples. See Table parison chart, preferably one that has been designed spe-
6.3 for the correspondence between verbal and quantita- cifically to compensate for the 2-D vs. 3-D problem noted
tive categories and see Folk (1980) for a thorough discus- earlier. Such a chart is supplied here as Fig. 6.1—it in-
sion of this topic. Sediments and rocks can have complex cludes specific references to the Folk (1980 and earlier)
sorting patterns, with two or more size modes (termed verbal sorting categories and quantitative phi (φ) stan-
bimodal or polymodal distributions), or grain size dis- dard deviation ranges.
tributions that differ in shape from typical bell-shaped Grain shape – is one of the least commonly studied
curves. The latter variations are statistically described textural property of terrigenous rocks in normal petro-
in terms of sediment skewness and kurtosis. The discus- graphic work. It refers to the tendency of grains to fall
sion of these topics is well beyond the scope and intent of in one of four categories of shapes—discoidal or oblate,
this book, but many references, including Folk (1980), bladed or tabular, equant or spherical and prolate or rod-
cover these topics in great detail. shaped—as shown in Fig. 6.2, following the classification
Sorting can reflect the influence of several factors, by Zingg (1935). That classification is based on the rel-
most notably the size range of materials supplied from ative ratios of mutually perpendicular long-, intermedi-
a particular source area, the types of transport and ate- and short-axes of particles. Thus, as with several
depositional processes, and postdepositional influences other types of textural analysis, identification of grain
that range from grain breakdown to overgrowth during shapes requires having loose grains that can be analyzed
diagenesis. Most commonly, however, sorting is inter- in 3-D. Furthermore, even in unconsolidated sediment
preted to reflect transport/depositional processes. For samples, shape analysis is done mainly on pebble-sized
example, high-energy eolian and beach environments and larger particles that are not well represented in most
generally are associated with well-sorted deposits; thin sections. Thus, at best, most petrographic studies
low-energy fluvial, alluvial, neritic, lagoonal or swampy only note nonquantitative characteristics such as “elon-
environments are most commonly associated with poorly gate grains”. However, more detailed grain shape anal-
sorted deposits (sometimes termed diamictons). Many ysis has considerable significance for engineering studies
glacial deposits (e.g., tills) are very poorly sorted with or evaluation of construction materials.
grains ranging from clay- to boulder-sized. In addition Grain rounding – is a measure of the amount of
to its value in environmental interpretation, sorting is smoothing and abrasion a grain has undergone during
important from an economic perspective because it is transport and deposition. It is one of the most important
strongly correlated to both porosity and permeability textural properties that can be measured in terrigenous
(with lower values of both in more poorly sorted sedi- deposits because it can help in estimating the distance

Table 6.3: Nomenclature and statistical measures of sorting in sediments (Folk 1966 and 1980).
To determine the diameter ratio when grain-sizes are measured in millimeters, divide the 16th
percentile diameter size by the 84th percentile. The phi standard deviation is utilized for grain
sizes measured in φ by subtracting the 16th from the 84th percentile and dividing by 2.

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 Chapter 6: Sand & Sandstone Textures 151

Figure 6.1: Six textural comparators for degree of sorting in 2-D. Each comparator is labeled with its sorting description
(Folk, 1968) based on the true 3-D sorting value. Adapted from Jerram (2001).

and duration of sediment transport and/or reworking of

sand grains from earlier cycle sedimentary rocks.
Although rounding can be described mathematically
(by comparing the ratio of the average radius of curva-
ture of the edges/corners to the radius of curvature of
the maximum inscribed sphere), in petrographic studies
it typically is estimated using a visual comparison chart
(almost always that of Powers, 1953, either in its original
form as shown in Fig. 6.3 or in a drafted outline version
of it). It should be remembered, however, that roundness
tends to be better in coarse grains (sands and larger) than
in finer grained ones, in part because rates of rounding
are higher where grain impacts are more energetic.
As noted above, degree of rounding is very much
a function of grain composition because rounding is
strongly influenced by differences in the relative hard-
ness and cleavage of detrital minerals. For sediment
maturity studies, the degree of roundness of monocrys-
talline quartz grains should be used as the standard mea-
sure; for transport distance studies, on the other hand, Figure 6.2: Classification of pebble shapes based on the
comparative rounding values for both durable and non- relative lengths of their three mutually perpendicular axes.
durable grains are optimal. In its most simplified form, Adapted from Zingg (1935) and Krumbein (1941).
consistently well-rounded quartz results from prolonged

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 152 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Figure 6.3: A visual comparator showing levels of rounding in high and low sphericity sand grains (from Powers, 1953).

abrasion in high-energy settings (e.g., eolian or beach en- followed by more systematic sampling, section cutting
vironments) or is the result of multiple cycles of sedimen- and other studies if warranted. Packing, on the other
tation and erosion. hand, generally can be evaluated in 2-D space as long as
Surface texture – This term refers to the whole range thin sections are cut perpendicular to bedding. Thus, it
of impact and abrasion marks, dissolution features and commonly is examined in studies of compaction and/or
other “blemishes” on the surface of detrital grains. These the relative timing of compaction and cementation (e.g.,
are not features normally discernable in thin section, but McBride, 2012).
rather require examination of whole-grain surfaces in Matrix – To this point, the book’s focus has been
binocular stereoscopes or, more commonly, using scan- mainly on the mineral grains that form the framework
ning electron microscopy. This is a very specialized topic of terrigenous sediments. Interstitial to those framework
that will not be covered here, although some SEM images grains, however, there can be open pore space, cement
of quartz surface textures are shown in Chapter 1 (and (that is, minerals precipitated diagenetically into former-
it is the surface textures of quartz grains that are most ly open pores), or matrix (fine-grained detrital material
commonly studied). The interested reader is referred to originally deposited between the coarser particles). Any
citations at the close of that chapter for further informa- one, two, or all three of these, can occur in any given sam-
tion. ple. Cements and pores will be discussed in other chap-
Fabric (grain orientation, imbrication and packing) ters, but detrital matrix, because it is a primary mineral
– Orientation is a measure of the azimuthal direction of constituent that can greatly affect rock texture and fab-
the long axis of particles; imbrication refers to the “shin- ric, will be discussed here.
gling” or consistent dip of grains, especially platy ones; The presence of matrix has significance both in terms
and packing refers to the more general patterns of spac- of defining the original rock composition and in inter-
ing and proximity of grains. Packing also includes de- preting its environment of deposition. Although inter-
termination of whether clastic grains touch each other stitial matrix typically consists of clay and silt (within a
throughout (a grain supported fabric) or whether grains sandstone framework), some workers restrict the defini-
“float” in matrix (a mud- or matrix-supported fabric). tion of matrix to just clay-sized material (and call it “clay
Orientation and imbrication are mostly 3-D measures of matrix”); others have adopted limits of roughly 30 µm
the grain fabric of rocks and sediments and thus they are for matrix which encompasses grains up to and including
normally only looked at in specialized studies. Study of medium silt. Where such matrix is present, it is reflective
3-D properties requires multiple, directionally-oriented of the processes of sediment deposition and winnowing.
thin sections or the use of nonpetrographic techniques As such, the presence or absence of matrix is a major fac-
(such as examination of directional magnetic properties). tor in determining the “maturity” of sediments or sedi-
Nonetheless, preferred orientation of elongate grains or mentary rocks.
imbricate inclination of grains (typically dipping in an Before proceeding to a discussion of maturity, howev-
up-current direction) can be seen in thin sections cut er, it is important to note that over the past three decades
with a known orientation relative to bedding and should there has been an significant shift in perspective rela-
be noted where visible. Those observations can then be tive to matrix. Where clay and silt were once assumed

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 Chapter 6: Sand & Sandstone Textures 153
to be detrital components of many or most sandstones, does not depend on the energy expenditure required
today the pendulum has swung to considering much clay to move it from the source area to the site of final
and silt, especially in litharenites, to be the product of deposition. A flood or turbidity current, for exam-
compaction or disintegration of claystone or siltstone ple, may expend a tremendous amount of energy
while it is transporting sediment, but once the sedi-
clasts (SRFs) or diagenetic precipitates or infiltrates of
ment is dropped it is simply buried by more sediment
pore-filling clays (including soil-forming processes in- and never suffers any further sorting or winnowing;
volving infiltration and precipitation; e.g., Matlack et al., thus such sediments have low maturity. Waves on a
1989; Dunn, 1992). The distinction between true matrix beach, on the contrary, sort and rework the sediment
and the “pseudomatrix” of deformed SRF or clay precip- continually…” From Folk (1980, p. 106).
itates can be quite easily made in some cases and quite
difficult in others, but it certainly is critical to the proper The appropriate term for the textural maturity of a
interpretation of textural properties of sediments. The given deposit can simply be included as part of the rock’s
photographs and captions throughout this book should overall textural name — for example, a supermature
help to delineate ways of distinguishing matrix and pseu- coarse sandstone or a submature fine sandstone. But it is
domatrix that depend largely on the patterns of matrix important to recognize that the concept and terminology
distribution. For example, precipitated clays commonly of maturity applies mainly to moderately coarse rocks
have grain-rimming textures; squashed and smeared out or sediments (primarily granule- and pebble-conglom-
SRF are commonly localized or still have recognizable erates, sandstones, and coarse siltstones). Beyond those
grain outlines; and true matrix is more compositionally ranges, the winnowing, sorting and rounding processes
uniform throughout the sample. are not entirely comparable to those in the intermediate
Textural maturity – the concept of stages of textural size ranges. Two additional things should also be not-
maturity (Folk, 1951; Folk, 1956; and Folk, 1980) is es- ed regarding textural maturity. First, “textural inver-
sentially the synthesis of all the aspects of sediment or sions” can sometimes be found where the maturity stage
rock texture discussed above. The concept postulates sequence is not easily applied—for example, extremely
that as sediments suffer a progressively greater input of well-rounded sandstones with bimodal grain distribu-
mechanical energy through the abrasive and sorting ac- tions that technically mean that the rock is not well sort-
tion of waves or currents, they pass sequentially through ed. Such inversion can result from extensive bioturbation
four stages of development as shown in Table 6.4. In of layered sediments, storm mixing of sediments, and
essence, the removal of matrix is followed by sediment even some depositional processes (eolian transport for
sorting and sediment rounding at ever greater levels of example). Second, in looking at the factors involved in
“environmental energy” within the depositional setting. textural maturity (matrix, sorting and rounding) one
The following quote may help to clarify the concept: must strive to recognize depositional fabrics, and learn
“It is important to realize that the maturity rat- to subtract diagenetic alteration (overgrowth cements,
ing of an environment depends on how much me- pseudomatrix and the like).
chanical energy is exerted on a sediment after it has Textural classification of complex sediments and
been moved essentially to its final resting place, by rocks – Some sediment/rock terminology schemes were
currents and waves at the final site of deposition; it presented in the opening section of this chapter (Tables

Table 6.4: Definitions of the four stages of textural maturity of clastic terrigenous
sediments or sedimentary rocks (from Folk, 1951, 1956, and 1980).

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 154 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

6.1 and 6.2). Those terms were based on the average easily plotted. However, for consolidated rocks, it is com-
grain size of a sample and are thus especially well suited mon for less accurate visual estimates of percentages of
to well-sorted samples. But many terrigenous deposits sand, silt and clays to be used. The categories shown in
are far from well sorted, and thus several nomenclatur- the plots in Fig. 6.4 generally suffice to reflect the accu-
al schemes that reflect that diversity of grain sizes exist. racy of such estimates. For use with unconsolidated sed-
Four of those are shown graphically in Fig. 6.4. Three iments, on the other hand, these classification schemes
of the classifications allow plotting of three categories of have an additional level of more detailed subdivisions
sediment size, sand silt and clay; the fourth classification that can further refine descriptions (and those more de-
combines silt and clay and plots it against sand content. tailed schemes are available in the citations provided).
As in previous diagrams, the names shown are for sedi- As in previous sections, it is important to note that the
ments, but the classifications can easily be used for rocks actual names used in each of these classifications are very
simply by appending “stone” to the end of the name. similar, but the definitional boundaries vary significant-
Such classifications are most easily applied to unconsol- ly. Thus, it is necessary to specify which classification
idated sediments where quantitative data from sieving, scheme was used when applying any such names.
settling tube or other direct measurement techniques is

Figure 6.4: Four textural classifications of fine-grained or mixed grain-size clastic terrigenous sediments (adapted
from Shepard, 1954; Folk et al., 1970 and Folk,1980; Picard, 1971; and Flemming, 2000).

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 Chapter 6: Sand & Sandstone Textures 155

Mid. Eocene – Lo. Oligocene

Spears Gp., Socorro Co., New
Mexico

An immature sandstone. This rock is very

poorly-sorted, with extensive muddy (clay
and silt) matrix. Even the largest grains (the
ones most rapidly abraded during transport)
show little rounding. The determination that
the matrix here is primary is crucial to the
naming of this rock; it is relatively easy in this
case, however, because of the lack of a grain-
supported fabric. Instead, the primary silt and
clay matrix is supporting isolated (“floating”)
sand grains. Such fabrics can form from normal
transport processes, but this example is from a
fluidized sandstone injection dike.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Paleocene, Fatehgarh Fm., Barmer

Basin, Rajasthan, India

Another example of an immature sandstone

with muddy (clay and silt) matrix, but in this
case, a rock with a largely grain-supported
fabric and sand-sized grains with a greater
degree of rounding. The homogeneity of
matrix size and composition is evidence that
this is true primary matrix that was incor-
porated during the deposition of this rock.
This rock represents a soil which formed
through mixing of quartz sand grains and silt/
clay matrix by pedogenic processes such as
illuviation (downward infiltration of fines),
burrowing and rooting.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.49 mm

Pennsylvanian Pottsville Fm.,

Licking Co., Ohio

Another sandstone with a submature texture

based on its muddy (silt- and clay-rich) matrix.
In this case, however, some of the silt-sized
and larger matrix constituents were leached
at some point in the diagenetic history. This
resulted in secondary porosity development
throughout much of the matrix and most of the
areas of blue-dyed epoxy mark sites of such
dissolution.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.34 mm

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 156 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Cambrian Sillery Gp., Gaspé

Peninsula, Quebec, Canada

An excellent example of a clay “pseudomatrix”

produced by the compaction and flowage of
soft sedimentary rock fragments (claystone
clasts). This yields a patchy “matrix” with
locally and subtly different compositions
reflecting original variations in the composi-
tions of individual SRFs (in this example, note
the differences in color between the “matrix”
in the upper and lower parts of the photo).
Failure to recognize pseudomatrix affects
not just textural maturity determinations but
also compositional determinations—this is a
shale arenite only if one recognizes the highly
deformed shale clasts.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Silurian Tuscarora Fm., Lebanon

Co., Pennsylvania

This rock too has numerous shaly sedimentary

rock fragments, and although these have not
been strongly deformed, their mere presence
gives the appearance of clay “matrix”. Thus,
careful observation is needed before accepting
the mere presence of clays as evidence
of primary matrix. The past few decades
have seen a growing understanding of the
importance of pseudomatrix produced through
degradation and deformation of detrital clasts
or through precipitation of authigenic clays.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Silurian Tuscarora Sandstone,

Lebanon Co., Pennsylvania

An example showing both plane- and cross-

polarized views of a sandstone composed
mainly of SRFs that have been deformed and
fused into what looks like a matrix-dominated
rock (but is actually a pseudomatrix-dominated
rock). The compositional variations of clay
and silt in these clasts has produced a quilt
of telltale textural differences that betray the
pseudomatrix origin. Had the clasts been of a
more uniform lithology, the task or recognizing
pseudomatrix would have been much more
difficult.

PPL / XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 6: Sand & Sandstone Textures 157

Lo. Cambrian Unicoi Fm.,

Shenandoah Valley, Virginia

Another example of squashed sedimentary

rock fragments producing pseudomatrix.
These now illitic grains have been intensely
deformed to the point where they have flowed
into adjacent pores and would have fused into
a single unrecognizable mass in the absence of
the thin iron-stained cement rinds that define
the contacts between original grains.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Up. Triassic New Haven Arkose,

New Haven Co., Connecticut

A submature sandstone. At first glance, this

might be called an immature sandstone given
all the dark-colored material between poorly
sorted and largely angular grains. Upon closer
examination, however, a significant part of the
dark-colored matter consists of hematite and
clay cement rims on grains, detrital biotite
flakes and small shale or slate clasts rather
than a true matrix of detrital clays and fine silt.
There also are some pores completely filled
with authigenic clay cements. Authigenic
clays do not count in maturity determination,
because they were not part of the primary
deposit.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Up. Triassic New Haven Arkose,

New Haven Co., Connecticut

A higher-magnification view, under cross-

polarized light, from the same sample shown
above. Note the abundance of small, elongate,
dark fragments scattered within the birefringent
illitic clays— these are fragments of hematite
coatings that surrounded now deformed and
recrystallized shale or slate clasts. The clays
still retain concentration in patchy clumps that
reflect the original clast distribution, although
recrystallization to coarse illite has obscured
finer details. That makes determination of this
as pseudomatrix rather than true matrix more
difficult, although no less important.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 158 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Lo. Permian Cutler Fm., Mesa Co.,

Colorado

Because the distinction between true matrix

and pseudomatrix is both important and
sometimes difficult, several examples are
provided here. This one is especially complex,
because it shows considerable dark material,
which might be assumed to be clay, followed
by light material filling pores. In fact, the dark
materials are detrital biotites and iron oxide
coatings, and much of the light-colored inter-
stitial material consists of highly deformed
clayey particles (rock fragments and/or altered
clay cements but not primary matrix—see next
photo).

PPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Lo. Permian Cutler Fm., Mesa Co.,

Colorado

A higher-magnification view from the same

sample shown above. Note the grain-coating
iron-oxide cements that predate the highly
deformed illitic clays interstitial to the recog-
nizable gains. The fact that the clays show
multiple domains and do not show grain-
coating fabrics indicates that they probably
were originally shale clasts that have been
deformed and recrystallized. In any case,
they are not matrix because they postdate
the early grain-coating cements. So these
clays represent pseudomatrix. Note also the
clear-cut deformation of the detrital mica in the
lower part of the photo.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Lo. Triassic Bunter Sandstone,

Tyrol, Austria

In sandstones that have undergone substantial

burial, the extent and coarseness of clay
recrystallization (to illite or even muscovite)
can progressively obscure clues to the detrital
or authigenic origins of precursor clays. In this
example (and the next), patches of coarse illite/
muscovite are scattered through an otherwise
texturally mature sandstone. The majority of
the clays may be the result of illitic replacement
(illitization) of a detrital feldspar.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 6: Sand & Sandstone Textures 159

Lo. Triassic Bunter Sandstone,

Tyrol, Austria

This photo shows a different area of the mature

sandstone illustrated in the previous photo.
It, too, shows the very patchy distribution
of coarse, illitic clays, but here the patches
appear to be altered grains partly deformed or
“smeared” by deformation. The original grains
may have been shale SRFs or illitized detrital
feldspars. In any case, although clays are wide-
spread in this rock, none are primary detrital
matrix and so none affect the classification of
this well sorted and somewhat rounded rock as
a mature sandstone.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Triassic Chinle? Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

A rock that again at first glance could be

mistaken for an immature sandstone with sub-
stantial matrix. In fact, this is a submature to
mature sandstone with no clay matrix but with
considerable dark, ferruginous cement and
extensive authigenic kaolinite cement in many
of the larger pores. The patchy distribution
of the dark iron oxides, their grain coating
character (visible locally) and the otherwise
moderately sorted character of the deposit, all
should be clues that stimulate more careful
examination of the sample.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Mid. Permian Bell Canyon Fm.,

Culberson Co., Texas

Although Folk’s textural maturity classifi-

cation applies mainly to sandstones, the basic
constituent fabric characteristics (matrix,
sorting and rounding) can be extended to silt-
stones as well. In this coarse siltstone/very fine
sandstone, one can see little or no true matrix,
exceptionally good sorting of grains and poor
rounding. This is a deep-water deposit that has
retained good sorting from having earlier been
transported as eolian material (but silt-sized
material is rarely well rounded, even with
eolian transport). This illustrates some of the
complexities involved in environmental inter-
pretation of textural fabrics.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 160 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Unknown unit, unknown U.S.

location

Having covered the textural maturity grades

that involve interpretation of matrix, we will
now look at the more mature categories. This
is submature sandstone; the grains generally
are very angular and poorly sorted, and
the rock contains substantial primary and
minor secondary porosity but no clay matrix.
Recognizing textures in uncemented or largely
uncemented sandstones is far easier than in
cemented ones, especially where porosity
is impregnated with dyed resins because
the shapes and sizes of grains are starkly
silhouetted against a colored backdrop.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.34 mm

Lo. Permian Abo Sandstone, Rio

Arriba Co., New Mexico

Very angular (unrounded) grains and poor

sorting in a submature to barely mature
sandstone. The rock does not have any signif-
icant clay matrix, although it does have some
silt-sized grains located in interstitial positions
in a grain-supported fabric. Thus, it meets the
definition of a submature sandstone (<5% clay;
poor rounding, poor sorting). This sandstone
also is fully cemented by calcite (recognizable
by its high birefringence) which provides good
contrast with the mainly quartzose grains,
again allowing easy recognition of grain
shapes and sizes.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Cretaceous Aachen Sandstone

Fm., Liège Province, Belgium

A mature sandstone. Although this rock

has considerable clay, all of that clay is of
diagenetic origin (seen here as brownish rinds
of chlorite that surround virtually all grains
and predate chalcedonic quartz cementation of
the rest of the rock). The constituent detrital
quartz grains are well sorted but are poorly to
moderately rounded, completing the definition
of a mature sandstone.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 6: Sand & Sandstone Textures 161

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

A sandstone that is borderline between

mature and supermature. The grains in this
rock are well sorted and fairly well rounded
but have achieved neither the full degree of
rounding nor the degree of sorting required
for a supermature designation. The rock is
also compositionally not fully “mature”, with
a large number of feldspars (the brownish
or cloudy grains) interspersed with the clear
quartz grains.

PPL, PFS, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Uintah

Co., Utah

A supermature sandstone that meets all aspects

of the definition of that textural term. It lacks
any clay matrix and consists of very well-
sorted and very well-rounded quartz grains.
This sandstone is eolian—a depositional
environment which is most commonly, but
by no means exclusively, associated with sed-
imentation of supermature sandstones. As in
most such deposits, it is also compositionally
mature with virtually nothing but quartz
present as a result of mechanical, and perhaps
also chemical, degradation of other, more
unstable minerals.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

The highest-maturity stages of sandstones are

based on levels of grain rounding. What seems
as though it should be the easiest of observa-
tions is easy only where there has been little
diagenetic alteration of the grains. Generally,
the most mature sandstones are very quartz rich,
and quartz grains, especially in the absence
of clay, bitumen or microcrystalline quartz
coatings, are prone to overgrowth by syntaxial
cements (as seen here). Those overgrowths
typically have angular (unrounded) crystal
faces, and one needs to evaluate the shapes of
the cores (dusty in this example) rather than
the overgrowths for maturity determinations.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.08 mm

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 162 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

This photomicrograph is from the same unit

(but not the same sample) as the previous
image. It shows, in more detail, the euhedral
quartz overgrowths on rounded, detrital quartz
cores. Accurate observation of the original
(precement) shapes and sizes of detrital grains
is necessary in order to obtain correct values
for grain size, rounding, sorting and maturity.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.09 mm

Silurian Tuscarora Sandstone,

Lebanon Co., Pennsylvania

When completely cemented, unlike the

previous sample, quartzarenites can look like
one enormous mass of quartz and evaluation
of primary grain roundness and sorting can be
very difficult. The abundance of inclusions
in these grain give promise that with close
examination, grain cores can be differentiated
from interlocking cement overgrowths. Indeed,
when looked at carefully, one can see numerous
cloudier, rounded forms of fairly consistent
size that are the detrital grains as opposed to the
clear and more irregular overgrowth cements.
Thus, this is a supermature sandstone.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Cambrian Gatesburg Fm.,

Centre Co., Pennsylvania

Another example of a completely quartz-ce-

mented supermature sandstone. The rock
has no detrital clay matrix and contains well-
rounded and well-sorted grains, virtually
entirely composed of quartz. Thus it is both tex-
turally and compositionally supermature, but
the maturity is harder to judge given the degree
of overgrowth cementation. Fortunately, there
generally is a clear line of micro-inclusions
marking the contacts between detrital grain
cores and overgrowths allowing assessment of
size and rounding. In addition, cross-polarized
light allows easier evaluation of sizes because
grains show varied extinction positions.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 6: Sand & Sandstone Textures 163

Mid.–Up. Cambrian Riley Fm.,

Hickory Sandstone Mbr., Llano Co.,
Texas

In-situ brittle grain deformation in a super-

mature quartzarenite, as seen here, also can
complicate textural evaluation. The shattering
of grains, especially where there is more shear
rotation of fragments, can impact estimates of
both grain size and sorting. In this case, the
use of plane- and cross-polarized light images
allows one to see the excellent rounding and
fairly good sorting in this area of the sample.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Silurian Clinton Ironstone, Giles

Co., Virginia

An extremely well-rounded sandstone with

large and small quartz grains and numerous
small sedimentary rock fragments. This
bimodal sorting conflicts, in a sense, with
the term “supermature”; on the other hand,
the rounding is far better than what would
normally found in mature rocks. That
conundrum is common in sandstones derived
from sedimentary sources (second-cycle
sands) or in deposits of eolian deflationary flats
(Folk, 1968). This extremely well rounded
but bimodal texture is termed a “textural
inversion”, and the rock would be termed
“bimodal supermature”.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Mid. Cambrian Riley Fm., Hickory

Sandstone Mbr., Llano Co., Texas

Another supermature sandstone with a bimodal

distribution of its very well-rounded con-
stituent quartz grains. The grains are outlined
by early hematite coatings. This is part of
a thick, shallow-marine, transgressive lag
deposit overlying the “Great Unconformity”
atop 1.1 to 1.3 billion year old Precambrian
basement. These well-rounded grains were
derived, in part, from earlier eolian sand-
stones and have undergone virtually no quartz
overgrowth cementation (McBride, 2012).
Because of their uniform rounding and weak
cementation, they are now processed as frac
sands in central Texas.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 164 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Cambrian Eilean Dubh Fm.,

Sutherland, NW Scotland, U.K. †

A remarkable example of complete textural

inversion. Here, large and well-rounded
quartz grains are set in a matrix of much finer
and more angular silt. Such profound textural
differences typically occur through storm
mixing, bioturbation or other processes that
combine sediments from disparate setting (for
example, washover fans delivering reworked
barrier beach or dune sands into a normally,
protected silty, lagoonal tidal flat envi-
ronment). This example formed in a carbonate
sabkha environment (supratidal mudflat) onto
which eolian dunes migrated during periods of
relative sea-level fall.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.49 mm

Mid. Jurassic Curtis Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

An example of large, extremely well-rounded

quartz grains scattered in a rock dominated by
much smaller, more angular and poorly-sorted
grains of quartz, feldspar and glauconite. This
bimodal deposit (both in terms of size and
rounding) results from sediment mixing by
storms, bioturbation, depositional processes or,
in part, through the derivation of grains from
disparate (first- and second-cycle) sources.
This “textural inversion” (partially excellent
rounding but poor sorting) does not follow
the normal pattern of maturity development
and has no unambiguous name in the maturity
classification.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Paleogene Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,

Texas
A somewhat unusual bimodal grain size distri-
bution in an SRF-rich sandstone. Generally,
the coarsest grains in such rocks are composed
of abrasion resistant quartz. Here, the rock
consists of small quartz grains mixed with
large and abrasionally-weak limestone
lithoclasts and some smaller shale clasts. This
textural and compositional mismatch probably
indicates a very local source of the limestone
fragments that therefore had little time to be
abraded. The finer-grained, yet well-rounded,
quartz sands may be second cycle from clastic
terrigenous sources or it may simply reflect
more distant sources and greater transport-re-
lated abrasion.
PPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 Chapter 6: Sand & Sandstone Textures 165
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10.1306/74D71410-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D. Folk, R. L., 1951, Stages of textural maturity in sedimentary rocks: Journal
Flemming, B. W., 2000, A revised textural classification of gravel-free of Sedimentary Research, v. 21, p. 127-130.
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Folk, R. L., 1956, The role of texture and composition in sandstone W. Houseknecht, and E. D. Pittman, eds., Origin, Diagenesis, and
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FUp. CretaceousTopIldefonso
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 chaPter 7: SandStone claSSification 167

SANDSTONE CLASSIFICATION

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

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 168 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Compositional Classification of Sandstones

More than 50 different classification schemes for those two widely divergent goals.
sandstones have been proposed over the past century. So let’s examine the Folk classification (Figure 7.3).
Some of those classifications are mainly related to the At its heart, it uses the standard QFL ternary diagram. It
textural properties of clastic terrigenous deposits (and includes a few specific grain types that are lithic fragments
those are discussed in Chapter 6). Many of the sandstone at the Q and F poles, however; metaquartzite is grouped
classifications combine texture and composition, with quartz (in part because metaquartzite is difficult to
sometimes confusing the important distinction between reliably distinguish from other polycrystalline quartz)
those two characteristics. Others focus exclusively on and granitic and gneissic rock fragments are grouped
composition, although some provide separate terms to with feldspars (because they are identified primarily by
describe textures. However, the many classifications their feldspar content and are difficult to distinguish from
typically share a few common characteristics. Most plot each other). On the other hand, the Folk classification,
compositional data on ternary diagrams, with quartz, unlike many others, groups chert with rock fragments
feldspar and lithic fragments as the poles—referred and not with quartz (because it is easily distinguishable
to as QFL diagrams. As always, however, the devil is from “normal” quartz grains and because it really is a
in the details. For example, what qualifies as quartz lithic fragment). The generalized names for the rocks
(monocrystalline quartz, polycrystalline quartz, chert or close to the three poles are quartzarenite, arkose and
other quartzose rock fragments) varies from classification litharenite (but as will be seen later those terms are not
to classification, as do the rock names and the percentage always the final ones applied). The term “quartzarenite”
boundaries applied in different nomenclatural schemes. is used only for rocks with more than 95% quartz, a higher
Summary diagrams of several examples from the threshold than in most classifications because it helps
“golden age” of rampant sandstone classification (the to distinguish truly exceptionally quartz-rich deposits
late 1940s through the 1970s) are shown in Figures 7.1 from the normally quartzose deposits that predominate
and 7.2, mainly to show the divergence of approaches and in the geologic record. Arkose (for feldspar-rich rocks),
terminology used. This comparison alone should suffice litharenite (for lithic-fragment-rich rocks) and the other
to highlight the fact that one must always state which terms used for intermediate compositions have broad
classification is being used when one writes a report boundaries as shown in Figure 7.3.
or paper, as the names have no rigorously consistent Unlike in other classifications, however, most of those
meanings from one classification to the next. general terms are supplanted, where possible, by more
Not surprisingly, with such diverse nomenclatures specific terms as shown in the three subsidiary ternary
having been used for many years, the geologic literature diagrams in Figure 7.3. Rather than just calling a rock
is muddled with a chaos of different names (or, worse an arkose, one should, if possible, look in more detail
yet, common names with varied meanings). Fortunately, at the feldspars and call it a “plagioclase arenite” or
in the decades since the 1970s, few new sandstone “K-feldspar arenite”. Likewise, although a rock may be
classifications were developed, and most workers have a litharenite, by looking in more detail at the nature of
adopted one of the handful of “winners” in the Darwinian the constituent lithic fragments, one would instead term
struggle for nomenclatural supremacy. The classification it a “volcanic arenite”, a “phyllarenite” or a “sedarenite”
of Folk (Folk et al., 1970; Folk, 1980) is the one that will (and if it classed as a sedarenite, one should characterize it
be discussed in detail here; however, the classifications of in more detail and call it a “chert arenite”, a “calclithite”,
Dott (1964), McBride (1963) and a few others also retain a “sandstone arenite” or a “shale arenite”).
strong adherents. The Folk classification also provides separate terms to
Part of the reason why some classifications have describe the overall textural maturity of a sample (shown
gained adherents and others have not is a reflection of the in very abbreviated form in the box in the lower part of
fact that there really are two purposes for classifications. Figure 7.3). It takes into account sorting, rounding and
The first is descriptive—to provide a clear, logical matrix content of the deposits, features that otherwise
and easily usable way of accurately and reproducibly do not enter into the compositional classification. Thus,
describing the composition of rocks or sediments. The a rock could be named a “supermature quartzarenite”,
second is interpretive—to have named groupings that a “submature plagioclase subarkose”, an “immature
provide some meaningful insights into provenance, shale arenite”, or any other combination of textural and
depositional environments, compositional or diagenetic compositional terms. This differs considerably from
stability, or other interpretive topics. The classifications other classifications, for example Dott (1964) in which
that have survived, and the classifications of Folk (1980 matrix content directly affects primary rock name
and earlier) in particular, are the ones that best achieve (arenites versus wackes).

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 Chapter 7: Sandstone Classification 169

Figure 7.1: Comparative QFL diagrams for six sandstone classifications from the 1948-1963 period showing the
variations in terminology and in materials plotted at each pole. Adapted from Krynine (1948), Pettijohn (1949), Dapples
et al. (1953), Folk (1954), Bokman (1955), and McBride (1963).

Although the Folk classification sounds quite those deposits. As gross generalizations, quartzarenites
complex, it has proven to be both a very workable way to are the products of intense abrasion, weathering, and/
accurately classify rocks and sediments and an effective or diagenetic removal of less stable minerals; commonly
way to convey information about interpretive aspects of they are derived from stable cratonic, multi-cycle

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 170 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

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 Chapter 7: Sandstone Classification 171

Figure 7.3: Summary of the Folk classification of sandstones as adapted from Folk (1980), based, in part, on earlier
versions of the 1980 book as well as Folk et al. (1970).

sedimentation regimes. Arkoses (feldspathic arenites) provenance section of the bibliography at the end of this
and many calclithites and chert arenites commonly are chapter are recommended reading. In addition, as noted
derived from block-faulted basement uplifts associated in Chapter 3, some methods of counting the mineral
with a variety of tectonic settings; arkoses in particular constituents within lithic grains (specifically the Gazzi-
are more common in arid climates or high-rainfall zones Dickinson method) may yield better provenance results
of rapid erosion and short transport. Shale arenites, and may yield rock names that more closely match X-ray
phyllarenites and some volcanic arenites are commonly or bulk geochemical data.
associated with collisional tectonics and arc-trench In the final analysis, however, sandstone compositions
systems. are the product of a long series of factors stretching
Dickinson et al. (1983) provided considerably more from source terranes and climate, to modes of transport,
detailed summaries of sandstone compositions as related winnowing and deposition and on through diagenetic
to source terranes and tectonic settings and two of the histories that may have been long and complex.
summary diagrams from that paper are redrawn here as Sandstone composition alone can provide only a very
Figure 7.4. The two diagrams differ mainly with regard generalized framework for provenance interpretation.
to what is specifically plotted at the Q, F and L poles (see That framework must be supplemented with detailed
figure caption for details) and both show the generalized analysis of specific QFL grains, petrographic analysis
compositional boundaries related to known tectonic of detrital heavy mineral suites and geochemical/
source regions based on a very extensive data set (roughly radiometric analysis of individual mineral separates to
7500 samples). For those wanting to look further into provide really useful provenance information.
the provenance and its relation to both compositional A few closing words about classifications: the
and textural aspects of classification the references in the two chapters of this book devoted to textural and

Figure 7.2: Comparative nomenclatural diagrams for three sandstone classifications that integrate clayey matrix as a
substantial part of their terminology. Adapted from Williams, Turner and Gilbert (1953), Packham (1954), and Dott (1964).

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 172 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Figure 7.4: Two types of QFL plots showing the relationship between detrital terrigenous sandstone compositional modes
and inferred provenance types; from Dickinson et al. (1983). The QFL plot on the left shows total quartzose grains
(including polycrystalline grains such as chert and quartzite) at the Q pole, monocrystalline feldspars at the F pole and
unstable polycrystalline lithic fragments (igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic) at the L pole. The modified QmFLt plot
on the right shows exclusively monocrystalline quartz at the Qm pole, an unchanged F pole and total polycrystalline lithic
fragments (including quartzose varieties) at the Lt pole. Numbers along the margins of the diagrams are compositional
percentages measured from the nearest apical pole.

compositional terminology have provided you with many this rock” and a materials engineer might want to know
technical terms with very specific definitions. However, more details about the color and shape of anything that
words are neither communication nor language, although will be incorporated into building materials. However,
they are the tools for both. You need to craft the terms there is nothing that precludes you from adding porosity
presented in these chapters into effective communications terms, color categorizations or more specific shape and
with your target audience, turning words into sentences, rounding/angularity terms into a rock name if that is
and sentences into insights. “A crumbly green rock what your target audience needs. So again, terminology
that tastes a little like salt” is effective communication is simply a shorthand device that allows the condensation
(at a third grade school show-and-tell and so is “coarse of an enormous amount of information into a small space.
sandstone: slightly glauconitic, weakly halite cemented, Effective communication, on the other hand, is the use
submature feldspathic chert arenite” (in field notes of those shorthand words to get very specific knowledge
or a technical paper). The latter name puts into 10 into the minds of your target audience. Just like great
words a great deal more information about the rock in literature, that is where the art lies.
question than the first name. It has a grain-size term, Finally, a few words about how to collect
some adjectival phrases describing accessory grains compositional data. For many purposes, visual estimates
and cements, a maturity term that conveys textural of grain percentages are both sufficient and cost effective
information, and two compositional words describing (time being money) and a visual comparison chart
the first and second most abundant grain types in is provided in the introduction of this book for that
the rock. It is an example of how to put together the purpose. However, visual estimates can be surprisingly
words provided in the classification chapters into more inaccurate (e.g., Allen, 1956; Dennison and Shea, 1966)
inclusive names—but is it effective communication? and point counting of at least 300–500 grains is necessary
Well that depends on the audience. In the third grade for quantitative studies. References to books dealing
class, the answer would be an unequivocal “No!” To with sedimentary techniques also are provided in the
an audience of sedimentologists the answer probably introduction to this volume and most of those sources
would be “yes”, but a petroleum geologist may well say detail specific methodologies for point counting.
“I learned nothing about the porosity or permeability of

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 Chapter 7: Sandstone Classification 173

Carboniferous Kulm graywacke,

Bavaria, Germany

This is a submature medium-rank phyllarenite

according to the Folk classification (Fig 7.3,
Folk, 1980; Folk et al., 1970). Most of the
matrix within this sample consists of micas and
other minerals derived from the breakdown
of schistose metamorphic rock fragments.
More robust metamorphic rock fragments also
comprise the dominant grains. In the McBride
(1963) classification (Fig. 7.1), this sample
is a litharenite, and in the Dott (1964) classi-
fication (Fig. 7.2), it would be classified as a
lithic arenite.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.1 mm

Triassic Chinle Fm., eastern

Arizona

This is a mature low-rank phyllarenite (Folk),

a litharenite (McBride) or lithic arenite (Dott).
The shale clasts within this rock have been
strongly compacted; the clays within them
show preferential alignment. Many of the
quartz grains are polycrystalline grains of
metamorphic origin. The provenance of this
material is probably quite local from remnant
basement uplifts and younger sediments in a
relatively stable platform setting.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Cretaceous Ildefonso Fm.,

Ponce-Coamo area, Puerto Rico

This sample is composed of well-rounded but

poorly-sorted volcaniclastic grains. In the
Folk classification, it is a calcite-cemented,
mature volcanic arenite. Because of the
overall poor grain sorting within this rock, it
would not be classified as a supermature rock.
In the McBride classification, it would be a
litharenite, and it is a lithic arenite in the Dott
classification. From a provenance perspective,
this rock was derived from an active Caribbean
volcanic island arc.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.67 mm

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 174 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Cretaceous Shumagin Fm.,

Shumagin Islands, Alaska

This is an immature, poorly-sorted volcanic

arenite (Folk). Most of the rock fragments
are subangular to subrounded, and the
larger volcaniclastic grains are floating in a
silt- to clay-sized matrix. In the McBride
classification, this rock lies outside the normal
sandstone terminology shown in Figure 7.1
and, because of its combination of matrix, rock
fragments and feldspars, would be termed a
“graywacke”. It is a lithic wacke in the Dott
classification (Fig. 7.2). The provenance of
this material is largely from an active volcanic
arc.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Cretaceous Prince Creek Fm.,

North Slope, Alaska

This is a chert arenite (Folk). The Folk classi-

fication groups chert with lithic fragments, but
in both the McBride and Dott classifications,
chert is grouped with quartz grains, making
this rock a quartzarenite/quartz arenite in those
latter classifications. The grains in this sample
are moderately well sorted but are not well
rounded; thus, the fuller Folk textural and com-
positional name for this sample is a “mature
chert arenite”. This is a nonmarine sandstone
deposited in a foreland basin adjacent to a
thrust belt.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Eocene Oberaudorf Beds, Tirol,

Austria

A sample containing angular clasts of chert as

well as carbonate rock and fossil fragments in
a muddy matrix. This rock would be classified
as an immature cherty calclithite (Folk), as
a cherty litharenite (McBride) or as a cherty
lithic wacke (Dott). This deposit, like the
previous one, is from a foreland basin, in this
case receiving detritus from the European
Alpine thrust belt.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 Chapter 7: Sandstone Classification 175

Pliocene Verde Fm., Yavapai Co.,

Arizona

This sample includes a variety of sandstone

and siltstone grains (SRFs) in addition to
rounded to subrounded quartz grains. The
sample is thus classified as a mature siltstone
arenite (Folk), litharenite (McBride) or a lithic
arenite (Dott). These deposits formed in a
slowly subsiding interior basin proximal to a
sedimentary source terrane containing clastic
terrigenous rocks.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Silurian Tuscarora Sandstone,

Lebanon Co., Pennsylvania

This rock is a submature sedarenite (Folk).

The grains present include monocrystalline
quartz, chert, shale, sandstone and schist rock
fragments. Because this sample contains
predominantly mixed sedimentary plus
subordinate metamorphic rock fragments,
the name is the more generic sedarenite. In
the other classifications, it is a litharenite
(McBride) or a lithic arenite (Dott). This
rock too is from a foreland basin that received
material from an eroding thrust belt, in this
case, one that developed during the Taconic
orogeny.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.34 mm

Up. Cambrian Sillery Gp., Gaspé

Peninsula, Quebec, Canada

This sandstone contains a variety of shale

and siltstone SRFs in addition to rounded to
subrounded quartz grains. It may have some
primary matrix, but much of the interstitial
clay appears to result from crushing of shale
SRFs. Thus, in the Folk classification this is
termed an immature to submature shale arenite
(depending on what percentage of the matrix
is considered primary or secondary); in other
classifications it is a litharenite (McBride) or a
lithic wacke (Dott).

PPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 176 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Lo. Oligocene Nile Gp., Kongahu

Breccia, Westland, New Zealand

The grains in this sample are quartz, feldspars

and carbonate rock or fossil fragments (stained
red). All of the grains are encased in blue-
stained, highly ferroan calcite cement. This
rock would be classified as a submature
subarkose in the Folk classification (using the
separate textural and composition names), or
it is classified as a subarkose (McBride) or a
feldspathic arenite (Dott). This marine deposit
was shed from uplifts paralleling the Alpine
strike-slip fault zone of New Zealand.

PPL | XPL, AFeS, Scale bar = 0.33 mm

Silurian Clinton Ironstone, Giles

Co., Virginia

This is a bimodal, hematite-cemented sandstone

consisting of large, well-rounded second-cycle
quartz grains and sandstone rock fragments
probably eroded from thrusted sedimentary
rocks in the Taconic orogenic belt. This rock
is classified as a sublitharenite in the Folk and
McBride schemes (or a sandstone arenite if
those grains exceeded 25% of the grain total
in the sample as a whole). It would be a lithic
arenite in the Dott classification.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Cretaceous Mowry Fm., Moffat Co.,

Colorado

The grains in this well-cemented sample

include feldspars (both plagioclase and K-feld-
spars), chert (example at yellow arrow), schist
rock fragments (example at white arrow) and
quartz. Thus, this is a mature lithic arkose in
the Folk classification. It is an lithic arkose in
the McBride system and a feldspathic arenite
in the Dott classification. This deposit was
formed in a shallow-marine foreland basin
associated with thrusting and uplift in the
associated Sevier orogenic belt.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.1 mm

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 Chapter 7: Sandstone Classification 177

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

This rock is a laminated, mature arkose (more

specifically plagioclase arenite) in the Folk
classification. In the other classifications, it
is an arkose (McBride) or feldspathic arenite
(Dott). The rock has interlaminated quartz-rich
and feldspar-rich horizons that also have
preferential concentrations of heavy minerals
(tourmaline, magnetite and zircon). The rock
was deposited under very arid climatic condi-
tions as part of an eolian dune complex in a
stable shelf setting.

PPL | XPL, PFS, KFS, Scale bar = 0.51

mm

Paleocene sandstone, Sri Lanka

This rock is a submature arkose (K-feldspar

arenite) according to the Folk classification.
It contains K-feldspar, plagioclase, rock
fragments and quartz. Most of the rock
fragments were plastically deformed during
compaction. In the other two classifications,
this sample would be a arkose (McBride) or a
feldspathic arenite (Dott). This sandstone was
deposited as a marine turbidite, sourced from a
granitic or charnockitic terrane.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.49 mm

Mid. Permian Wegener Halvø Fm.,

Karstryggen area, East Greenland

This sample is composed of K-feldspars and

mono- and polycrystalline quartz grains in
a silty matrix. This is an immature arkose
(K-feldspar arenite) in the Folk classification.
In the McBride classification it is an arkose,
and in the Dott classification it is a feldspathic
wacke. This rock was derived from Hercynian
basement exposed in a block-faulted terrane.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 178 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

This is a weakly cemented sandstone with

well-sorted and fairly well-rounded grains. It
is classed as a mature to supermature subarkose
in the Folk scheme; a subarkose using the
McBride classification or a feldspathic arenite
(Dott). In this rock, the feldspars were stained
orange/brown to make them more visible.
This sample was deposited under very arid
conditions as part of an eolian dune complex
on a stable platform.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †
In the Folk classification, this rock is termed
an immature to submature subarkose. Using
the McBride classification, this rock would fall
in the lithic subarkose field. It is a feldspathic
wacke in the Dott classification, because of
its abundant matrix. However, if most of the
“matrix” here was formed by degradation
of lithic fragments (the dark area was once
a mica), or through formation of diagenetic
clay cements, then this rock would actually
be classified as a feldspathic arenite (Dott)
or a submature to mature subarkose (Folk).
The framboidal pyrite and organic fragments
suggest that the clay is detrital.
PPL, KFS, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07
mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Uintah

Co., Utah

This sandstone would be classified as a

supermature quartzarenite (both Folk and
McBride) or as a quartz arenite (Dott). Almost
all the grains visible in this thin section are
monocrystalline quartz with less than 5%
polycrystalline quartz, chert or feldspar grains.
For the McBride and Dott classifications, chert
grains are grouped with quartz, but the Folk
classification groups chert grains with lithic
fragments. As with previous examples from
the Entrada Fm., this sample was deposited
in an arid eolian dune setting in a stable shelf
area.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.63 mm

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 Chapter 7: Sandstone Classification 179

Silurian Tuscarora Sandstone,

Lebanon Co., Pennsylvania

A supermature quartz-cemented quartzarenite

(Folk and McBride) or quartz arenite (Dott).
There are two areas with some minor, brightly
birefringent clays that formed as cements and
thus do not affect the textural maturity name
for this rock. This deposit was interpreted
to have formed in a single cycle through
long-term abrasion in a beach or beach-dune
environment within a low-relief setting (Folk,
1960). Quartzarenites, however, also can be
formed by near-complete diagenetic removal
of unstable minerals (termed “diagenetic
quartzarenites”; e.g., McBride, 1985; Cox et
al., 2002).

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.17 mm

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General: p. 1125-1137, doi: 10.1016/S0278-4343(00)00015-7.
Allen, J., 1956, Estimation of percentages in thin sections—considerations in Folk, R. L., 1954, The distinction between grain size and mineral composition in
visual psychology: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 26, p. 160-161. sedimentary-rock nomenclature: Journal of Geology, v. 62, p. 344-359.
Allen, J. R. L., 1962, Petrology, origin and deposition of the highest Lower Old Folk, R. L., 1956, The role of texture and composition in sandstone classification:
Red Sandstone of Shropshire, England: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. Discussion: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 26, p. 166-171.
32, p. 657-697, doi: 10.1306/74D70D49-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D. Folk, R. L., 1980, Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks: Austin, TX, Hemphill’s Book
Blatt, H., R. Tracy, and B. Owens, 2006, Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Store, 184 p. (also in numerous earlier editions)
Metamorphic (3rd Edition): New York, NY, W. H. Freeman, 530 p. Folk, R. L., P. B. Andrews, and D. W. Lewis, 1970, Detrital sedimentary
Boggs, S., Jr., 1967, A numerical method for sandstone classification: Journal of rock classification and nomenclature for use in New Zealand: New
Sedimentary Research, v. 37, p. 548-555, doi: 10.1306/74D71717-2B21-11D7- Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, v. 13, p. 937-968, doi:
8648000102C1865D. 10.1080/00288306.1970.10418211.
Bokman, J. W., 1955, Sandstone classification—relation to composition Füchtbauer, H., 1959, Zur Nomenklatur der Sedimentgesteine: Erdöl und Kohle,
and texture: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 25, p. 201-206, doi: v. 12, p. 605-613.
10.1306/74D7044D-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D. Grabau, A. W., 1904, On the classification of sedimentary rocks: American
Carr, J. R., and M. J. Hibbard, 1991, Open-ended mineralogical/textural Geologist, v. 33, p. 228-247.
rock classification: Computers & Geosciences, v. 17, p. 1409-1463, doi: Hallsworth, C. R., and R. Knox, 1999, BGS Rock Classification Scheme. Volume
10.1016/0098-3004(91)90005-X. 3, Classification of sediments and sedimentary rocks: Nottingham, UK, British
Chen, Pei-Yuan, 1968, A modification of sandstone classification: Journal of Geological Survey, 44 p.
Sedimentary Research, v. 38, p. 54-60, doi: 10.1306/74D718CA-2B21-11D7- Haralick, R. M., and K. Shanmugam, 1973, Computer classification of reservoir
8648000102C1865D. sandstones: Geoscience Electronics, IEEE Transactions, v. 11, p. 171-177, doi:
Crook, K. A. W., 1960, Classification of arenites: American Journal of Science, v. 10.1109/TGE.1973.294312.
258, p. 419-428, doi: 10.2475/ajs.258.6.419. Herron, M. M., 1988, Geochemical classification of terrigenous sands and shales
Dapples, E. C., 1947, Sandstone types and their associated depositional from core or log data: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 58, p. 820-829, doi:
environments: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 17, p. 91-100, doi: 10.1306/ 10.1306/212F8E77-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D.
D42692BA-2B26-11D7-8648000102C1865D. Huckenholz, H. G., 1963, A contribution to the classification of sandstones:
Dapples, E. C., W. C. Krumbein, and L. L. Sloss, 1953, Petrographic and Geologiska Foreningens I Stockholm Forhandlingar, v. 85, Part 1, no. 512, p.
lithologic attributes of sandstones: Journal of Geology, v. 61, p. 291-317, doi: 156-172, doi: 10.1080/11035896309448877.
10.1086/626098. Klein, G., deV., 1963, Analysis and review of sandstone classifications in the
Dean, W. E., M. Leinen, and D. A. V. Stow, 1985, Classification of deep-sea, fine- North American geological literature, 1940–1960: GSA Bulletin, v. 74, p. 555-
grained sediments: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 55, p. 250-256, doi: 576, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1963)74[555:AAROSC]2.0.CO;2.
10.1306/212F868E-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D. Krumbein, W. C., and L. L. Sloss, 1963, Stratigraphy and Sedimentation (2nd
Dennison, J. M., and J. H. Shea, 1966, Reliability of visual estimates of Edition): San Francisco, CA, W.H. Freeman & Co., 660 p.
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 chaPter 11: introduction 245

DIAGENESIS:
INTRODUCTION AND
QUARTZ & SILICA CEMENTS

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

11

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 246 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Introduction to Cementation
Cementation, the authigenic precipitation of minerals and fill can be days or many millions of years, blurring
in pore spaces within rocks, is one of the most important the distinction between cementation and replacement.
processes in the lithification of clastic terrigenous Nonetheless, we have separate chapters for those two
deposits (we also include displacive, authigenic mineral processes and will guide readers through the distinction
precipitates within this general term). Cements can where possible. We also will provide examples showing
have a wide range of crystal sizes (terminology shown in temporal successions of cements through time, termed
Table 11.1) and fabrics. They can form throughout the “paragenetic sequences”. Recognition of such sequences
history of sedimentary deposits, starting with surficial is especially important because they are critical to
(eogenetic) processes in marine and nonmarine settings understanding the history of pore filling, and thus of
and continuing through all stages of burial (mesogenetic) porosity change and reservoir potential through time as
diagenesis as well as uplift-associated (telogenetic) well as linking diagenesis to burial history.
diagenesis. Hundreds of different minerals are found Further consideration should be given to the
as cements in the panoply of different sandstones and connections between cementation and porosity. At first
mudrocks, and some of the more common ones are glance, the relationship seems simple—by definition,
shown in Table 11.2. However, most typical sandstones filling a pore with cement represents a loss of porosity.
and mudrocks contain perhaps one to five cementing When considered from a broader areal or temporal
minerals, making identification far less complex than it perspective, however, the relationship can be far more
might appear from the table. complex. If the solutes for the precipitated cement
All cements form by precipitation of materials from are locally derived, the porosity loss related to cement
aqueous solution, and variations in subsurface fluid formation may be balanced by nearby porosity gain
temperatures, pressures and chemistries (pH, salinity, through removal of less stable grains (or earlier cements),
specific ionic abundances, etc.) are the major controls on making the overall process effectively porosity neutral.
which minerals are precipitated or dissolved. Solutes can Likewise, from a temporal perspective, the immediate
be derived from many sources. Some may come directly loss of pore space through cementation may be offset
from seawater or via influx of meteoric waters; others ultimately by having a stronger rock, less susceptible to
may come from reflux of evaporitic brines. Additional long-term compactional porosity reduction. Alternatively,
solutes come from circulating basinal fluids, through the precipitation of cements that can be dissolved during
chemical dissolution of soluble minerals, pressure later diagenesis (especially carbonate, sulfate and halide
solution along stylolites and solution seams, maturation cements) also may preclude compaction in the short
of organic matter or dehydration of gypsum beds. These term and allow porosity resurrection and late-stage
subsurface fluids can be moved through the sedimentary hydrocarbon reservoir development in the longer term.
section at basinal scales via compactional dewatering or So cementation should be looked at as part of a much
thermal convection, commonly aided by permeability broader complex of diagenetic phenomena, including
“highways” created by fractures and faults. In all
settings, cements may form through local dissolution Table 11.1: Size terminology for carbonate cement crystals
or alteration of unstable minerals, relatively small-scale (adapted from Folk, 1965). It can, however, be applied to
diffusive transport and nearby reprecipitation of more cements of any composition.
stable minerals. In very low-permeability settings, that
may be the only viable mechanism for cementation. On
the other hand, the near-complete exclusion of water
(or water contact with grains), as in some hydrocarbon
reservoirs, may inhibit both water movement and cement
formation.
It should be noted that cements form in all types of
pores: primary as well as secondary (dissolved), and
intragranular as well as intergranular. That makes the
distinction between cementation and mineral replacement
difficult in some cases. Indeed, in some classifications the
term “replacement” includes the “solution-fill” process
in which a mineral is dissolved and the resulting void
space is partially or completely refilled at a later date by
another mineral or minerals. The gap between solution

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 Chapter 11: Introduction 247

Table 11.2 Some relatively common cement and replacement minerals in sandstones and shales along with their generalized
chemical formulas. Many of these minerals, especially the clays and zeolites, have complex and varied structures with
extensive elemental substitutions — thus, the formulas given are the most common or most basic ones. Data adapted from
many sources, especially Ali et al., 2010.

replacement, dissolution and large-scale patterns of are: quartz/silica, feldspars, clay minerals, zeolites,
solute transport. carbonates, sulfates and halides, iron oxides/hydroxides
In this extensive section of the book, we have divided and sulfides and other cements. Hydrocarbons also are
cements into eight chapters, each with its own introduc- included in the final section. Although not technically
tion that will provide keys to mineral recognition and cements, hydrocarbons are located in pores and,
more details on settings of cement formation, including especially when occurring in relatively solid (tarry
timing, geochemical constraints and additional controls or asphaltic) forms, they play much the same role as
(temperature, pressure and others). The eight chapters mineral cements. It should be clearly stated, however,

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 248 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

that cements in several of these categories, especially involved, but the use of SEM, XRD, microprobe or
clays and zeolites, are commonly so finely crystalline that other analytical instrumentation is essential for precise
individual grains cannot be resolved even with the best identifications. For that reason, we have included SEM
petrographic microscopes. Conventional petrography and BSE images in many places in this chapter.
can provide clues about which minerals are likely

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 Chapter 11: Quartz & Silica Cements 249

Introduction to Quartz and Silica Cements

Quartz and silica are some of the most abundant moganite, fibrous forms of microcrystalline quartz, also
cements in sandstones. Quartz cement generally occurs can be found as cements and large void fills.
as single-crystal overgrowths (or apparent single-crystal
overgrowths) on the surfaces of detrital quartz grains. Opal – is a hydrous silica containing significant
Other forms of silica can fill pore space, regardless of amounts of water (generally 10% or less, but in some
substrate mineralogy, and include microcrystalline cases considerably more) in submicroscopic pores (see
quartz (chert), chalcedony and opal. Silica cements, and Chapter 1). Opal-A is amorphous and is isotropic in thin
quartz in particular, can have a major effect on porosity section, but it can be identified using XRD; opal-CT is
loss, but they also can act to stabilize the rock against nearly isotropic (i.e., very weakly birefringent) in thin
further compaction. Reservoir quality is thus, in part, section and finely crystalline. Opal-CT can transform
a complex interplay between habit and quantity of the to microcrystalline quartz and chalcedony, and so opal
quartz or silica cement. Diagenetic quartz also can occur is rarely found in sedimentary rocks older than the
as small crystals within mudrocks (Schieber et al., 2000; Cenozoic.
Thyberg and Jahren, 2011; Milliken, 2013).
Controls on formation:
Optical properties and recognition of quartz and Quartz overgrowths start as numerous small crystals
nucleating on detrital quartz grains. Favorably oriented
silica cements:
crystals may eventually coalesce into a single large
Syntaxial quartz overgrowths – monocrystalline
crystal that is in optical continuity with its host grain.
quartz overgrowths are the most commonly observed
Formation of overgrowths is strongly affected by the
type of silica cement, but it is sometimes difficult to
substrate grains. Nonundulatory monocrystalline
distinguish such overgrowths as they are typically in
quartz grains are more likely to host overgrowths than
optical continuity with their substrates. Several features
undulose or polycrystalline grains (James et al., 1986).
may help to differentiate overgrowths from underlying
Quartz overgrowths form mainly during mesogenetic
detrital grains:
burial, typically at temperatures above 60–80°C, with
1. Lines of impurities or dust rims outlining the
maximum formation commonly in the temperature range
original surfaces of the detrital grain;
of 90–165°C (Bjørlykke and Egeberg, 1993; Walderhaug,
2. Inclusion clouds, vacuoles or other features within
1994; Walderhaug, 2000). Although rare, the presence
the quartz grain terminate against the usually
of nonsyntaxial and pseudopoikilotopic quartz cement
clear, more inclusion-poor quartz overgrowth
is diagnostic of high temperature diagenesis in some
(although the reverse situation, with clear cores
settings (see Spötl et al. , 1996).
and cloudy overgrowths, also can occur); and
Although most quartz cementation takes place in
3. The presence of euhedral terminations where
mesogenetic environments, eogenetic quartz and opaline
quartz crystals grew into adjacent pore spaces.
silica cementation may occur in water table silcretes,
Cement abundances are usually quantified by point
especially in microbially-influenced settings in arid
counting. However, where one or more of the above
to semi-arid regions (e.g., Abdel-Wahab et al., 1998;
characteristics are not present, or where the percentage
McBride et al., 2012). In addition, eogenetic or telogenetic
of overgrowths is low, cathodoluminescence can be used
quartz cements can form during deep weathering under
to aid recognition and more reliably determine cement
humid, tropical conditions.
abundances.
There are many potential sources of silica for quartz
Microcrystalline quartz (microgranular quartz) and opal cementation. There is no chemical method to
– consists of mosaics of minute (< 5–20 µm diameter) recognize solute sources in precipitated cements, but it
subequidimensional crystals. In some cases, the sometimes is possible to infer sources from observations
bipyramidal shape of quartz can be seen. Microcrystalline on cement distribution. Common sources include:
quartz normally has a dark gray, anomalous 1. Pressure dissolution at grain contacts or stylolites;
birefringence and some microporosity. These cements 2. Breakdown of unstable grains such as feldspar
are best recognized in SEM or can sometimes be inferred and volcanic glass;
from XRD of the clay-sized fraction. Microcrystalline 3. Dissolution of biogenic silica from radiolaria,
quartz can occur as a result of opal-CT alteration and diatoms or sponge spicules, or glass from volcanic
is common where spiculitic or diatomaceous remains ash beds; and
have served as sources of silica. Such cement is common 4. Detrital quartz dissolution, for example during
within both sandstones and mudrocks. Chalcedony and carbonate replacement.

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 250 PetrograPhy of SandStoneS and aSSociated rockS

Additional sources can include diagenetic products infiltration of muddy fluids shortly following
derived from associated mudrocks, including pressure deposition of the sediment (Dunn, 1992);
dissolution of silt-sized quartz or opaline skeletons and 4. Formation of grain-coating diagenetic clays,
possibly the transformation of smectite to illite during in particular chlorite (Berger et al., 2009;
burial diagenesis. Ajdukiewicz and Larese, 2012), or formation of
There are many factors that may inhibit quartz early microcrystalline quartz cement coatings
overgrowth formation, mainly by isolating detrital quartz (Aase et al., 1996; French et al., 2012);
substrates or minimizing fluid flow. These include: 5. High oil or gas saturations, oil-wet grain surfaces
1. Lack of suitable substrates in sandstones with or bitumen impregnation (Worden et al., 1998;
quartz-poor initial composition. Wilkinson and Haszeldine, 2011); and
2. Extensive detrital clay matrix; 6. Overpressurization causing reduction of vertical
3. Clay coatings inferred to have been inherited effective stress (e.g., Ramm and Bjørlykke, 1994;
(Wilson, 1992) or to have formed during Bloch et al., 2002).

Paleogene Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,

Texas

A euhedral, syntaxial quartz overgrowth

on a detrital grain. Syntaxial overgrowths,
by definition, are in optical continuity with
the underlying detrital grains. Authigenic
Quartz Overgrowths

overgrowths can be difficult to differentiate

from the underlying grain where both
are compositionally nearly identical. In
this example, however, mineral and fluid
inclusions pervade the outer (overgrowth) part
of the crystal and are scarce in the detrital core,
clearly distinguishing the detrital core from the
authigenic overgrowth. The sharp, bipyramidal
crystal outlines formed by the overgrowths are
further indication of authigenesis.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.06 mm

Oligocene – Miocene Fontainebleau

Sandstone, Paris Basin, France
Within this porous sandstone, all the detrital
quartz grains have euhedral overgrowths.
Quartz overgrowths can be highly zoned,
although this zoning is only rarely visible
using traditional petrographic techniques.
Thus, cathodoluminescence (see later
examples) and backscatter electron imaging
generally are necessary to see the extent of
the zonation. Haddad et al. (2006) showed
that these overgrowths are strongly zoned, are
composed of quartz and poorly-ordered silica
and can display a systematic rotation of the
crystallographic axis causing the overgrowths
to not always be syntaxial with their detrital
grains.
PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 11: Quartz & Silica Cements 251

Paleogene Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,

Texas

Euhedral, hexagonal syntaxial quartz over-

growths here have formed on several fine
sand sized detrital quartz grains. The mineral
inclusions within the overgrowths were
probably incorporated from the surrounding
fine-grained sediment as the quartz crystals
only partially displaced that matrix.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Mid. Permian Brushy Canyon Fm.,

Culberson Co., Texas
An authigenic overgrowth on a detrital quartz
grain. The well-rounded nucleus is outlined
by a thin layer of inclusions (mostly small
carbonate inclusions) on its surface. The
authigenic overgrowth shows euhedral crystal
shape (hexagonal) where fully developed and
is in optical continuity with the underlying
quartz grain. Such euhedral outlines produced
by overgrowths must be carefully distin-
guished from the primary euhedral outlines
of some detrital quartz grains derived from
volcanic source rocks. The carbonate cements
and quartz overgrowths in this example are
likely to be, in part, coeval. The remaining
porosity was largely filled with calcite cement.
XPL, Scale bar = 0.06 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

A large euhedral quartz overgrowth (near

center) occludes part of the rock’s primary
porosity. It and the other visible overgrowths
are inclusion poor, which is common, espe-
cially in overgrowths growing into open pores.
Not all of the quartz grains have overgrowths,
and not all overgrowths are euhedral. Zoned
dolomite cements formed before, during and
after quartz overgrowths as shown by the
absence of quartz overgrowths in zones with
extensive dolomite cementation (black arrow)
as well as dolomite encasing the lower edge of
the overgrowth on the large euhedral grain near
the photo center (red arrow).

PPL, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 252 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Pennsylvanian Strawn Gp.,

Gray Sandstone, Texas

An intermediate to advanced stage of quartz

overgrowth cementation in which a significant
amount of primary pore space was filled. Note
euhedral crystal faces where overgrowths did
not interfere with each other and the enhanced
visibility of overgrowths due to inclusions
or “dust rims” at overgrowth contacts with
the detrital grain cores. Nonferroan (weakly
pink stained) and later ferroan (blue stained)
calcite cements filled all remaining pores. The
nonferroan calcite cementation was partially
coeval with quartz cementation; the ferroan
calcites, however, clearly postdate quartz
overgrowths. Photo from Shirley P. Dutton.

PPL, AFeS, Scale bar = 0.01 mm

Cretaceous Dakota Gp., Moffat Co.,

Colorado

Syntaxial quartz overgrowths on detrital quartz

grains occlude much of the primary porosity
within this sample. Overgrowths have not
formed on the chert grains (pink due to dye
injection into microporosity resulting from
partial dissolution) because they have diverse
microcrystal orientations. Nonetheless,
they are partially encased within quartz
overgrowths that grew on nearby detrital
monocrystalline quartz-grain substrates. The
feldspar (dusty brown grain, lower center) has
a thin authigenic feldspar cement overgrowth
that may have formed at about the same time
as the quartz overgrowths.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.21 mm

Cretaceous Dakota Gp., Moffat Co.,

Colorado

Syntaxial quartz overgrowths fill most of

the primary pores in areas dominated by
monocrystalline quartz grains. Dusty rims on
many of the quartz grains outline the original
grain shapes. In areas with more lithic grains,
there is less porosity loss by quartz cemen-
tation. In addition, many of lithic grains have
been partially leached. The lithic grain at the
arrow, in particular, has been almost com-
pletely dissolved, with only remnants of silt-
sized, original constituent particles and iron
oxide coatings marking the exterior outline of
the now nearly vanished grain.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 11: Quartz & Silica Cements 253

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

Here, syntaxial quartz overgrowths have

formed on several quartz grains and coalesced
along a series of compromise crystal bound-
aries. The cements growing into open pores
have euhedral outlines and are somewhat
inclusion poor (clear) relative to the host
grains. Most of the detrital grains had early,
partial iron oxide and clay coatings that failed
to prevent later overgrowth nucleation because
of their patchy distribution. Where the
coatings are thin or lacking, it is difficult to see
where the detrital cores end and the authigenic
overgrowths begin.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Lo. Pennsylvanian Morrow B

Sandstone, Ochiltree Co., Texas

The contacts between monocrystalline quartz

grains and their syntaxial overgrowths can be
difficult to see in thin section, as in this case.
The quartz grain in the center of this image has
a euhedral outline and some irregular projec-
tions that would not have survived transport,
but there is little visible distinction between
the grain and its overgrowth. These unrounded
features and the fact that most other quartz
grains in the sample have readily visible,
well-delineated overgrowths, has to suffice for
identification. Cathodoluminescence also can
help to distinguish compositional differences
between overgrowths and detrital grain cores.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.16 mm

Lo. Pennsylvanian Morrow B

Sandstone, Ochiltree Co., Texas

This quartz appears to have a remarkably

inclusion-rich overgrowth around most of its
margins. However, although many quartz
grains in this sample have overgrowths,
the rest are relatively inclusion-poor. That
makes it likely that this is either primary
growth zonation in a quartz grain derived
from a granitic or pegmatitic source, or it is
a little-rounded, second-cycle grain reworked
from a sandstone source. The image should be
a reminder that not everything that looks like
an authigenic overgrowth is actually that. Note
also the complex pressure-dissolved margins
with adjacent grains.

PPL | XPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 254 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Quaternary? Thar desert,

Rajasthan, India

The sample is a type of duricrust (part ferricrete

and part silcrete) from a desert region outcrop.
Small aggregates of iron oxyhydroxides mark
the boundary between the detrital grains and
the quartz cement. Also, note the growth lines
within the quartz cement. The iron and quartz
cements represent precipitation during different
climatic conditions. Silcretes are commonly
found in arid and semi-arid environments; fer-
ricretes, on the other hand, originate in humid
tropical environments (Mares, 1999). Silcrete
formation temperatures (derived from oxygen
isotopes) can be as low as 10–30°C (Kelly et
al., 2007).

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Silurian Tuscarora Sandstone,

Lebanon Co., Pennsylvania

When quartz overgrowths are almost ubiq-

uitous in quartzarenites, they can interlock and
substantially obscure the original fabric of the
rock, as in this example. In particular, even
well-rounded grains can appear to be angular
due to the overgrowths. In this example,
indeed, the original detrital quartz grains were
well rounded, as shown by the thin “dust rims”
that help to distinguish detrital cores from
authigenic overgrowths.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Cretaceous Dakota Gp., Moffat Co.,

Colorado
In addition to conventional petrography,
fluorescence and cathodoluminescence
microscopy can be utilized to distinguish
quartz grains and their overgrowths, and
those techniques are especially useful in
fully cemented samples (such as the previous
example). By impregnating this sample with
fluorescent epoxy, the microporosity within
the dust rims surrounding the grains fluoresces
orange, highlighting the contacts between
the grains and their overgrowths. The outer
contacts of the overgrowths are marked by
brighter yellow fluorescence. The orange
fluorescence shows that the detrital quartz
consists of well-rounded to subrounded grains.
FL 470, RDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 11: Quartz & Silica Cements 255

Devonian Hoing Sandstone Mbr.,

Cedar Valley Limestone, Illinois

Where “dust rims” and recognizable crystal

terminations are scarce or absent, quartz
overgrowths can be very difficult to recognize in
thin section. In this example, the cross-polarized
image on the left shows sutured boundaries
between grains that might be interpreted
as being related to compaction rather than
cementation. The cathodoluminescence image
on the right, however, allows clear distinction
of luminescent detrital cores and interlocking-
nonluminescent overgrowths with some
euhedral crystal outlines. Photomicrographs
by R. F. Sippel (from Sippel, 1968).

XPL | CL, Scale bar = 0.013 mm

Lo. Jurassic Navajo Sandstone,

Arizona

A quartz arenite with detrital quartz grains of

metamorphic derivation (see Chapter 1). In
scanned color CL, the grain on the left shows
a dark, low temperature overgrowth (white
arrows) that was rounded by transport and
abrasion, indicating that this grain was likely
recycled from an older sandstone source. The
pore space of most of the sandstone is filled
with dark green to non-luminescent epoxy,
and the bright yellow-greenish spots are from
abrasive grit that got trapped in the epoxy that
was used to stabilize the sample.

CCL, Scale bar = 18 µm

Mid. Proterozoic Belt Supergroup,

Neihart Quartzite, Little Belt
Mountains, Montana

A scanned color CL image of a quartz-cemented

quartzarenite. The bimodal sand grains
are well rounded, probably multicycle, and
judging from their bluish colors are most likely
of plutonic origin. The reddish discolorations
are probably a sign of hydrothermal alteration.
The cement has bluish and reddish colors.
The blues probably reflect relatively low-
temperature, shallow-burial diagenesis; the
reds record elevated temperatures during late
diagenesis.

CCL, Scale bar = 76 µm

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 256 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Lo. Cretaceous “Basement sands”

(Maxon Fm. equivalent), west Texas

A quartz arenite that was cemented by syntaxial

quartz overgrowths. In a scanned color CL,
the quartz grains are plutonic (bluish) and
metamorphic (reddish) in origin. The most
remarkable feature here is the growth history
displayed within the pore-filling quartz
cement. The banding delineates a cement stra-
tigraphy analogous to what is customarily seen
in carbonate cements. The greenish colors are
from epoxy that infills residual porosity.

CCL, Scale bar = 0.12 mm

Lo. Cretaceous “Basement sands”

(Maxon Fm. equivalent), west Texas

A detailed view of the quartz cement from

the previous sample. In scanned color CL,
submicron-scale growth banding in the
quartz overgrowths is visible. These euhedral
overgrowths have distinct growth periods, as
well as episodes where growth was interrupted;
the more subtle banding may reflect fluctuation
in pore fluid chemistry.

CCL, Scale bar = 18.8 µm

Proterozoic Siyeh Fm., Belt Basin,

Alberta, Canada

A quartz arenite with variably colored detrital

quartz grains in scanned color CL. The grains
can be interpreted to come from plutonic
(bluish) and metamorphic (reddish-brown)
sources. There are two distinguishable quartz
cement generations visible. The first cement
generation is dark and almost non-luminescent
(suggestive of low-temperature formation)
and shows dark bluish growth zones. A later
reddish cement infills the final voids and
fractures within the darker first generation
cement. This geometric relationship, as well
as the color, suggests later formation from
higher temperature fluids.

CCL, Scale bar = 80 µm

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 Chapter 11: Quartz & Silica Cements 257

Up. Jurassic Ula Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

Grain-coating, euhedral, microcrystalline

quartz (microquartz) growing on detrital
quartz grains, but not in optical continuity
with their substrate. The formation of such
thin, microcrystalline quartz cements is
thought to inhibit growth of larger, euhedral,
monocrystalline quartz overgrowths during
burial (Aase et al., 1996), and the source of
the silica is most commonly attributed to
dissolution of opaline biota (primarily sponge
spicules or radiolarian tests). There are
minor strands and flakes of illite on top of the
microcrystalline quartz.

SEM, Scale bar = 18 µm

Up. Jurassic Spekk Fm., Møre

Basin, Norwegian Sea †

Numerous quartz crystals forming a grain

overgrowth. One will normally see this style
of overgrowth on a polycrystalline grain. In
this case, it appears that the grain had a clay
component, and it may be a metamorphic rock
fragment. The clay could also be a detrital
grain coat or poorly-ordered diagenetic clay.
The grains in the top left and bottom right of
the image are feldspars showing partial disso-
lution.

SEM, Scale bar = 18 µm

Lo. Jurassic Tilje Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

This image shows large, euhedral, interlocking

quartz crystals filling a pore. The surrounding
grains have chlorite grain coats (examples near
white arrows) that may prevent widespread
quartz overgrowth formation by isolating the
grains. These quartz cements have nucleated
on breaks in the chlorite coatings. Along with
quartz and chlorite cements, there also are
hexagonal booklets of kaolinite (or possibly
dickite) partially filling the porosity and espe-
cially clearly visible along the right edge of the
image.

SEM, Scale bar = 13 µm

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 258 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Lo. Jurassic Tilje Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

Well-formed quartz overgrowths in an

otherwise chlorite-cemented sandstone.
The imprint of the chlorite coatings from an
adjacent grain can be seen on the quartz over-
growth; the grain was separated during sample
preparation. The growth of thin clay coatings,
as seen here and in the previous image, can
completely envelop grains. That ultimately
can help to prevent further cementation, thus
preserving the porosity and permeability of a
sandstone (Ehrenberg, 1993). Thicker cement
coatings, however, can negatively impact
reservoir properties.

SEM, Scale bar = 17 µm

Lo. Cretaceous Travis Peak Fm.,

Eastland Co., Texas

A chert arenite cemented by radial megaquartz.

Polycrystalline Quartz Cements

Each detrital chert grain has a radially-oriented

rim of bladed to equant megaquartz (drusy
quartz). The crystal size of these cements
coarsens into the pore. The monocrystalline
quartz grain in this photomicrograph does not
have an overgrowth on it. Megaquartz (as
opposed to microquartz) is defined as having
crystals larger than 20 µm.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Pliocene – Pleistocene silcrete,

east coast, Aruba

An incipient silcrete developed on a limestone

terrace topped by alluvium containing
abundant igneous rock fragments (the dark
grains in this image) and quartz sand (the
white grains in PPL) that may have acted as a
source of silica. In this case, silica (mainly in
the form of fibrous chalcedony) has produced
layered crusts that surround and bind the lithic
clasts. Thinner iron oxide/hydroxide cement
layers also are present. This duricrust may
have formed over a long time period (millions
of years) in a semiarid setting—despite being a
Caribbean island, Aruba averages less than 50
cm (20 in) of rain per year.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 11: Quartz & Silica Cements 259

Paleogene Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,

Texas
Several generations of vug-filling chalcedony
in a brecciated volcaniclastic deposit are
delineated by zones of iron-oxides (hematite)
and trapped water-filled inclusions. The
fibrous character of the chalcedony is clearly
visible in the photomicrograph on the right.
Most chalcedony consists of length-fast and/
or length-slow fibrous quartz and moganite
(also length-slow). Here, the initial cement
is length-fast chalcedony (brown zones); it
was followed by length-slow chalcedony
(colorless bands shown by arrow). In the final
phase, there are various cuts through the fibers,
ranging from parallel to perpendicular to the
fiber axes.
PPL | XPL | GP, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Paleogene Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,

Texas

A series of laminated cherts filling a large

void located between breccia fragments within
a volcaniclastic rock. The void was first
lined with several generations of chalcedony
separated by hematitic bands. The final filling
of the void was accomplished by a sequence of
graded cherts. Note how the geopetal chert fills
within the pore are mirrored within the open
fracture (lower right). Although the origin of
this type of graded chert filling is unclear, the
texture is not uncommon.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Paleogene Vieja Gp., Presidio Co.,

Texas
The earliest generation of chalcedony (the
widespread, inclusion-rich brownish phase)
is length-fast. Length-fast chalcedony has the
crystallographic c-axis (slow axis) perpen-
dicular to the length of the fibers. To determine
if the chalcedony is length-fast or -slow, one
must insert an oriented mineral plate (z, α =
slow or x, γ = fast) into the microscope. Here,
a length-fast gypsum plate was inserted from
the SE quadrant. The birefringence colors for
the brown chalcedony increase in the NW and
SE quadrants (blues) and decrease in the NE
and SW quadrants (yellows), thus indicating
length-fast chalcedony. The opposite occurs in
the clear, length-slow chalcedony areas.
PPL | GP, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 260 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Jurassic Radiolariti, northern

Italy

Chalcedonic quartz infilling of a cavity.

Commonly, as in this example, chalcedony
occurs as radiating bundles of fibers. In this
case, the bundles increase in size from the
margins of the cavity to the center. Chalcedony,
like most other forms of microquartz, contains
numerous fluid-filled microinclusions. These
inclusions are responsible for the relatively
low refractive index of chalcedony.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.03 mm

Up. Jurassic Radiolariti, northern

Italy

In this photomicrograph, zebraic chalcedony

lines a cavity. Zebraic chalcedony is a banded,
fibrous form of microquartz. The fibers are
alternately light and dark (as viewed along
the fiber elongation direction under cross-
polarized light) as a result of twisting of
the crystal axes. McBride and Folk (1977)
have described the association of zebraic
chalcedony with evaporite minerals (such as
halite, gypsum and anhydrite), but it has also
been described in deep marine strata with no
known associated evaporites (Keene, 1983),
an interpretation more likely for this sample.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.03 mm

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

Sandstone with chalcedony cement. The early

diagenetic nature of the cement is evidenced by
the loosely packed detrital grains. Other sand-
stones in this succession contain evidence of
altered sponge spicules, a likely source of the
silica. Some of the oversized pores may have
contained spicular remains, but now contain
a mixture of microcrystalline quartz with
overlying chalcedony. Both silica cements
here are highly porous and show impregnation
by the blue resin.

PPL | XPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.12

mm

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 Chapter 11: Quartz & Silica Cements 261

Mid. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

This image comes from a sponge spic-

ule-rich sandstone. The cement consists of
microcrystalline quartz which is arranged in a
botryoidal habit. The quartz crystals are easily
visible at the margins of the cement. In this
case, the microporosity may have been further
cemented by quartz, making the individual
crystals difficult to distinguish.

SEM, Scale bar = 14 µm

Mid. Eocene Jackson Gp., Carlos

Sandstone, Bastrop Co., Texas

This is an opal- and quartz-cemented

sandstone. Opal constitutes the first cement

Amorphous Silica Cements

that formed within the pores. It is colorless, has
low relief and is laminated. The opal cement
is followed by a thin pore-rimming zone of
chalcedony cement that has a slight brown
coloration. The final stage of cementation is
colorless chalcedony. These are volcanic-rich
sediments, and the alteration of lithic
fragments and siliceous ash is the source for
the silica cements. Alteration and cementation
most likely occurred in meteoric waters, and
such deposits have been termed “groundwater
silcretes” (McBride et al., 2012).

PPL, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Mid. Eocene Jackson Gp., Carlos

Sandstone, Bastrop Co., Texas

Within this pore, two separate generations of

opal and chalcedony cementation are visible.
A first-generation opal cement is followed by
iron-stained chalcedony, then another zone of
opal cement and then yet another generation
of iron-stained chalcedony. The amorphous
opal cements are isotropic (black bands) in
cross-polarized light. The final filling of the
pore is by zebraic chalcedony.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.06 mm

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 262 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Oligocene Catahoula Fm., Fayette

Co., Texas

An opal-cemented sandstone deposited in

a probable fluvial environment. The opal
cements are brownish and have lower relief
than the grains. Opal generally is brownish
because it contains abundant water-filled
inclusions. Opal cement is completely
isotropic under cross-polarized light (see next
photo), because it is an amorphous, hydrous
form of silica and thus is sometimes termed a
mineraloid (a mineral-like material that does
not demonstrate crystallinity).

PPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Oligocene Catahoula Fm., Fayette

Co., Texas

Here, isotropic opal cements surround quartz,

feldspar, and other detrital grains. Opal
cements commonly are associated with vol-
caniclastic (siliceous) sediments, because the
source of the silica is from the dissolution of
volcanic glass. Opal cements are chemically
metastable and will, in time, dissolve or
convert to more stable quartz cement.

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.1 mm

Oligocene Catahoula Fm., Fayette

Co., Texas

An example of detrital volcanic rock fragments

associated with the opal-cemented unit shown
in the all three images on this page. The
spherulitic volcanic grain in the center of the
image may be a devitrified glass fragment. The
needle-like crystals are probably plagioclase
or tridymite (a high-temperature polymorph of
quartz). During devitrification, glass converts
to more stable quartz and releases silica into
solution.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.1 mm

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 Chapter 11: Quartz & Silica Cements 263

Up. Miocene Virgin Valley Fm.,

Harney Co., Oregon

These freshwater diatoms were cemented by

opal (pale brown cements). As in previous
examples, the opal is amorphous and isotropic
in cross-polarized light. Here the source of
opal, however was biogenic (diatoms) rather
than volcanic. Because the opaline diatoms
tests were unstable, they were either dissolved
(with the voids later infilled) or they were
directly replaced and partially filled by chal-
cedony. The interiors of the diatoms also are
filled by chalcedony. A more detailed view
of these diatoms and their fills can be seen in
Chapter 5 (page 114).

PPL | XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 17: Iron SulfIde and oxIde CementS 347

DIAGENESIS:
IRON SULFIDE, OXIDE & HYDROXIDE
CEMENTS

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

17

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 348 petrography of SandStoneS and aSSoCIated roCkS

INTRODUCTION TO IRON CEMENTS

The type and abundance of minerals that we observe and Barnes, 1997), whereas in sandy sediments, it may
in the earth’s crust and its sedimentary cover is governed form coarser-grained, blocky pyrite cements. Marcasite,
by elemental abundances and thermodynamic mineral a dimorph of pyrite, has been observed as a cement
equilibria. Iron is fourth in abundance (e.g., Mason, mineral in situations where earlier-formed diagenetic
1966) by weight (~ 5%) after oxygen, silica, and aluminum pyrite underwent partial oxidation (Schieber, 2007,
(~82.5% cumulatively), and whereas that relationship 2011). Persistent reducing conditions may occur in
readily explains the preponderance of silica and clay the near-surface under unusual circumstances, such as
minerals as cements in sedimentary rocks, the story for in chimneys of hydrocarbon leakage (oil or gas seeps).
iron is a bit more complicated. Due to its multiple redox In such settings, iron oxide and hydroxide coatings are
states, iron can form (or be part of) minerals in oxidizing removed leaving “bleached” zones in red-bed sediments.
as well as reducing environments, and the main “sinks” In addition, pyrite, marcasite, calcite and dolomite
in the sedimentary rock record are Precambrian banded cements may be precipitated, acting as markers for
iron formations, Phanerozoic ironstones and continental underlying hydrocarbon deposits (Reynolds et al., 1990;
red beds. Kirkland et al., 1995).
Iron is generally supplied to sedimentary basins in the In the case of reducing pore waters that do not
form of iron hydroxide coatings on fine particles (Carroll, contain sulfide, dissolved iron is readily incorporated
1958) and as iron silicates in the sand fraction (Walker, into carbonate minerals (ferroan calcite, ferroan
1967). In fluvial sediments, the commonly oxidizing dolomite, ankerite, siderite). Sulfide formation does not
pore water conditions result in intrastratal alteration take place in the absence of sulfate (no microbial sulfate
of detrital iron silicates (pyroxene, hornblende, biotite) reduction is possible in that situation), and thus iron-
and in the precipitation of iron hydroxides (limonite, bearing carbonates are to be expected in freshwater-
goethite; yellow-brownish color) within pore spaces. dominated and nonmarine reducing settings (estuarine
Over time, iron hydroxides in both fine and coarse and lacustrine successions). However, iron-bearing
sediments are converted to hematite that gives the rocks carbonates can also form in marine sediments. For
their characteristic red color (Walker, 1967). The timing example, below the zone of microbial sulfate reduction, in
of hematite formation can, under some circumstance, be the realm of methanogenic fermenting microbes (Curtis
dated using paleomagnetic information (e.g., Lu et al., et al., 1977; Berner, 1981; Burdige, 1993), organic matter
1994) or geochronologic data (e.g., Reiners et al., 2014). degradation reactions produce bicarbonate (Froelich
Under the microscope, iron oxides either seemed et al., 1979). Thus, carbonate precipitation is favored
to have formed either disseminated brownish-reddish in that situation and may be manifested in the form of
species in fine-grained rocks or grain-coating and pore- siderite concretions or other iron-enriched carbonate
filling cements of iron hydroxides (limonite, goethite) minerals (Curtis et al., 2000).
and/or hematite. In transmitted light, hematite is Under mildly reducing pore water conditions and at
opaque (or reddish at very thin crystal edges), whereas low rates of sedimentation, iron-bearing phyllosilicates,
the hydroxides have a brownish-reddish appearance. such as berthierine, chamosite and glauconite may form
If such sediments (muds and sands) are deposited in in surficial sediments (Odin, 1988). These precipitate
a marine setting where co-deposited organic matter preferentially in the reducing microenvironments of
renders pore fluids anoxic early in the diagenetic history fecal pellets (Porrenga, 1966), as well as in the interior
(Berner, 1981), detrital iron hydroxides dissolve and of fossil tests, and as pore filling cements in sandy layers.
release ferrous iron (Fe2+) to the pore waters. Depending These kinds of minerals are typical for shallow marine
on the prevailing conditions, there are several potential successions and are in many instances associated with
pathways for the formation of iron minerals. hiatal surfaces (Ketzer et al., 2003). Under favorable
During shallow burial (eogenesis), sulfate reducing circumstances, stratigraphic iron enrichment may
bacteria participate in organic matter degradation. lead to economic accumulations of iron minerals. The
Associated production of hydrogen sulfide will precipitate associated strata are known as ironstones (Van Houten
dissolved iron in the form of iron monosulfides that will and Bhattacharyya, 1982) and are mined in multiple
further react to form pyrite (Berner, 1970). In fine- locations as a source of iron ore. The iron-bearing clays
grained rocks, early diagenetic pyrite is overwhelmingly are not covered in this chapter, however, as they were
in the form of micron-size framboidal pyrite (Wilkin previously discussed in Chapters 5 and 13.

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 Chapter 17: Iron Sulfide and Oxide Cements 349

Up. Devonian Geneseo Shale, New

York

This siltstone contains abundant pyrite (FeS2)

cements. In plane-polarized light, metallic
sulfide and some oxide minerals are opaque,
and are best studied in polished sections on a
reflected light microscope. In this example,
pyrite occurs as cubic crystals that are highly
reflective (pale yellow to white). Organic
matter, bacteria and iron hydroxides on detrital
grains can interact to create an environment
suitable for the precipitation of pyrite as
cements or replacements within the rock.

RL, Scale bar = 0.13 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Slick

Rock Mbr., Emery Co., Utah

In this iron-cemented sandstone, scattered

remnants of earlier pyrite cements are found
within the goethite cements that now dominate
the rock. The pyrite in this sample is pale
yellow in reflected light, whereas the goethite
is gray. Pyrite precipitated from waters that
were reducing; later, possibly during uplift,
oxidizing pore fluids migrated through these
rocks converting the pyrite to goethite. The
identification of the goethite is also supported
by XRD data (Radhu, 2013).

RL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.09 mm

Mid. Permian Rush Springs Fm.,

Caddo Co., Oklahoma

These pyrite cements formed as a result of

reducing conditions in hydrocarbon seeps over
the Cement oil field (Reynolds et al., 1990).
Pyrite is opaque and essentially black in plane-
polarized light (left) so positive identification
requires reflected light. Because reflected
light microscopes are not always available and
polished thin sections are more expensive than
unpolished ones, oblique reflected light (in this
case using a high-intensity, flexible fiber-optic
light) is often used to identify iron sulfides and
oxides. In oblique reflected light (right side),
pyrite appears golden, just as it does in hand
specimen.

PPL | ORL, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 350 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Devonian New Albany Shale,

Camp Run Mbr., Kentucky

The zooecia of this coral fragment are infilled

by pyrite cements (white in reflected light).
The coral fragment is part of a pyritized lag
deposit associated with a sequence boundary
containing quartz grains, reworked pyrite, fish
debris and miscellaneous bioclasts. The red
coloration along thin edges of the pyrite is due
to alteration of pyrite to iron oxides/hydroxides,
probably during uplift and exposure.

RL, Scale bar = 32 µm

Lo. Jurassic Tilje Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

Here, clusters of cubic pyrite (black) are seen

within pores and in association with detrital
clay. Although pyrite is abundant in this
sample, it typically represents less than 2% of
most terrigenous rocks—it is more common
in marine rocks and generally less common in
terrestrial deposits. It is seen in thin section
primarily as opaque cubes and framboids.
When small crystals of pyrite are visible, they
are most commonly of early diagenetic origin
and are associated with the presence of organic
material.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Cretaceous Mowry Fm., Moffat Co.,

Colorado

The chambers of this foraminifer are filled

by both pyrite (black opaque) and calcite
(colorless) cements. It is common for pyrite to
form within the living chambers of organisms
because decaying organic matter can produce
micro-reducing environments that are
conducive to pyrite formation.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

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 Chapter 17: Iron Sulfide and Oxide Cements 351

Up. Devonian (Famennian) Ohio

Shale, Knox Co., Kentucky

In this view, a Tasmanites cyst from the Ohio

Shale is dark brown in oblique reflected light
(top) and appears bright in fluorescent illu-
mination (bottom). The brightly reflecting
gold-colored framboidal pyrite cements (in
oblique-reflected light) formed both within the
cysts and in the surrounding sediment prior
to compaction. These framboids consists of
numerous tetrahedral crystals of pyrite in
spherical aggregates. Photomicrograph from
Cortland Eble.

ORL / FL 470, Scale bar = 15.58 µm

Up. Devonian (Famennian) Ohio

Shale, Knox Co., Kentucky

Large and small pyrite framboids, such as the

ones seen here, are ubiquitous in the Ohio
Shale and are the principal contributor to its
characteristic high sulfur content (commonly
3 to 6%). The abundance of these pyrite
framboids in the sediment attests to deposition
in dysaerobic to anoxic conditions, which also
promoted the preservation of organic matter.
Photomicrograph from Cortland Eble.

RL, Scale bar = 12.28 µm

Up. Cretaceous Nise Fm., Vøring

Basin, Norwegian Sea †

These framboids of pyrite have a wide range

of sizes and are somewhat larger than average,
with some reaching nearly 30 µm in diameter
(although most are less than 10 µm). The
component crystals of the framboids are rarely
seen in thin section and so confirmation that
these are framboids generally requires SEM
imaging. However, the identification as pyrite
is easily done with reflected light.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

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 352 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Cretaceous (Campanian) Hod

Gp., Danish sector, North Sea

An SEM view into the breached chambers of

a planktic foraminifer showing an authigenic
pyrite framboid in the bottom chamber (black
box shows area enlarged in the right-hand
image). The framboid and isolated pyrite
crystals are partially overgrown with later-
stage illitic clays (see next image). Also
visible in the low magnification image are
doubly-terminated, authigenic quartz crystals.
Framboids (a term that comes from the French
word for raspberry) consist of clusters of
euhedral octahedral pyrite crystals.

SEM | SEM, Scale bar = 20 µm | 3.3 µm

Up. Cretaceous (Campanian) Hod

Gp., Danish sector, North Sea

A higher magnification, artificially colorized

SEM view of a central portion of the framboid
from the previous image showing, in more
detail, the octahedral pyrite crystals of the
framboid (shown in an arbitrarily selected
yellow color) along with the illite/smectite clay
minerals (blue) that have grown in interstices
on the outer surface of the framboid. Such
framboidal pyrite clusters have been inter-
preted as replacements of precursor framboids
of greigite (Fe3S4) crystals (Wilkin and Barnes,
1997).

Col SEM, Scale bar = 1.25 µm

Lo. Jurassic Tilje Fm., Norwegian

sector, North Sea †

This image shows pyrite in two crystal habits—

euhedral octahedrons and spherical framboids.
The framboids are composed of numerous
small dodecahedrons (pyritohedrons). Pyrite
framboids can also consist of cubic crystals
of pyrite. The pyrite is overlain by thin, fila-
mentous to platy illite crystals.

SEM, Scale bar = 2 µm

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 Chapter 17: Iron Sulfide and Oxide Cements 353

Up. Devonian New Albany Shale,

Camp Run Mbr., Kentucky
The cements in this lag deposit are mainly a
mix of pyrite and marcasite (FeS2). Although
chemically identical, pyrite and marcasite
(both white in this image) differ in their optical
properties. In reflected light, marcasite behaves
pleochroically (unlike pyrite), and with crossed
polarizers, marcasite (anisotropic) will show
changing colors, whereas pyrite (isotropic)
will stay uniformly dark. The lag deposit
marks a sequence boundary and is composed
of quartz grains, fossil fragments, fish debris
and reworked pyrite crystals (Schieber, 2007).
Pyrite concretions and pyritized bone and
burrow-fills within the lag are reworked from
underlying strata.
RL, Scale bar = 0.13 mm

Up. Devonian New Albany Shale,

Camp Run Mbr., Kentucky

These pores in the same lag deposit as the

previous photomicrograph are partially filled
by marcasite cement. Spearhead twins are
characteristic of marcasite. Marcasite exhibits
coloration in cross-polarized light and is
pleochroic in reflected light, with slight varia-
tions of color depending on the crystallographic
orientation of the crystals. Schieber (2007)
ascribed marcasite formation to the oxidation
and dissolution of pyrite in sediments lowering
the pH and increasing the iron concentration.
That was followed by an influx of hydrogen
sulfide from the decay of organics, leading to
marcasite precipitation.

RL, Scale bar = 32 µm

Up. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

Radially arranged clusters of pyrite crystals

which, on a small scale, resemble the crystal
habit typical of marcasite and may, in fact,
include some marcasite (especially the
elongate crystals). Differentiation between the
two requires reflected light. The pyrite crystals
are located within a partially dissolved pla-
gioclase and they have grown within, or were
partially encompassed by, chalcedony cement.
The chalcedony is microporous and has taken
some color from blue resin infiltration.

PPL, AFeS, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07

mm

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 354 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Jurassic Fulmar Fm., United

Kingdom sector, North Sea †

A view of crystal clusters of marcasite with

distinctive crystal habit that appear nearly
white under backscatter imaging. Nearby are
quartz overgrowths, rhombic calcite crystals,
oil coated authigenic illite and detrital clay.
Next to the radiating marcasite crystals are
poorly preserved pyrite framboids which may
have acted as nuclei for the later marcasite
growth.

SEM+BSE, Scale bar = 9 µm

Precambrian (earliest
Paleoproterozoic) main iron unit,
Fremont Co., Wyoming

The opaque minerals in the plane-polarized

light view (left) are a combination of mostly
magnetite (Fe3+2Fe2+O4) along with lesser
amounts of hematite (Fe2O3) and limonite
(FeO(OH)·nH2O). The magnetite is highly
reflective and silvery gray in oblique-reflected
light. The yellow colors mark “limonite”
staining and the red oxide staining is hematite.
Magnetite is generally resistant to weathering,
but can oxidize to hematite and hydrate to
limonite.

PPL | ORL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Pennsylvanian Conemaugh Gp.,

Athens Co., Ohio

Clay cutans are soil features that are commonly

preserved in the rock record. They form from
clays migrating downward within a soil, ulti-
mately lining pores. With time, cutans can
thicken and produce rounded pores. Cutans
are commonly stained by hematite cements,
as in this example. The hematite generally
is derived from the dissolution of detrital
iron-rich minerals. Hematite is opaque in
plane-polarized light (except along thin edges
where it can appear red). It is generally red in
oblique-reflected light and pale bluish gray in
incident-reflected light.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 17: Iron Sulfide and Oxide Cements 355

Silurian Clinton Ironstone, Giles

Co., Virginia

This is an example of a hematite-rich oolitic

ironstone deposit that is widely distributed
through the eastern United States. The
larger ovoid lumps of opaque material are
deformed ooids scattered amidst well-rounded,
bimodal quartz grains in this marginal marine
sandstone. Hematite is the main cement and
probably precipitated early in the diagenetic
history of the rock.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Miocene Hayner Ranch Fm., south-

central New Mexico

The hornblende grain in this view was

partially corroded to form hematite cement in
nearby pores. Dissolution of ferromagnesian
minerals can be an important source of iron
for diagenetic minerals. That is especially
prevalent in sediments deposited in arid condi-
tions where such unstable detrital grains were
not removed during initial weathering. Pores
and translucent grains both appear pale blue to
white in this photo. Photomicrograph by T. R.
Walker.

PPL+ORL, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Mid.–Up. Eocene Baca Fm.,

Socorro Co., New Mexico

A typical arid-region, continental “red bed”.

The iron in the reddish staining was probably
derived from the eogenetic weathering and in
situ alteration of iron-rich detrital minerals
(augite, amphibole, olivine, biotite and others;
e.g., previous photo) in these alluvial deposits.
The precipitation of hematite grain coatings,
and hematite staining of clay coatings, is
inferred to have occurred over a long period of
time in the thick vadose zone typically found
in alluvial fans and other sub-humid to arid,
basin-margin settings (Walker, 1976).

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.1 mm

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 356 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Paleocene (with Quaternary?

cementation), Rajasthan, India
This image displays a sample from the Thar
Desert. What was once a friable sandstone is
now cemented by hematite clusters (possibly
replaced pyrite or marcasite framboids);
in some examples the iron cement is more
abundant, constituting a ferricrete. Here,
however, the thin layer of hematite clusters is
overlain by quartz cement and in turn by non-
ferroan calcite and fibrous clay. Deciphering
whether diagenetic cements are formed
in burial or surficial settings is sometimes
difficult, but in this case the iron minerals are
known to be concentrated at the present desert
surface and so the overlying cements are
clearly very young.
PPL, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Paleocene (with Quaternary?

cementation), Rajasthan, India

This is the same sandstone silcrete shown

above, probably formed under meteoric
phreatic conditions. It displays prominent
ferruginous “dust rims” around the detrital
grains as opposed to the discrete hematite
clusters seen in the previous image. The
rims are red-brown in color and are overlain
by banded quartz overgrowths that were
not impeded by the earlier iron oxides. The
overgrowths show growth lines that parallel the
initial grain surface. Quartz is not a common
silcrete mineral; usually opal or chalcedony is
precipitated in silcretes.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Slick

Rock Mbr., Emery Co., Utah

This sandstone was originally cemented by

pyrite (inclusions are still present elsewhere
in the slide), but during later diagenesis,
the pyrite was oxidized to a combination of
hematite and goethite. The hematite is the
brighter reflecting phase and goethite is the
brownish-gray phase; the dark blobs are dead
hydrocarbons. The hematite and goethite may
have formed from meteoric fluids that entered
after basinal brines that were associated with
hydrocarbon migration.

RL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.09 mm

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 Chapter 17: Iron Sulfide and Oxide Cements 357

Lo. Eocene Rockdale Fm.,

Simsboro Mbr., Bastrop Co., Texas

This oblique-reflected light image highlights

the thick hematite and limonite cements in this
sandstone. The hematite ranges from a very
dark red to orange, and limonite is the yellow
phase. Limonite, an iron hydroxide, was once
considered to be a mineral, but is now classified
as a mineraloid—a mixture of iron hydroxide
and oxide minerals, such as goethite, jarosite,
hematite and others. The sandstone was part
of a meandering river and marsh complex
that contains scattered terrestrial fossils. The
hematite and limonite probably formed in a
lateritic soil.

ORL, Scale bar = 0.15 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Slick

Rock Mbr., Emery Co., Utah

This quartzarenite is from an eolian dune

complex and is completely cemented by
goethite (FeO(OH)). Goethite usually appears
deep red in both plane- and cross-polarized
light, and unlike many iron oxides and sulfides,
is not opaque. These isopachous and fibrous
goethite cements filled the primary porosity.
They probably formed during burial diagenesis
(see also next image) and do not represent
paleosol formation.

PPL+ORL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Slick

Rock Mbr., Emery Co., Utah

Goethite (red) and hematite (opaque black)

here partially filled an open fracture asso-
ciated with a deformation band (the shattered,
sheared and compacted zone along the lower
edge of the photomicrograph). These fracture
fills are highly zoned, with crystal shapes in
the early stages that are more representative of
pyrite, not goethite or hematite. That has led
to an interpretation that the goethite may have
partially formed by oxidation of pyrite pre-
cursors (S. Radhu, personal communication),
although the later stages most likely were
primary goethite precipitates.

PPL+ORL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 358 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Slick

Rock Mbr., Emery Co., Utah

This reflected light image shows a different

area of the fracture illustrated in the previous
photomicrograph (center and left) along with
detrital grains of the host sediment at right.
G The filling is composed of goethite (darker
gray phase; G) and hematite (light gray phase;
G H). Zoning within the crystals close to the
wall of the fracture indicates that they may be
a pseudomorphous replacement of precursor
pyrite. With influx of oxidizing, sulfide-poor
pore fluids, goethite (and to a lesser degree
H hematite) may have replaced pyrite and formed
additional cement crystals near the center of
the fracture (left side of image).

RL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.09 mm

Lo. Pennsylvanian Morrow B

Sandstone, Ochiltree Co., Texas

This fracture in a poorly-sorted quartzarenite is

filled by coarsely crystalline goethite that also
partially replaces the surrounding rock. The
fill is composed of goethite, but the shape of
the fill appears to be pseudomorphous after
hematite.

PPL | XPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Lo. Cretaceous Patuxent Fm.,

Cumberland Co., North Carolina

This thin section contains two fabrics that are

indicative of having formed in a paleosol—
ferruginous crusts and clay cutans. The
ferruginous crusts formed first and were
probably originally hematite. Later, detrital
clays (brown) were deposited by colloidal
transport of material from higher in the soil
zone into this layer. The clays were deposited
in meniscus coatings (termed cutans), thereby
also forming correspondingly rounded pores.
Here, hematite (nearly opaque) was hydrated
to goethite (dark red), possibly during uplift-re-
lated diagenesis (telogenesis).

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 17: Iron Sulfide and Oxide Cements 359

Lo. Cretaceous Patuxent Fm.,

Cumberland Co., North Carolina

Soil crusts cement this quartz sandstone. The

hematitic crusts rim the quartz grains and
fossilized root traces (the circular structure
near the center was likely such a rhizolith).
The ferruginous crusts probably started out as
hematite (opaque) but were partially replaced
by goethite (red translucent phase).

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Mid. Eocene Reklaw Fm., Newby

Mbr., Bastrop Co., Texas

This sandstone is cemented by goethite (and

the goethite is probably after hematite). The
iron oxides and hydroxides have been inter-
preted to have formed as one of several discrete
ferricretes layers with iron derived from
the alteration and leaching of “glauconite”
and associated eogenetic iron minerals from
overlying beds (Sharp and Sartin, 1988).

PPL | ORL, Scale bar = 0.20 mm

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environments: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 51, p. 359-365, doi: Cornell, R. M., and U. Schwertmann, 2003, The Iron Oxides: Structure,
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Maynard, 1979, Early oxidation of organic matter in pelagic sediments Salem, A. M. K., A. Abdel-Wahab, and E. F. McBride, 1998, Diagenesis
of the eastern equatorial Atlantic: Suboxic diagenesis: Geochimica of shallowly buried cratonic sandstones, southwest Sinai, Egypt:
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7037(79)90095-4. 0738(98)00056-6.
Ixer, R. A., P. Turner, and B. Waugh, 1979, Authigenic iron and titanium Schieber, J., 2007, Oxidation of detrital pyrite as a cause for marcasite
oxides in Triassic red beds (St. Bees Sandstone), Cumbria, northern formation in marine lag deposits from the Devonian of the eastern US:
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Ketzer, J. M., S. Morad, and A. Amorosi, 2003, Predictive diagenetic clay- Schieber, J., 2011, Marcasite in black shales—a mineral proxy for
mineral distribution in siliciclastic rocks within a sequence stratigraphic oxygenated bottom waters and intermittent oxidation of carbonaceous
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p. 43-61, doi: 10.1002/9781444304336.ch2. Schieber, J., and G. Baird, 2001, On the origin and significance of
Kirkland, D. W., R. E. Denison, and M. A. Rooney, 1995, Diagenetic pyrite spheres in Devonian black shales of North America: Journal of
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Lindsley, D. H., ed., 1991, Oxide Minerals: Petrologic and Magnetic America, Decade of North American Geology Centennial Field Guide,
Significance (Reviews in Mineralogy 25): Chantilly, VA, Mineralogical Volume 4: Boulder, CO, GSA, p. 335-338.
Society of America, 509 p. Stel, H., 2009, Diagenetic crystallization and oxidation of siderite in
Love, L. G., 1971, Early diagenetic polyframboidal pyrite, primary and red bed (Buntsandstein) sediments from the Central Iberian Chain,
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doi: 10.1306/74D723EC-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D. Surdam, R. C., Z. S. Jiao, and D. B. MacGowan, 1993, Redox reactions
Lu, G., C. McCabe, D. J. Henry, and A. Schedl, 1994, Origin of hematite involving hydrocarbons and mineral oxidants: A mechanism for
carrying a Late Paleozoic remagnetization in a quartz sandstone bed significant porosity enhancement in sandstones: AAPG Bulletin, v. 77,
from the Silurian Rose Hill Formation, Virginia, USA: Earth and p. 1509-1518.
Planetary Science Letters, v. 126, p. 235-246, doi: 10.1016/0012- Van Houten, F. B., 1973, Origin of red beds, a review—1961-1972: Annual
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Mason, B. H., 1966, Principles of Geochemistry (3rd Edition): New York, annurev.ea.01.050173.000351.
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McMahon, P. B., F. H. Chapelle, W. F. Falls, and P. M. Bradley, 1992, Role ironstones—geologic record and facies model: Annual Review of
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McManus, K. M., and J. S. Hanor, 1988, Calcite and iron sulfide in Mineralogy 61): Chantilly, VA, Mineralogical Society of America,
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(sandstones, oolitic ironstones, kaolins and bauxites)—including a Walker, T. R., 1976, Diagenetic origin of continental red beds, in H.
comparative study of the reddening of red beds, in K. H. Wolf, and G. V. Falke, ed., The Continental Permian in Central West and South Europe:
Chilingarian, eds., Diagenesis IV (Developments in Sedimentology 51): Dordrecht (Netherlands), D. Reidel Publishing Co., p. 240-282, doi:
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Odin, G. S., ed., 1988, Green Marine Clays: Oolitic Ironstone Facies, Walker, T. R., E. E. Larson, and R. P. Hoblitt, 1981, Nature and origin
Verdine Facies, Glaucony Facies and Celadonite-Bearing Rock of hematite in the Moenkopi Formation (Triassic), Colorado Plateau:
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Parry, W. T., 2011, Composition, nucleation, and growth of iron oxide JB086iB01p00317.
concretions: Sedimentary Geology, v. 233, p. 53-68, doi: 10.1016/j. Wilkin, R. T., and H. L. Barnes, 1997, Formation processes of framboidal
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Fstone containingTopquartz
— Phosphate-cemented sand-
CCMN.1966.0140119. acing Page:
Prosser, D. J., J. A. Daws, A. E. Fallick, and B. P. J. Williams, 1994, The
occurrence and δ34S of authigenic pyrite in Middle Jurassic Brent grains and phosphate clasts,
Group sediments: Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 17, p. 407-428, doi: Pliocene Bone Valley Fm., Polk Co., Florida (XPL).
10.1111/j.1747-5457.1994.tb00148.x. Bottom — Oil-stained zones in a calcite cemented
Reiners, P. W., M. A. Chan, and N. S. Evenson, 2014, (U-Th)/He
geochronology and chemical compositions of diagenetic cement, sandstone above an oil seep. Permian Rush Springs
concretions, and fracture-filling oxide minerals in Mesozoic sandstones Fm., Caddo Co., Oklahoma (PPL | XPL).

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 chaPter 22: Pore tyPeS and PoroSity 443

Pore Types and Porosity

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A
P
T
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22

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 444 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Introduction to Pores and Porosity

Pores refer to the void spaces in a rock; porosity is a et al., 2012) and has led to numerous papers dealing
measurement that refers to the percentage of void spaces specifically with mudstone pores (see Mudstone/Shale
in a rock (the ratio of the volume of void spaces to the Porosity section of the bibliography for this chapter).
total volume of the rock sample). From an engineering For this book, we have adapted a version of the
perspective, porosity commonly is subdivided into “total Choquette and Pray (1970) classification of pores in
porosity” (all pores, regardless of whether they are carbonate rocks and have paired that with elements of
interconnected or isolated) versus “effective porosity” the mudstone pore terminologies of Loucks et al. (2012)
(porosity that is interconnected plus, depending on and Schieber (2013). An overview of that combined
usage, pores associated with clay-bound water). For terminology, suitable for sandstones and mudrocks,
hydrocarbon explorationists, porosity (especially is presented in Figures 22.2 and 22.3. We also use the
effective porosity) and permeability are probably the most updated terminology for pore sizes advocated in Loucks
important properties of any rock. Pores, therefore, are et al. (2012), as opposed to the earlier scales of Choquette
discussed throughout this book, and this relatively short and Pray (1970) and Rouquerol et al. (1994). However,
chapter will serve mainly to give examples of the range of the variations in the definitions of, in some cases, identical
pore types in the context of their classification. It should terms used in the three schemes (as shown in Figure 22.1)
be noted that accurate petrographic identification of the should alert users to the need to clearly state which size
amount of porosity and the types of pores in sedimentary scale they are using in order to avoid confusion.
rocks requires careful thin-section preparation (Pittman, The genetic classification of pores is considerably
1992a) and is aided by the injection of colored and/or more complex than simple size measurement. At its
fluorescent dyes into pores prior to thin sectioning (e.g., basic level, it begins with a division into primary and
Ruzyla and Jezek, 1987). secondary pore types. Primary pores are ones formed
at the time of sedimentation; secondary pores are
Pore classification – Although several classifications those produced after sedimentation, during eogenetic,
have been proposed for pores in sandstones (e.g., mesogenetic or telogenetic diagenesis, by a variety of
Waldschmidt et al., 1956; Pittman, 1979 and 1984; Ehrlich processes, primarily dissolution and fracturing. At
et al., 1991), none has been accepted
universally. The very simple scheme of
Pittman (1979) consisting of only four
categories (intergranular, dissolution,
micro- and fracture pores) has been used
by some, but it provides little descriptive
range. The widely adopted classification
for pores in carbonate rocks (Choquette
and Pray, 1970) is far more detailed and
it has been adapted by some geologists for
use in sandstones.
Adding to pore classification issues
in clastic terrigenous deposits is the
dramatic change in what sizes of pores
are considered important. In the not-
so-very-bygone days of “conventional”
reservoir exploration, only relatively large
pores (typically ones visible with a light
microscope or larger) were considered
relevant. Today, with fine-grained
“unconventional” reservoirs playing
a prominent role in exploration, pores
considerably smaller have been found to
play a significant role, especially in gas Figure 22.1: A comparison of three terminological schemes for pore sizes
production. This wider range of pores in sedimentary rocks and other porous solids. Sizes measurements are
of interest is reflected in changes in pore typically based on the diameter of circular pores or the width of elongate
size terminology (Figure 22.1; Loucks pores. Adapted from Loucks et al. (2012).

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 Chapter 22: Pore Types and Porosity 445

Figure 22.2: An adaptation of the Choquette and Pray (1970) carbonate pore classification for use in clastic
terrigenous rocks. A number of categories have been dropped and some new ones added, including clay
framework and organic matter pore types that are especially important in mudrocks (Loucks et al., 2012 and
Schieber, 2013). Although all these pore types can occur in clastic terrigenous and associated rocks, those
outlined with a darker box are most the common ones.

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 446 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

the next level, pores are commonly categorized by two

characteristics: relationship to overall rock fabric and
process of formation. This terminology is shown in
Figure 22.2 and largely follows the Choquette and Pray
(1970) nomenclature. It leaves out two categories from
the original paper that are very rare in noncarbonate
rocks (caverns and growth-framework pores) and
adds additional categories that were not included in
the original work (stylolite-associated pores, cement-
dissolution pores) and two pore types intended primarily,
but certainly not exclusively, for mudrocks (organic
matter pores and clay framework pores).
This classification modifies some names (e.g., inter-
and intragranular rather than inter- and intraparticle)
because those terms are already widely used for
sandstones, and it retains some categories that are
uncommon in most siliciclastic rocks but are included
because they can occur in included grains, such as
phosphatic or carbonate particles, or associated rock
types. Furthermore, despite the fact that some of these
pore types are uncommon, a good classification should
provide the terminology to describe even relatively rare
pore types that may aid in understanding the depositional
and diagenetic history of sedimentary deposits.
All the pore types are schematically illustrated in
Figure 22.2, and most are shown in the photomicrographs
in this chapter. Fuller discussion is available in the
original papers from which the terms were taken Figure 22.3: A summary of supplementary terminology for
(primarily Choquette and Pray, 1970, Loucks et al., 2012 the description of pores in sedimentary rocks; from Choquette
and Pray (1970). Although designed for carbonate rocks, it
and Schieber, 2013). The new categories are defined here.
is equally applicable to clastic terrigenous deposits.
“Stylolite-associated pores” are formed along stylolites
and solution seams (bedding-parallel or other) during
and after overburden removal or other stress release. great flexibility in information transmission. To expand
They are important in some deep carbonate reservoirs that flexibility, the pore terms shown in Figure 22.2 can
(Carozzi and Von Bergen, 1987) and can have significance be accompanied by objective (measurement-based)
in siliciclastic reservoirs as well. “Cement-dissolution modifiers for average pore size or pore-size ranges (Figure
pores” refer to voids created by the localized, irregular 22.1) and for the percentage abundances of pore types
corrosion or even complete dissolution of cements during or total porosity. Modifiers also can be used to express
diagenesis. “Crystal-moldic pores” is a better term to generally more subjective information about timing
refer to cement dissolution that leaves intact molds of and mechanisms of porosity generation, where known
the crystals; “cement-dissolution pores” better describes (Figure 22.3). How long and complex one makes such
irregular crosscutting pores or larger-scale or more descriptions will vary with the level of information one
extensive removal of cements as illustrated later in this wishes to convey and the technical level of the audience.
chapter. The porosity types that are included especially In some cases, one might want to describe just a particular
for mudrocks are largely self-explanatory. Organic set of pores in a single picture. In other cases one may
matter pores are found within detrital particles of want to summarize the porosity of an entire rock—clearly
organic material (with subtypes discussed in Loucks and one would use different levels of terminology for those
Reed, 2014) and clay/mica framework pores are typically different tasks. For some purposes, just a short phrase
micron-scale or smaller openings within the assemblages such as “a sandstone with 15% primary intergranular
of clay particles that form the matrix of sandstones or macro- and mesopores” will suffice to convey the message
that can make up the main part of mudrocks. that this is a rock with moderate levels of original porosity
Pore classification provides words and phrases that in the micron to millimeter size range; it also indicates
can be used for concise and effective communication little diagenetic porosity enhancement as the remaining
amongst geoscientists—it is a vocabulary that allows porosity is predominantly primary. A more complex

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 Chapter 22: Pore Types and Porosity 447
message is relayed with a phrase such as “a sandstone dissolution of unstable detrital grains such as feldspars or
with 7% primary intergranular macro- and mesopores heavy minerals (even though such dissolution commonly
and 8% telogenetic moldic and fracture pores”. In this is less pronounced in shales than in sandstones (e.g., Blatt
case, although the total porosity is the same, the message and Sutherland, 1969; Blatt, 1985; Milliken, 1992). In
sent is that diagenesis plays a substantial role in the addition, there are secondary fracture pores created
origin of the present-day porosity and that much of it was by differential compaction, by tectonic movements, by
developed during uplift and perhaps subaerial exposure. overpressuring and overpressure release and by organic
Clearly, a near-infinite number of such phrases can be maturation. Finally, intercrystalline pores can be found
developed with the available terms, and no two users will between small cement crystals and within clays and other
emphasize exactly the same points or create exactly the minerals that have undergone subsurface diagenetic
same phrases. But no matter how the rock is described, transformation. In short, all the major pore types seen in
if the observations are accurate, and the terms are used sandstones also are present in mudstones, and the same
as defined, they will provide far more information for the terminology can be used for both. However, it is worth
reader than a simple set of core- or log-derived porosity distinguishing the smaller-sized pores with modifiers
and permeability numbers, and can provide valuable noting their nano- and picopore sizes mainly because
insights on the origin of reservoirs and the prediction of they have such different fluid transmission properties
additional exploration prospects. Both the interpretative and play such a large role in the economic viability of
visual descriptions from light or electron microscope and unconventional hydrocarbon plays.
the quantitative data from core or log analysis are useful, Porosity-permeability patterns – The relationship
but typically they are more informative when used between porosity and permeability is complex. At the
together. That said, petrographic observations of pores most general level, rocks dominated by intergranular
and porosity (and even calculations of permeability) and intercrystalline pores tend to have good pore
can be quantified, systematized and automated using connectivity and thus have high permeabilities relative
pore casting (Wardlaw, 1976) or through rigorous image to porosity; rocks with intragranular, moldic and
analysis techniques (Halley, 1978; Ehrlich et al., 1984; vuggy pores typically have lower connectivity and
Ehrlich et al., 1991; Gerard et al., 1992; Coskun and correspondingly lower permeabilities for any given
Wardlaw, 1993). Petrographic methods can be especially porosity (Pittman, 1984). However, there is far more
useful for small or friable samples that are difficult to complexity to these relationships than those generalities
study using conventional core analysis. might imply. Unfortunately for petrographers, the 2-D
Some comments on the porosity of mudstone and fabrics observed in thin sections can be difficult to relate
shale should be added to this discussion. Fundamentally, to actual 3-D pore networks, and the size and geometric
fine-grained terrigenous rocks are not different from relationships between pores and pore throats that are
their coarser relatives, either in basic constituents a major control on pore connectivity are not easily
or in porosity types, although the tools necessary to quantified in thin sections (Wardlaw and Cassan, 1978).
image them differ significantly. In mudstones, the Although engineering tests such as mercury injection
grains and pores are smaller, the content of clays and (MICP) data or nuclear magnetic resonance testing
organic matter generally are higher, the intergranular are commonly used to address this issue (e.g., Pittman,
attractive or repulsive forces are more dominant, and 1992b), modern 3-D imaging techniques now allow direct
the permeabilities are markedly lower in the absence visual evaluations of pore systems at petrographic and
of fractures. Nevertheless, if one takes a smaller-scale larger scales. This, in turn, allows integration of porosity
view of detrital clay and silt as framework grains (along and permeability variations with the causative controls
with the remains of planktic or benthic organisms, even determined through conventional petrography. The
nannofossils), then the basic particle-pore relationships main techniques now used for pore-system visualization
seen in coarser deposits also are present at this smaller are X-ray computed tomography, mainly at macro- to
scale. Primary intergranular or framework pores can be micropore scales, and a combination of ion-milling
seen between clays or between silt-sized terrigenous or and a variety of electron microscopic techniques at the
biogenic grains; there can be primary shelter pores where nano- to picopore levels. Together, these techniques
larger particles (platy detrital micas, shell fragments, and have revolutionized the ability to examine, identify
others) block influx of smaller particles; and there can be and measure pore geometries in a visual context (e.g.,
primary intragranular pores especially within organic Lindquist and Venkatarangan, 1999; Appoloni et al.,
remains (e.g., radiolarian tests, foraminiferal chambers, 2007; Loucks et al., 2009; Milner et al., 2010; Driskill et
coccospheres and coccolith plates, as well as plant remains al., 2013; Schieber, 2013; Ruppert et al., 2013). Some
and other particles of organic matter). One also can of these procedures are described and illustrated in
observe secondary moldic or intragranular pores from Chapter 24 (Techniques).

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 448 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks
Porosity trends (controls and predictive
models) – It is clearly beyond the scope of a book
on petrography to delve deeply into controls and
models of porosity preservation and generation.
Nonetheless, a few words on this topic seem
appropriate because many of the controls on
porosity loss or creation can only be recognized
with petrographic techniques.
As a starting point, it is worthwhile to look at
a plot of actual (that is measured, not modeled)
worldwide porosity-depth data for sandstone
petroleum reservoirs (Fig. 22.4). Although it
shows a moderately clear trend of porosity loss
with depth (marked by the 90th, 50th and 10th
percentile lines), there is, overall, a remarkable
diversity in the data. There are so many factors
that can affect porosity retention, destruction or
creation that virtually any porosity is possible at
almost any depth. In the words of Ajdukiewicz
and Lander (2010, p. 1089):

“What has been described as anomalous porosity

is in fact the high end of the range of possible
outcomes, where a particular combination of Figure 22.4: Average porosity versus top depth for global
grain size, sorting, composition, early diagenesis, petroleum reservoirs composed of sandstone. A few points with
and burial history have acted together values outside the plot axes were plotted at the limiting values. The
to minimize the effects of compaction and P90 line denotes points at which 90% of reservoirs have porosity
cementation and preserve the greatest amount of greater than this value, P50 denotes median values, and P10
porosity and permeability at depth.” denotes points at which 10% of reservoirs have porosity greater
than this value. The long-dashed green line is the porosity-depth
trend for Tertiary sands of south Louisiana (Atwater and Miller,
Many of these factors have been discussed 1965; using data plotted in Blatt et al., 1980, p. 419), an example of
in chapters on compaction, cementation and quartzose sandstones buried with low geothermal gradient (18°C/
dissolution (Chapters 10-19), but it may be worth km) and widespread overpressures. The short-dashed green line
reiterating the major processes than can help is the porosity-depth trend for the Middle Jurassic Garn Formation,
in porosity preservation (adapted mainly from offshore mid-Norway (Ehrenberg, 1990), an example of quartzose
Bloch et al., 2002; Ehrenberg and Nadeau, 2005; sandstones buried with moderate geothermal gradient (35°C/km).
and Taylor et al., 2010). Adapted from Ehrenberg and Nadeau (2005, p. 439).
1. Sediment composition (quartzose,
feldspathic or lithic-rich) is important, and cementation in quartz-rich as well as quartz-
because it influences the relative diagenetic poor lithologies;
potential of strata (especially potential for resisting 5. Burial history (burial trajectory) is important
compaction or for development of secondary because slow burial is more likely to allow
porosity); formation of cements that can retard compaction
2. Authigenic grain coating or rimming cements such as compared with rapid burial;
as chlorite, other clays, microquartz, iron oxides 6. Low thermal gradients can retard chemical
or other minerals can retard quartz overgrowth diagenesis, especially in quartzarenites, because
cementation (especially in detrital quartz-rich quartz cementation increases exponentially with
sandstones); increasing temperature.
3. Early hydrocarbon emplacement (especially with Although not all of these factors can be recognized
high hydrocarbon saturations and/or with oil as in petrographic studies, this list reinforces the fact that
the wetting phase) can retard further diagenetic petrographic information can and should be integrated
modifications; with more general depositional modeling and basin
4. Early (relatively shallow) development of fluid analysis (burial history, thermal history, hydrologic
overpressure can retard fluid flow, compaction models and the like) for maximum utility.

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 Chapter 22: Pore Types and Porosity 449

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

An example of a feldspathic quartzarenite

with mainly primary intergranular porosity
(approximately 24% total porosity based on
image analysis). The primary porosity has
been reduced slightly by quartz overgrowths
and minor kaolinite and dolomite cementation
along with minor compaction (note close grain
packing in some areas).

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

This photomicrograph shows a different area of

the same thin section from which the previous
image was taken. Note the much greater
extent of quartz-overgrowth cementation here,
and thus the far greater reduction of primary
intergranular porosity (about 10% total
porosity in this area based on image analysis,
essentially all of it primary). This variability
highlights the difficulty of getting meaningful
porosity data from single images or even single
thin sections. Nonetheless, petrographic study
of such variability can yield valuable insights
on the controls on porosity in units of interest.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Lo. Permian Park City Fm., Daggett

Co., Utah

Intergranular pores in a sandstone comprising

mainly quartz grains and chert rock fragments.
Some minor quartz overgrowths and thin clay
cements, along with compaction (evinced by
grain breakage), have reduced porosity. None-
theless, image analysis indicates that nearly
20% porosity remains (at least in the area of
this image), with nearly all of it primary.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.08mm

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 450 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Up. Mississippian Paradise Fm.,

Hidalgo Co., New Mexico

An example of a complex porosity history in

a strongly bioturbated, essentially nonporous
quartz arenite. The original intergranular
porosity has been occluded by cementation
with some areas cemented by hematite and
limonite and others by somewhat later quartz
overgrowths. At some stage in this porosi-
ty-loss scenario, there was selective retention
of porosity in the areas that are now quartz
cemented and the rock could have had reservoir
potential at that time.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Oligocene – Miocene Otekaike Fm.,

Canterbury, New Zealand

This is an example of a relatively uncommon

type of primary porosity in sandstones. Termed
intragranular porosity, it is especially common
within carbonate bioclasts, but it also can occur
in poorly cemented rock fragments and other
grains. In this sandy glauconite (greensand),
a probable scaphopod shell has retained a
large pore in its interior. It has been preserved
despite some compaction of the surrounding
glauconitic sediment (and some deformation of
the shell itself). Note the chemical embayment
of the carbonate grain exterior by the physi-
cally much softer glauconite grains.

PPL, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.34 mm

Mid. Permian Brushy Canyon Fm.,

Culberson Co., Texas

An example of completely cement-reduced

primary intragranular porosity. Here, a large
fusulinid foraminifer had numerous unfilled
living chambers (the gray-white areas within
the test) and thus considerable intragranular
porosity when originally deposited. Subse-
quently, all those pores, along with all the
intergranular pores in the adjacent sandstone,
were filled with fine- to medium-crystalline
calcite cement. A likely source of the some
calcite cement is the fusulinid test itself, as its
outer margin has been extensively dissolved
by pressure solution embayment from adjacent
quartz grains.

PPL, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 Chapter 22: Pore Types and Porosity 451

Lo. Oligocene Nile Gp., Westland,

New Zealand

An example of calcite cement-filled primary

shelter porosity in a sandy carbonate rock. A
large bivalve shell (subsequently dissolved,
calcite infilled, and then fractured) provided
the shelter that prevented sediment infiltration
to the area below it. Most shelter porosity, at
least on this large a scale, is provided by large
bioclasts. The odd coloration of this sample
results from carbonate staining of only the right
side of the sample. It shows early filling of
the void by nonferroan calcite (pink) with the
latest (cavity center) calcite having a slightly
more ferroan composition (pale purple).

PPL, AFeS, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Lo. Oligocene Nile Gp., Westland,

New Zealand

Another example of cement-filled primary

shelter porosity in a sandy limestone. An
echinoid test fragment (the perforated grain
that crosses the horizontal center of the
image) here precluded infiltration of overlying
sediment and thus protected a large shelter
pore. The shelter pore was later filled with two
stages of carbonate cement. The initial cement
rim (perhaps a fibrous high-Mg calcite) was
later dissolved to yield about 3% secondary
cement dissolution porosity.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Lo. Cretaceous (Albian) Nahr Umr

Fm., subsurface eastern Qatar

An example of intergranular porosity that

has been substantially reduced by siderite
cementation (now about 12% pore space).
Because the cements are so widespread and
retain considerable space between the crystals,
it is equally appropriate to call this preserved
intercrystalline porosity.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

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 452 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Eocene unknown unit, unknown

locality

An example of primary burrow porosity in a

strongly bioturbated crevasse-splay siltstone.
Here, the burrow fill has more porosity than
the surrounding sediment. Burrows can
have differential (greater or lesser) porosity
relative to their surroundings for a variety of
reasons including piping down of coarser or
finer sediment, differential sediment packing
(in many cases by the burrowing organism)
or chemical differences related to levels of
organic matter inside or along the walls of the
burrows. Slight horizontal lamination in the
burrow indicates that it may have been back-
filled by the organism (possibly Taenidium).

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.49 mm

Cretaceous Mowry Fm., Moffat Co.,

Colorado

Borings (along with filled and unfilled boring

porosity) in a phosphatic brachiopod. These
small borings show varied diagenetic histories.
A few were filled with surrounding sediment,
many were filled with precipitated iron sulfide
cements (mostly pyrite, but with some altered
to iron oxides or hydroxides), and many still
contain unfilled primary porosity (marked by
red-dyed epoxy fillings). Borings rarely con-
tribute substantially to overall rock porosity,
although they can be fairly extensive in slowly
deposited sediments associated with hiatal
intervals.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Mid. Jurassic Curtis Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

Borings within a bivalve shell in a glauconitic

sandstone. These are termed borings rather
than burrows because they are drilled or
dissolved into hard materials rather than soft
sediment. Initially these represented open,
boring porosity but those pores were subse-
quently filled, probably very early by adjacent
sediment. Many such borings, especially ones
produced by boring sponges, have very small
surface openings and large interior chambers
and those are less likely to become filled with
surrounding sediment.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 22: Pore Types and Porosity 453

Pleistocene – Holocene alluvium,

Canterbury, New Zealand
Shrinkage and root pores—exposure-related
(eogenetic) pore types from a calcareous soil
nodule in exposed terrigenous sands. An
open root trace (rhizolith) extends diagonally
across the view and is partially occluded with
cloudy-looking clay and carbonate cement
coatings. The largest pore in the image may
be a cross-section of a larger root. In addition,
many grains were dissolved to form moldic
pores; others grains are not dissolved but
show circumgranular shrinkage porosity and
additional shrinkage cracks are present. This
combination of features is characteristic of
subaerial exposure (e.g., Tandon and Friend,
1989). Total porosity is 18%.
PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Pleistocene – Holocene coastal

alluvium, Canterbury, New Zealand
An example of shrinkage porosity related to
circumgranular cracking in calcareous soil
nodules in the same sample as above. This
type of fabric typically is produced by repeated
wetting and drying (with associated shrinkage
and expansion) in soils and other surficial
materials so it is technically secondary, but
essentially synsedimentary. Note also the
presence of matrix cracks that also are a form
of shrinkage porosity (arrow) and possible root
traces in the upper center (root porosity) that
may help to connect the otherwise isolated
circumgranular shrinkage pores. Total porosity
in this area, as measured by image analysis, is
about 14%.
PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Miocene Lower Santa Fe Gp., Taos

Co., New Mexico

Secondary porosity formed by the dissolution

of detrital grains (most commonly feldspars,
heavy minerals or unstable rock fragments)
contributes to total porosity in many
diagenetically altered sandstones. In this
example, two rock fragments have undergone
significant removal of material—interstitial
carbonate (left) and constituent feldspars
(right). Although most of the secondary
porosity remains unfilled, a significant amount
of the original primary porosity was filled with
kaolinite (the cloudy and patchy white material
in the image) which itself has considerable
intercrystalline porosity.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 454 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Eocene Green River Fm., Laney

Mbr., Fremont Co., Wyoming

Grain dissolution has added some moldic pores

to the moderate intergranular porosity in this
immature (poorly-sorted and poorly-rounded)
sandstone. Because these molds have neither
any remnants of the original grains nor any
distinctive crystal shapes, it is not possible to
determine what materials have been leached.
Nonetheless, hydrologists and petroleum
geologists can still be pleased with the added
pore space. The absence of any cements in the
largest mold, however, always raises concern
that such pores could be artifacts of grain
plucking prior to sample impregnation.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Lo.–Mid. Eocene Cub Mountain

Fm., Lincoln Co., New Mexico

In many arkosic sandstones, feldspar dis-

solution is the most important source of
secondary porosity. In this example, the yel-
low-stained (sodium cobaltinitrite) K-feldspars
have undergone incipient, selective dissolution
along compositional zones, cleavage planes
and fractures. Some other dissolution pores are
present in the rock, along with minor remnants
of primary intergranular porosity. However,
the majority of the original intergranular
porosity has been destroyed by compaction, at
least in this area of the sample.

PPL, KFS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Lo. Pennsylvanian Morrow B

Sandstone, Ochiltree Co., Texas

An example of a rock with almost no primary

porosity retention and with substantial
secondary porosity development. The
primary pores here were filled with eogenetic
sphaerosiderite (probably of paleosol origin).
Subsequent extensive dissolution of the
detrital plagioclase feldspar grains at image
center produced moldic pores that were
reduced slightly by compaction and authigenic
cements. Minor, secondary pores also were
created through later-stage quartz fracturing; it
is volumetrically minor, but could be important
in providing permeability pathways between
otherwise isolated moldic pores.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

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 Chapter 22: Pore Types and Porosity 455

Up. Cretaceous Prince Creek Fm.,

North Slope, Alaska
The inclusion-rich orthoclase feldspar (center)
has a euhedral, inclusion-poor overgrowth.
Later partial dissolution of less stable areas
created secondary moldic pores within the
feldspar grain. Using graphics programs, one
can artificially color specific pore types (such as
the red color in secondary pores in this image).
Utilizing image processing programs (e.g.,
NIH’s free ImageJ), one can determine the per-
centages of each color. Here, total porosity is
38% (23% primary and 15% secondary). Such
analysis depends on the accuracy of pore type
identifications and generally does not accu-
rately reflect small micropores and nanopores.

PPL | COL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.04 mm

Lo. Pennsylvanian Morrow B

Sandstone, Ochiltree Co., Texas

Secondary moldic (feldspar dissolution) pores

commonly can become occluded by cement.
In this case kaolinite cements (the granular
pink and black areas) filled both primary and
secondary pores. Thus, the main pores now
are intercrystalline, within the pore-filling,
vermicular kaolinite booklets. Kaolinite
cement typically is very porous (as shown by
the red dye impregnation and the dark, residual
hydrocarbon staining) and gives the pores a
characteristic granular to cloudy appearance.
Total image analysis porosity for this sample is
20.2%, but such analysis is less accurate with
intercrystalline microporosity.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Eocene Cub Mountain Fm., Lincoln

Co., New Mexico

This high-magnification view shows ver-

micular kaolinite filling a mix of primary
intergranular and feldspar dissolution (moldic)
porosity. The individual booklets, and the
associated intracrystalline porosity, are clearly
visible at this scale. Total porosity in this
sample is 25.5% based on image analysis,
but such analysis is difficult with the diffuse
boundaries between pores and clay packets in
kaolinitic areas.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

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 456 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Jurassic Morrison Fm., Moffat Co.,

Colorado

In many lower magnification views, kaolinite

fillings of primary or secondary pores just
appear cloudy. Imaging with fluorescence
microscopy, as in the view on the right,
sometimes can help to resolve the individual
booklets and the associated intercrystalline
porosity. It is the fluorescent dye in the epoxy
that is luminescent here.

PPL | FL470, RDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Mid. Eocene – Lo. Oligocene

Spears Gp., Socorro Co., New
Mexico

Secondary (moldic) porosity resulting from

feldspar dissolution can be partially reduced or
completely occluded by a variety of cements
other than kaolinite. In this example, the
exterior of the grain was albitized and the
rest of the feldspar was dissolved (based
on the absence of feldspar remnants in the
grain interior). Subsequently, albite crystals
grew inward from the rim, and later, much
of the remaining large void was cemented by
coarsely crystalline calcite. The calcite was
later partially corroded to produce a second
stage of dissolution porosity.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.07 mm

Lo. Cretaceous (Albian) Nahr Umr

Fm., subsurface eastern Qatar

Many grains other than feldspars or rock

fragments can undergo dissolution to create
secondary (moldic) pores. This is an example
of mixed pore types in a siderite-cemented,
chamosite ooid-rich, glauconitic quartz
arenite. The chamosite ooids probably had
berthierine interlayers that were selectively
leached to form secondary moldic (oomoldic)
porosity that was later reduced by compaction.
Some primary porosity has been retained in
this sample, although it has been reduced both
by compaction and by extensive siderite pre-
cipitation (purple-stained crystals).

PPL, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 22: Pore Types and Porosity 457

Mid.? Permian (former Ufimian)

Solikamskaya Horizon, near
Solikamsk, Perm region, Russia

An example of large (although somewhat

isolated) moldic pores in a dolomitic shale.
In this case, the pores are related to the dis-
solution of evaporite nodules (typically com-
posites of thousands of small crystal fragments
rather than a single crystal). Because there
are neither remnants of the original mineral
nor distinctive crystal outlines, one can only
surmise that these were anhydrite nodules.
These moldic pores were slightly reduced
by dolomite precipitation around the void
margins, but this area of the sample still retains
about 30% secondary porosity.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Cretaceous Dakota Gp., Moffat Co.,

Colorado

In this example, detrital chert grains (left and

right of center in this image) underwent dis-
solution but did not produce large secondary
pores. Instead, they developed disseminated
micropores commensurate with their micron-
scale crystal structure (as reflected by the pink
color). Chert dissolution can occur in asso-
ciation with exposure-related meteoric fluid
influx (Shanmugam and Higgins, 1988). The
secondary micropores makes the grains easy
to confuse with kaolinite cemented molds.
Extensive quartz overgrowths greatly reduced
primary intergranular porosity here, yielding a
total of only 5% total porosity in this sample.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

Mixed primary and crystal-moldic secondary

pores are present in this porous sandstone
(36% measured porosity in this image). The
primary intergranular pores were reduced by
minor quartz overgrowths and significant pre-
cipitation of zoned dolomite and/or ankerite
cements. The carbonate crystals subsequently
were dissolved almost completely, leaving
behind remnants of the chemically most stable
zones and iron oxides, both of which preserve
the euhedral outlines of the precursor crystals.
Thus, these are best termed dolomite/ankerite
crystal-moldic pores rather than less specific
cement-dissolution pores.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.04 mm

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 458 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Eocene Galisteo Fm., Sandoval

Co., New Mexico

An example of several pore types including

primary intergranular and secondary crystal
moldic. The crystal-moldic pores are the ones
of special interest here and they reflect selective
dissolution of particular zones of dolomite
cements that had partially occluded primary
intragranular pores. The cores and outermost
zones of the dolomite were compositionally
more stable than the intervening zones during
the dissolution event. The fact that both the
crystal outline and some of the original crystal
remain allow these to be called “crystal-moldic
pores” rather than “cement dissolution pores”.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Pennsylvanian Morrow B
Sandstone, Ochiltree Co., Texas

Unlike the crystal-moldic porosity shown in

the previous two examples, this image and
the next show more irregular dissolution of
cements that, if carried to completion, would
leave little evidence of the former existence of
carbonate cements. In this case, the corrosion is
attacking coarsely crystalline ankerite cements
that postdate small quartz overgrowths. In the
context of the entire sample, cement disso-
lution pores are a significant part of the total
porosity.

PPL | XPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Eocene Galisteo Fm., Sandoval Co.

New Mexico

An example of extensive corrosion of calcite

cements in a lithic arenite. Here, irregular
patches of dissolution have given a Swiss
cheese (Emmentaler/Jarlsberg) appearance to
the calcites. Many of the dissolution pores
have rectilinear outlines, perhaps following
cleavage lines or reflecting selective disso-
lution of former small dolomite inclusions
within the calcite. However, the overall pore
pattern created by such patchy leaching is best
described as “cement dissolution pores”.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 22: Pore Types and Porosity 459

Miocene Santa Fe Gp., Zia Fm.,

Cerro Conejo Mbr., Sandoval Co.,
New Mexico

Patchy cementation in a concretion led to

localized fluid-flow in this alluvial sandstone;
associated dissolution, probably of unstable
rock fragments, resulted in formation of
secondary vuggy porosity. A vug is loosely
defined as a cavity larger than the surrounding
grains (and thus, one that had to have formed
both by the dissolution of multiple particles and
after sufficient lithification of the surrounding
material to support such a large pore). In this
case, the vug also appears to have associated
solution-enlarged fluid pathways (termed
channel porosity).

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Up. Cretaceous Mesaverde Gp.,

McKinley Co., New Mexico

Fracture porosity is the one form of secondary

porosity that, initially at least, produces an
increase in overall porosity (as opposed to
dissolution porosity which may be offset by
cementation in other pores). Fractures can
occur either within shattered grains, as in this
example, or as larger, through-going features
that transect broader areas. Here, the porosity
within shattered grains is the main pore type,
but it is supplemented by minor grain disso-
lution and some circumgranular fracturing.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.15 mm

Up. Permian Schuchert Dal Fm.,

Jameson Land, East Greenland

An example of small-scale, circumgranular

fracture development around a large
polycrystalline quartz grain (center) as well as
many others. Such fractures can be developed
in sheared rocks or in deformation bands
and can be significant contributors to rock
permeability. Such unhealed fractures also
can be produced by poor sample collection
and handling. The completely uncemented
fractures here postdate late-stage, highly
ferroan calcite in matrix pores and so are either
produced during uplift (telogenesis) or by
sampling/preparation.

PPL, AFeS, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 460 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Lo.–Mid. Eocene Cub Mountain

Fm., Lincoln Co., New Mexico

Compaction or other compressive deformation

can lead to secondary intragranular pore
development within micas in a surprising
number of cases. There is probably little net
addition of porosity, however, as the micas can
only expand into whatever nearby primary or
secondary pores existed at the time of defor-
mation.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.05 mm

Lo. Pennsylvanian Morrow B

Sandstone, Ochiltree Co., Texas

An example of multiple bedding-parallel

fractures that are common in laminated or
fissile mudrocks (here constituting about 15%
pore space). In the absence of any traces of
cementation or hydrocarbon staining, as in
this case, one should be very cautious in
interpreting these as natural fractures, because
they could be (and in this case, most likely
are) a result of coring, core storage and sample
desiccation or thin section preparation.

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

Mississippian Paradise Fm.,

Hidalgo Co., New Mexico

An example of intersecting fractures that

clearly are natural and not induced by sampling
or section preparation because they contain
some diagenetic precipitates. Although
they still have porosity, they show irregular
formation of cement linings, consisting of
clays as well as aphanocrystalline calcite. So
this is an example of cement-reduced fracture
porosity.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 22: Pore Types and Porosity 461

Up. Cretaceous Rio Ancho Fm., La

Guajira Department, Colombia

Multiple generations of healed, cross-cutting

fractures are seen in this radiolarian chert
The earlier set of almost exclusively vertical
fractures are quartz-filled (not surprising in a
radiolarian chert in which opaline silica would
be available early in the diagenetic history).
The second set of fractures have horizontal
and vertical orientations, clearly cut the earlier
fractures and are completely filled with calcite
that has undergone continued shearing. This
is an example of quartz- and calcite-occluded
fracture porosity.

XPL, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Mid. Jurassic Entrada Fm., Moffat

Co., Colorado

This image shows a small portion of a large

fracture that was occluded by a combination
of calcite and kaolinite cements. In this
example, the fracture retains none of its
original porosity and even the kaolinite has
virtually no microporosity (as shown by lack
of blue dye in the central area of the image).
The calcite-filled areas were initially reduced
to essentially no porosity. However, subse-
quent dissolution of small, irregular areas in
the calcite created pores (now marked by blue
dye). These are best described as secondary
cement-dissolution pores rather than fracture
or crystal-moldic pores.

PPL | XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Cretaceous Mesaverde Gp.,

Piceance Basin, Colorado

This large fracture retains substantial porosity

despite thick linings of calcite (and possibly
some dolomite) on both walls. Equally
significant from a hydrocarbon exploration
viewpoint are the thin hydrocarbon residues on
the pore walls indicating that these fractures,
in a core from about 1,750 m (5,740 ft) depth,
have acted as conduits for oil migration. Some
leached porosity also is visible in the sandstone
matrix as well as in the fracture cements.

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.51 mm

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 462 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Pliocene – Pleistocene silcrete,

east coast, Aruba

Not all fractures, fracture fills and fracture

pores are mesogenetic or telogenetic. This
example shows a silcrete developed on a
reef terrace in rocks that have never left their
surficial setting and thus have undergone only
eogenetic diagenesis. Nonetheless, fractures
and vugs were generated by shrinkage, root
bioturbation and other soil-related processes
and the fracture pores were substantially filled
with multiple crusts of microquartz and iron
oxide/hydroxide. The result is a strongly
lithified duricrust (silcrete).

PPL / XPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.26 mm

Up. Cretaceous Mesaverde Gp.,

Piceance Basin, Colorado

A pressure solution surface in a sandstone

with small, elongate stylolite-associated pores.
It has been shown that load release and/or
focused fluid flow along impermeable clay-rich
stylolites can produce economically significant
porosity, especially in carbonate-rich rocks
(Carozzi and Von Bergen, 1987; Dawson,
1988) as can stylolite-associated fractures
(Nelson, 1981). However, such porosity also
can result from coring, return of unpressurized
core to the surface or desiccation of stored
samples prior to sectioning (and that may be
the case in this example).

PPL, BDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

Lo. Pennsylvanian Morrow B

Sandstone, Ochiltree Co., Texas

Stylolite-associated porosity along a thin

solution seam (and some smaller intergranular
stylolitic surfaces). The porosity seen here
may be related to load release during Tertiary
uplift of the area and/or with siderite disso-
lution along the solution surface (some siderite
remnants are still visible). Additional pores
are associated with small fractures in adjacent
crystals that may have resulted from stress
along this zone (Nelson, 1981).

PPL, RDI, Scale bar = 0.10 mm

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 Chapter 22: Pore Types and Porosity 463

Ordovician Utica Shale, New York

SEM image of an ion-milled sample

showing porous organic matter (kerogen) in
a carbonaceous shale. The organic matter
contains abundant very tiny pores (foam pores)
and large pores (bubble pores) that show 3D
pore throats connecting to pores deeper in
the sample; all the visible pores are likely
interconnected. This shale has been heated into
the dry-gas window. For more information on
such pore varieties in shales see Loucks et al.
(2012), Schieber (2013) and Loucks and Reed,
(2014).

SEM, Scale bar = 0.18 µm

Ordovician Utica Shale, New York

SEM image of an ion-milled shale sample

showing another example of organic matter
porosity in the Utica Shale. Organic matter
(OM) is interstitial between mineral grains
(Qtz=quartz; cc=calcite) and has well
developed pores (arrow). Note the bimodal
distribution of “foam” and “bubble” pores.

SEM, Scale bar = 0.25 µm

Ordovician Utica Shale, New York

SEM image of an ion-milled shale sample.

The conspicuous pore southwest of the image
center is framed by mineral grains (calcite). It
is an intergranular pore, and this type also has
been described as carbonate framework pores
(Schieber, 2013).

SEM, Scale bar = 0.93 µm

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 464 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Devonian Marcellus Shale, New

York

SEM image of an ion-milled shale sample

showing another pore category. These
pores are framed by clay minerals that were
cemented between diagenetic quartz grains.
Such intergranular pores have been described
as phyllosilicate framework pores (Schieber,
2013) and as clay framework pores in this
book. They have characteristic triangular
cross-sections.

SEM, Scale bar = 0.54 µm

Devonian New Albany Shale,

Indiana

SEM image of an ion-milled shale sample

showing secondary porosity in a carbonaceous
shale. The pore in the center of the image was
once occupied by dolomite, which largely was
dissolved due to contact with organic acids that
formed during diagenesis (Schieber, 2013).
Such secondary pores can contribute signifi-
cantly to overall porosity.

SEM, Scale bar = 1.83 µm

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 Glossary 495

Glossary
Accessory heavy mineral – A mineral whose presence in associated with iron ores and commonly forms as thin
veins associated with coal seams.
a rock is not essential to the proper classification of the
rock and that has a specific gravity above 2.85. Antiperthite – An alkali feldspar in which exsolution has
created parallel or subparallel intergrowths of potassium–
Accessory light mineral – A mineral whose presence in a rich feldspar (typically orthoclase) within a sodium–rich
rock is not essential to the proper classification of the rock feldspar host (albite, oligoclase or andesine).
and that has a specific gravity of 2.85 or less.
Apatite – A group of natural, variously colored, hexagonal
Acicular – used to describe needle-like shape. Commonly minerals with the general composition of calcium fluoride
refers to crystals, especially mineral inclusions or phosphate, Ca5F(PO4)3 and with chlorine, hydroxyl or
authigenic minerals. carbonate sometimes replacing the fluoride. Includes
Agglutinated – Refers to a shell, test or other structure specific minerals such fluorapatite, hydroxylapatite,
produced by an organism by gluing together (agglutinating) chlorapatite, carbonate–apatite and francolite. Most
sedimentary particles. Especially common in foraminifera, commonly, when no more specific composition is indicated,
tintinnids and tube-building worms (serpulids and others). the mineral referred to is fluorapatite.
Some organisms selectively choose specific particles to Arenite – A consolidated sedimentary rock consisting primarily
form such structures (such as the terrigenous sand grains of sand–sized particles, regardless of composition. For
used to produce the arenaceous tests of some benthic finer grained rocks the terms lutite or wacke are used; for
foraminifera). coarser grained ones, rudite is applied.
Albite twin (Albite law twinning) – Twinning in triclinic Argillaceous – Pertaining to a sediment or sedimentary rock
feldspars in which the twin plane and compositional plane containing clay–size particles; clayey or shaly.
are (010). Such twinning is generally lamellar and multiple
and shows fine striations on the (010) cleavage plane. Arkose – A sandstone rich in feldspars (although generally
the feldspars are subordinate to quartz). Arkoses are
Albitization – Replacement of a grain, typically a more calcic commonly coarse grained and can resemble a granite in
plagioclase feldspar, by albite. texture and color, mainly because many arkoses are the
Alkali feldspars – The group of feldspars falling along the product of weathering and disintegration of igneous and
solid-solution line between potassium (orthoclase) and metamorphic (and especially granitic) rocks. The exact
sodium (albite) feldspars. The alkali feldspars include percentage of feldspar required to call a rock an arkose
anorthoclase, microcline, orthoclase and sanidine; albite varies in different compositional classification schemes
is considered the end–member in the alkali feldspar group (see chapter on classification), but in most 25% is the
or the plagioclase feldspar group depending on its calcium lower limit. Feldspathic arenite is a synonymous term
content. used in some recent classifications.
Allochthonous – Refers to material formed or produced at Authigenic – Rock constituents and minerals that crystallized
a site other than its present location; material of foreign or precipitated locally at the spot where they are now found
origin. In the context of carbonate strata, the term normally (Holmes, 1928). Contrast with allogenic.
refers to grains produced in one environment that are later Axiolitic - A microscopic fabric composed of elongate fibers
reworked to another setting through the action of storms, of alkali feldspar intergrown with cristobalite; commonly
debris flows or other transport processes. these crystals have nucleated and grown from the sides of
Amygdule (alt. amygdale) – A vesicle in a volcanic rock a linear fracture within rhyolitic glass.
formed by a gas bubble in the original lava; generally a
cavity filed with a cement such as quartz, calcite, clays or Baroque dolomite – see Saddle dolomite
zeolites. Bauxite (lateritic bauxite) – A rock formed by tropical
Anaerobic – Refers to an environment characterized by an weathering of other rocks. It is the main ore for aluminum
absence of oxygen or a process that proceeds in such an production. It consists mainly of aluminum hydroxide
environment. An anaerobic organism or anaerobe is any minerals (gibbsite, boehmite, and diaspore) along with
organism that can or must live without oxygen. iron oxides and commonly displays a pisolitic texture.
Anhedral – Descriptive of a single crystal or crystal fabric Bentonite – An absorbant, impure clay consisting mostly
that does not show well-defined or typical crystallographic of montmorillonite and generally formed though the
forms (i.e., crystal faces are absent). Coined by Pettijohn weathering of volcanic ash, typically in the presence
(1957); see also Friedman (1965). of water. Completely devitrified ash-fall deposits are
commonly referred to as K-bentonites when the dominant
Ankerite – A white, red or grayish iron–rich mineral related
clay species is illite.
to dolomite: Ca(Fe,Mg,Mn)(CO3)2. Some use the term
as synonymous with ferroan dolomite; others restrict it Biaxial – A biaxial mineral has two optic axes. This means
to crystals in which the Mg:Fe ratio is less than 4. It is that there are two directions along which light shows no

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birefringence and vibrates in a circular section with a unique importance, especially along fracture zones (fracture
constant refractive index. Biaxial minerals crystallize in breccias), dissolution features (solution breccias), or, less
the orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic systems. commonly, in debris flows (depositional breccias). See
Bimodal sediment – A sediment whose particle size Choquette and Pray (1970, p. 244).
distribution shows two maxima (with lesser abundances Burrow / burrow porosity – A feature created by organic
of material in other size grades). Common in some river burrowing in relatively unconsolidated sediment, in contrast
gravels and eolian sand deposits. to borings, which form in lithified particles or sediments.
Bioturbation – The mixing or stirring of sediment by plants Most burrows collapse, become filled with sediment or are
or burrowing organisms. back–filled by the burrow–forming organism itself. Thus,
burrows rarely form discrete macroporosity although they
Birefringence – The property of a crystal to split a beam of may affect interparticle pore space distribution (Choquette
light into two beams of unequal velocities based on the and Pray, 1970, p. 244).
difference between the greatest and the least indices of
refraction of that crystal. Under a polarizing microscope
(in cross–polarized light), the degree of birefringence is
C
alclithite – A rock formed chiefly of carbonate clasts
(extraclasts) derived from older, lithified limestone,
shown as “interference colors” which are a function of the generally external to the contemporaneous depositional
mineral type, orientation and thickness of the sample, as system. Commonly located along downthrown sides of
well as the character of the light. Crystals in the cubic class fault scarps. Term coined by Folk (1959).
typically do not exhibit birefringence and are known as
isotropic minerals. Crystals in the hexagonal, tetragonal, Calcrete – A hard, erosion-resistant layer of surficial sand
and trigonal crystal classes exhibit birefringence and are and/or gravel that has been cemented by calcium
termed uniaxial minerals. Orthorhombic, monoclinic, carbonate (typically low-Mg calcite) to form a duricrust.
triclinic classes exhibit three indices of refraction and Caliche – Surficial material such as sand-, gravel-, or cobble-
are therefore trirefringent (generally termed biaxial).  sized materials that are cemented by calcium carbonate
Birefringence is also known as double refraction. in arid climates as a result of evaporative concentration of
Bitumen – Generally refers to the spectrum of natural CaCO3 in surface pore waters. Commonly characterized
flammable hydrocarbons (petroleum, asphalt, mineral by crusts, pisoids, reverse grading, autofracturing, and
wax, etc.), including semisolid and solid admixtures with microstalactitic textures.
mineral matter. Carlsbad twin (Carlsbad law twinning) – Penetration
Boehm lamellae – Multiple, subparallel, planar structural twinning, particularly in orthoclase, in which the twin axis
lines or bands in deformed mineral grains, especially parallels the crystallographic c–axis and the twin surface
quartz, consisting of minute (micron–sized or smaller) is irregular.
fluid–filled inclusions. They can be found in detrital grains Cathodoluminescence – The emission of characteristic
or can be produced in situ through deformation of a visible luminescence by a substance when bombarded by
sedimentary rock. an electron stream or ionized gas beam.
Botryoid (botryoidal) – texture or mineral habit is one in Cement – Mineral material, generally precipitated, that
which the mineral has a globular, spherical or hemispherical occurs in the spaces between or within individual grains
external form resembling a bunch of grapes. Generally (or grain molds) in a consolidated or partially consolidated
produced by layered precipitation with numerous small sedimentary rock. The process of cement formation is
crystals oriented either parallel or perpendicular to the termed cementation.
botryoid surface. A common growth form for hematite, Chalcedony – A cryptocrystalline variety of silica, commonly
aragonite, chalcedony, malachite and many other minerals. microscopically fibrous, with lower indices of refraction
Boudinage – A lenticular structure common in deformed and mineral density than quartz. Chalcedony was
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, resulting from the formerly considered to be fibrous quartz with crystallites
stretching, thinning and breaking of a competent bed oriented either parallel or perpendicular to long axes of
within less competent strata resembling boudins (a string the fibers. It is now considered to be an intergrowth of
of sausages) in cross–section. triclinic cryptocrystalline quartz and a quartz polymorph,
Breccia – A rock structure marked by an accumulation of monoclinic moganite.
angular fragments, or of an ore texture showing mineral Chert – A hard, dense, dull to semi–vitreous, cryptocrystalline
fragments without notable rounding. Major types of sedimentary rock, composed of variable amounts of silica
breccias in carbonate strata include fracture breccias mainly in the form of microcrystalline quartz; may contain
associated with structural features or solution–collapse minor carbonate, iron oxide or other impurities.
breccias typically associated with removal of associated Circumgranular cracks – Irregular to globular masses
evaporites or cavern formation and collapse in limestones. of sediment separated by nontectonic fractures and
Breccia porosity – The type of interparticle porosity in a produced by alternate shrinkage and expansion are
breccia. Breccias are rather common in many carbonate termed circumgranular cracks (Swineford, et al., 1958;
facies, but breccia porosity is only locally of quantitative Esteban and Klappa, 1983). A common feature in soils in

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 Glossary 497

general and caliche in particular. of mineral cement within the spaces between the sediment
Clastic – As used by most sedimentary petrologists the grains. Most, but not all, concretions are spherical or oblate
term refers a rock composed of particles that have been and form around a nucleation site (commonly a fossil shell
mechanically transported, at least locally. (Note that most or particulate organic matter). Concretions are distinct in
field mappers use clastic for terrigenous rocks as opposed composition from surrounding rock and can consist of a
to limestones). variety of materials including calcite or dolomite, calcium
phosphate, silica, pyrite or iron oxides.
Clay – A dual use term that to most sedimentologists denotes
particles smaller than 4-5 microns in size. Soil scientists Cutan – A pedological feature (crust or grain coating) which
prefer to use the term for materials composed of particles can be used as diagnostic indicator of paleosol formation
smaller than 2 microns in size. Sometimes the term “clay” when composed of clay minerals. Defined by Brewer
is also used to refer to clay minerals. Because of that, (1964) as “a modification of the texture, structure or fabric
considerable confusion arises from the fact that the term at natural surfaces in soil materials due to the concentration
is also used to describe sediments and soil residuals that of soil constituents or in–place modifications of the plasma
are strongly dominated by clay minerals (these have been (relatively unstable soil matrix).” See Esteban and Klappa
termed claystones in various studies). (1983).
Clay mineral – Hydrous phyllosilicate minerals (e.g. kaolin,
chlorite, smectite or illite group) that contain aluminum,
Dedolomite – an informal term used to describe the
diagenetic replacement of dolomite by calcite, a process
magnesium, iron and potassium and whose basic structure that occurs most commonly in eogenetic or telogenetic
comprises layers of silica tetrahedrons that are arranged settings where calcium sulfates are undergoing dissolution.
in a hexagonal mesh pattern, similar to what is seen in “Calcitized dolomite” is generally a better term to use as it
micas. Clay minerals are common as alteration products more clearly specifies the end product.
of silicate minerals and may also form authigenic cements.
Clay minerals are commonly, but not always, fine grained Deformation lamellae – Narrow, planar crystallographically
and require XRD and/or SEM for accurate identification. oriented zones with refractive index slightly different from
that of the adjacent grain. Typical of low-temperature
Claystone – A clastic sedimentary rock composed primarily deformation.
of clay-sized particles (the minimum percentage of
clay varies in specific classifications). Where fissile or Deformation twins – Lamellar (not simple) twins formed by
laminated it may also be termed a shale, although shale, deformation. They are commonly tapering or lenticular,
claystone and mudstone are used as virtual synonyms by with pointed terminations.
many workers (see discussion in Chapter 7). Desiccation – The state or process of being desiccated; a
Cleavage – The fracturing or breakage of a mineral along its state of extreme water removal and dryness.
crystallographic planes; cleavage is, therefore, a reflection Detrital – Used in different ways by different authors and
of crystal structure. hence largely undefinable out of context. Sometimes
Coccolith / coccosphere – Coccoliths are individual, synonymous with clastic, sometimes with terrigenous,
typically micron-scale plates or shields of calcite formed and sometimes restricted to rocks composed of broken
by coccolithophores (single-celled algae). In life, the fragments of older rocks.
coccoliths overlap and interlock to form a coccosphere Devitrified – A formerly glassy volcanic deposit that has
which surrounds the protoplasm of the coccolithophore. been replaced by crystalline material; devitrification refers
Coccoliths and their constituent calcite crystals are the to the process of such replacement.
dominant grains in chalks (principally Cretaceous-Recent),
and are relatively common in other marine sediments. Diagenesis – Any physical or chemical changes in sediments
or sedimentary rocks that occur after deposition, excluding
Collophane – A carbonate–hydroxyl–fluorapatite. This processes involving high enough temperature and
colorless, gray or yellowish brown to dark brown, pressure to be called metamorphism.
amorphous, calcium phosphate mineral is a common
constituent of some skeletal materials and phosphatic Diatoms – A siliceous group of algae (phytoplankton) that is
marine sediments. It has extremely low birefringence the main constituent of the sediment diatomite. Diatom
(virtually isotropic) when viewed in thin section. shells are called frustules and are made of opal-A. With
time and temperature this changes to opal-CT and
Comb structure – A fabric of crystals (commonly quartz) eventually quartz. The resulting rock from this change
growing perpendicular to the wall of a vein and indicating within diatomite is called porcellanite (a type of chert).
infilling of an open fracture. Diatoms are most commonly preserved in rocks younger
Conchoidal fracture – A term denoting a type of fracture than Cretaceous age.
in a brittle materials (such as flint or quartz) that does not Diffusion – The movement of matter by the mixing or
follow natural planes of separation but rather results in a transport of molecules and ions from regions of higher
smooth rounded or scalloped surface. concentration to lower concentration. Diffusion of elements
Concretion – A hard, compact mass within a sedimentary within pore fluids is a slow, complex and often poorly
rock formed by the localized postdepositional precipitation understood process.

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Dissolution – A surface or subsurface diagenetic process by Equant – Referring to equal dimensions in a crystal, either
which minerals are removed in aqueous solutions. The within a clast or an authigenic mineral.
solubility of individual minerals, temperature, pH, fluid flow Equigranular – Even grained. This is a term mainly used
rates and other conditions govern the removal rates of for igneous and metamorphic rocks, but is also useful in
material. sandstones and when describing textures in rock fragment.
Dolomite – A term used for both a mineral and a rock. Euhedral – A term used in reference to crystals that are
Dolomite is a widespread, rock–forming, rhombohedral well–formed with sharp, clearly recognizable faces. The
mineral consisting of CaMg(CO3)2. Part of the magnesium antonym is “anhedral”.
may be replaced by iron or manganese. Dolomite is
typically colorless or white but may be tinted reddish, Evaporite – A nonclastic sedimentary rock composed
brown, yellow, etc. It has perfect cleavage and effervesces primarily of minerals produced from a saline solution as
feebly in cold, dilute HCl. Dolomite occurs most commonly a result of extensive or total evaporation of the parent
as a replacement of calcium carbonate minerals. The term solution. Gypsum, anhydrite and halite are the most
is also used (following Kay, 1951) for a rock composed common evaporite minerals in carbonate strata, but
predominantly of the mineral dolomite although the term celestine, sylvite, and many other less common minerals
“dolostone” is preferable. also fall in this category.
Dolomitization – The formation of dolomite via the alteration Exsolution (exsolution lamellae) – Exsolution is a process
and replacement of calcium carbonate. Replacement in which a solid solution phase unmixes into two separate
involves substituting Mg for roughly half the Ca in the phases in the solid state. That process typically proceeds
calcium carbonate and in true (ordered) dolomite, that during cooling through the growth of lamellae within the
substitution produces alternating CaCO3 and MgCO3 original host crystal. This process is especially common
layers. in alkali feldspars and pyroxenes and alkali feldspars that
show exsolution lamellae are termed perthites.
Ductile deformation – Behavior in which rocks, at a critical
stress, do not rupture but instead become permanently Extinction – The complete dimming of cross-polarized light
deformed by flowing (as opposed to brittle deformation in when viewed through a crystal in thin section. Isotropic
which materials rupture by fracturing and faulting). minerals, opaque minerals, or amorphous materials
(glass) display constant extinction. Anisotropic minerals
Dysaerobic – Broadly refers to an environment or biozone will show one extinction for each 90 degrees of stage
with lower than normal oxygen levels; specific dissolved rotation. The extinction angle is the measure between the
oxygen levels differ amongst users but are generally cleavage direction or habit of a mineral and the extinction.
between 0.1 and 2.0 ml/l (e.g., Tyson and Pearson., 1991).
Extraclast – A detrital grain of lithified carbonate sediment
Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry (EDS or EDX) (lithoclast) derived from outside the depositional area of
current sedimentation. The rock composed of these grains
– A microanalytical technique used in conjunction with
scanning electron microscopy to identify the elemental would be a calclithite. See also intraclast (Folk, 1959).
composition of a sample by measuring the energy
spectrum of X-rays emitted from the specimen as a result Fabric – The arrangement of grains and/or crystals in a
of electron bombardment. rock in terms of their sizes, shapes and orientations.
Eogenetic stage or eogenesis – Broadly equivalent to early Fecal pellet – organic excrement, mainly from invertebrate
diagenesis. More formally “the time interval between final organisms generally found as ovoid or rod-shaped grains
deposition and burial of the newly deposited sediment or in modern sediment or ancient rocks.
rock below the depth of significant influence by processes Feldspar – Any of a number of common rock–forming
that either operate from the surface or depend for their minerals with the general formula XAl(AlSi)3O8 where X
effectiveness on proximity to the surface” (Choquette most commonly is K, Ca or Na but can rarely also be Ba,
and Pray, 1970, p. 219). Depositional and meteoric pore Rb, Sr or Fe. Feldspars are the most common group of
waters dominate and processes such as soil formation, minerals, constituting nearly 60% of the Earth’s crust.
weathering and bacterially mediated reactions may take Their susceptibility to physical and chemical weathering
place. and abrasion, however, make them less abundant in
Eolian (alt. aeolian) – Refers to processes and products terrigenous sediments than quartz.
related to the activity of winds. Winds may erode, Feldspathic – Refers to a rock containing feldspars. Used
transport, and deposit materials, and are most effective in in some rock classifications to connote a feldspar–rich
arid regions with sparse vegetation and a large supply of rock (as in feldspathic arenite, subfeldspathic arenite,
unconsolidated materials. feldspathic wacke, etc.; other classifications use the terms
Epigenetic – Pertaining to sedimentary structures, arkose or subarkose for such rocks).
minerals, and mineral deposits formed after deposition, Felsic – Having the composition of granite or rhyolite.
at low temperatures and pressures (a definable stage of
diagenesis). Fenestrae (fenestral fabric or fenestral pores) – Primary

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or penecontemporaneous gaps in rock framework larger
than grain-supported interstices. Such features may be Gazzi–Dickinson method – A  point–counting  technique
open pores or may have been partially or completely filled used to statistically measure the components of
with internal sediment and/or cement. Fenestrae occur a sedimentary rock, typically sandstone. The main
as somewhat rounded features of spherical, lenticular, distinguishing feature of the technique is counting all sand–
or more irregular shapes; their large size in comparison sized components as separate grains, regardless of what
to normal intergranular openings and their multigranular they are incorporated within (e.g. a sand–sized feldspar
roofs, floors, and other margins are key characteristics. within a large volcanic rock fragment would be counted as
Fenestrae are commonly somewhat flattened parallel a feldspar). Gazzi–Dickinson point counting is used in the
with the laminae or stratigraphic planes of the rock. They construction of ternary diagrams, such as QFL diagrams
may, however, be round or very irregular, and some are (see Ingersoll et al., 1984).
elongate in a vertical dimension. Fenestrae are commonly Geopetal structure – Any internal structure or organization
associated with carbonate (and also siliciclastic) microbial of a rock indicating original orientation such as top and
mats and can result from shrinkage, gas formation, organic bottom of strata. Common examples are internal sediment
decay, or other synsedimentary processes. accumulating on the floor of a cavity which it partly fills or
Ferricrete – A hard, erosion-resistant layer of surficial sand solution–collapse residue that has fallen to the bottom of
and/or gravel that has been cemented by iron oxides a vug or cave.
(primarily hematite) to form a duricrust. Glaebule – A soil feature, usually equant, prolate or irregular
Ferroan dolomite – A mineral that is intermediate in in shape, and generally a nodule or concretion that has not
composition between dolomite and ferrodolomite. That precipitated in a preexisting void space (see Esteban and
is, it has some degree of substitution of Fe for Mg in the Klappa, 1983, p. 28–29). In caliche profiles, glaebules
dolomite lattice (typically from 1% to slightly more than consist of discrete, powdery to indurated concentrations
50%). Some workers use it as a synonym of ankerite; of calcite, commonly with some degree of concentric
others restrict it to crystals in which the Mg:Fe ratio is structure (see also pisoids).
greater than 4. Grains – A general term used to describe silt– and larger–
sized sediment particles. Grains can be monocrystalline
Flame structure – A sedimentary structure consisting of
(e.g. a feldspar grain) or can be can be polycrystalline
wave- or flame-shaped plumes of mudrock that have
(e.g., rock fragment).
been squeezed into overlying layers by a combination of
sediment load casting and horizontal hydraulic shear or Granophyric texture – A micrographic intergrowth of quartz
drag. Term introduced by Walton (1956). and alkali feldspar, where the minerals have crystallized
together. The term is not synonymous with micrographic
Flocculation – The separation of solid particles, especially
since this can be used for intergrowth of other minerals.
clays, from a liquid to form loose, fluffy aggregations or
soft flakes (flocs). Flocculation typically occurs as a result Grid twinning – see Microcline twinning
of interactions between the clay particles and another
substance, most commonly salt water. Hardground – A zone at the sea floor, generally a few
centimeters thick, in which the sediment was lithified
Fluorescence microscopy – The use of light of specific
to form a hardened surface; commonly encrusted,
wave lengths to stimulate a sample and excite the natural
discolored, hardened by calcium carbonate, phosphate
emission of light by certain minerals or compounds in the
and/or glauconite impregnation and encrusted or bored
sample. To make the emissions visible, the emitted light is
by organisms. Hardgrounds generally reflect a hiatus in
separated from the brighter excitation light through the use
sedimentation, and may be preserved stratigraphically
of a wavelength-specific filter.
as a disconformity. A softer, incipient hardground is
Foliation – A repeated planar fabric within a rock, either sometimes termed a “firmground.”
as a compositional layering or pervasive fracture. In
Heavy minerals – A mineral that has a specific gravity
metamorphic usage it is usually caused by elongation
above 2.85. Although this definition is derived from the
of minerals and growth of clay minerals under pressure.
gravitational separation of minerals in unconsolidated or
Foliation can include slaty cleavage, schistosity, or
friable materials, it is also applied to grains in fully lithified
gneissic layering.
rocks. Heavy minerals can be naturally segregated in
Fracture porosity – Porosity formed by fracturing. The term placer deposits.
is generally used for porosity occurring along breaks in a Hiatus surface – A stratigraphic surface that represents a
sediment or rock body where there has been little shear break in the continuity of the geologic record; a surface
displacement of the opposing blocks. Fracture porosity where sediments were either not deposited or where
grades into breccia porosity with increasing dislocation. erosion removed material prior to deposition of overlying
Framboid – Microscopic spheroidal clusters of pyrite grains strata.
commonly associated with bits of organic material. The Hydrophyllic – Having a tendency to mix with, dissolve in, or
term is derived from the French word for raspberry. be wetted by water.
Frustule – The siliceous skeleton of a diatom. Hydrothermal – Relating to hot water (specifically “aqueous

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solutions that are warm or hot relative to [their] surrounding carbonate rock. Despite wide usage of “intragrain” or
environment” White, 1985). Normally used in sandstone “intragranular,” Choquette and Pray (1970) prefer to use
petrography to describe mineral precipitates such as “intraparticle” as the general term for this type of porosity,
sphalerite, barite, saddle dolomite, epidote, fluorite, galena primarily for carbonate rocks.
and others, which occur as grain replacements, cements Isopachous – A term that typically refers to cements where
or vein fills. the diagenetically precipitated minerals forms rims of
Impregnation medium – Epoxy or plastic material that is nearly equal thickness around grains.
Isotropic – In petrography, the term refers to a crystal whose
pressure/vacuum injected into sediments and rocks prior
to cutting of thin sections. The material is commonly, optical properties do not vary according to crystallographic
but not always, colored with blue, green or red dyes to direction. Thus, light travels with the same speed in any
enhance the recognition of porosity (and distinguish it from direction through the crystal and the crystal shows no
holes created during section preparation). In some cases, birefringence under crossed polarizers. Common to cubic
fluorescent dyes are incorporated to allow study of pores and amorphous substances.
(especially micropores) using fluorescence microscopy.
Petrographic recognition of strained, discolored, or Kerogen – Naturally occurring, solid, insoluble organic
bubble–filled impregnation materials is important so as not matter found in source rocks or other sediments that can
to misinterpret these. yield oil and gas upon heating. Typical organic constituents
of kerogen are algae and woody plant material. Coals
Inclusion – A fragment of older rock incorporated within a
and oil shales should therefore be viewed as sedimentary
younger rock to which it may or may not be genetically
rocks containing special types of kerogens in very high
related. Equally commonly, inclusions refer to voids and
concentrations.
imperfections in a crystal in which one or more gases,
liquids or solids are entrained. Analysis of those inclusions
can give clues to the provenance of grains or cements as
Labile – Refers to grains that are prone to deformation,
alteration or dissolution.
well as their formation conditions (temperatures, pressures
and fluid chemistries). Lamellae – Layered intergrowth of one crystal with another.
They are sometimes called exsolution lamellae and
Intergranular or intergrain porosity – Referring to pore
are observed in the minerals perthite, antiperthite and
spaces existing between individual grains or particles of
pigeonite.
a sedimentary rock. Intergranular porosity is the most
commonly used term for between–grain porosity in Laterite (lateritic) – Laterites are soils rich in iron and
sandstones and carbonates (cf. “interparticle porosity”), aluminum that are formed in hot and wet tropical areas.
but it is not synonymous with primary porosity –– it is a Nearly all such deposits are reddish-brown because of
nongenetic term denoting only the relative position, not the incorporated iron oxides. Laterites develop by intensive
time of formation, of the pores. See Choquette and Pray and prolonged weathering (lateritization) of underlying
(1970, p. 247). parent rock. Some laterites are aluminum ores and are
compositionally similar to bauxites.
Intermediate igneous rock – Rock containing 52–63 weight
percent SiO2, and thus a rock intermediate between Litharenite – A term, a contraction of lithic arenite, was
felsic and mafic compositions. Andesite, dacite and introduced by McBride (1963) for a sandstone that contains
trachyandesite are common intermediate volcanic rocks; more than 25% detrital rock fragments, and less than 10%
diorite and granodiorite are common intermediate plutonic feldspars. Depending on the sandstone classification
rocks. used, litharenite is roughly equivalent to lithic sandstone or
greywacke). In the Folk (1980) classification, litharenites
Interparticle porosity – Porosity between any types of
are further subdivided into sedarenites (litharenites with
sedimentary particles. Can even be used for pores
predominantly sedimentary rock fragments), volcanic
between particles of silt and clay sizes where it isn’t
arenites (predominantly volcanic rock fragments)
obvious that the particles are sedimentary or have been
or phyllarenites (predominantly metamorphic rock
diagenetically modified (and thus this term differs somewhat
fragments).
from “intergrain porosity” or “intergranular porosity”).
Interparticle porosity denotes position and not genesis and Lithification – The process of transformation of
the term is most commonly used for carbonate rocks. unconsolidated sediment into more solid (although
potentially still porous) rock through processes including
Intraclast – A grain of penecontemporaneous, weakly–
compaction, cementation and recrystallization.
consolidated, carbonate sediment that has been eroded
and redeposited, generally close to its site of original Lithoclast – A mechanically formed and deposited fragment
formation and within the same depositional sequence (see of a carbonate rock, normally > 2 mm in diameter, derived
Folk, 1959 and 1962). from an older limestone, dolostone, or other sedimentary
rock stratum. Also termed an extraclast.
Intragranular (intragrain) or intraparticle porosity – The
porosity existing within individual grains or particles of a Load structure – A penecontemporaneous bulbous
rock, especially within skeletal material of a sedimentary deformation feature produced at the base of a bed that

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was deposited on soft sediment. They are created by Micrographic – A microscopic version of graphic texture.
differential sinking of denser sediment into underlying, Intergrowth of two minerals, which are both in optical
less dense and typically watery material. continuity. It most commonly occurs with quartz and alkali
feldspar. It is named after early forms of writing, such as
Mafic – An igneous rock composed largely of dark–colored cuneiform, which it resembles.
ferromagnesian minerals — i.e., having a composition Microlite – A very small crystal in the groundmass of a rapidly
similar to gabbro or basalt. cooled lava.
Marl – A calcium carbonate-rich mudstone or shale. Micropores (microporosity) – Porosity that is marked by
Matrix – Descriptive of the sedimentary, mechanically the presence of pore throats smaller than 0.5 microns
deposited material between grains. Includes terrigenous (µm). Such pores are commonly located within the clay
mud, carbonate mud (micrite) or other fine–grained cemented and matrix-filled areas of sandstones and
(typically less than 4µm) interstitial material. between clay particles in mudrocks. Dyed resin can
Matrix porosity – The porosity of the matrix or finer portion sometimes highlight micropores.
of a sediment or rock, in contrast to porosity associated Microstylolite – A low-relief (less than 1 mm) surface
with the coarser particles or constituents; or the porosity produced by tectonic or burial–related pressure dissolution
of “blocks” of the rock in contrast to the porosity of the of soluble carbonate, commonly marked by the presence
fractures (Choquette and Pray, 1970). of clays, organic matter or other insoluble material.
Mesogenetic stage or mesogenesis – Broadly equivalent Microstylolites generally form in groups or clusters,
to burial diagenesis. More formally “the time interval or sometimes referred to as horsetail seams. Syn.: solution
stage in which the sediments or rocks are buried at depth seam; also see stylolite.
below the major influence of processes directly operating Mold  – A mold is a pore formed by the selective removal
from or closely related to the surface. It constitutes the of a former individual constituent of the sediment or rock.
entire time between the geologically brief early stage of Most molds in sedimentary carbonates are created by the
burial [eogenetic stage] and a final phase of imminent selective dissolution of feldspars, volcanic rock fragments,
erosion [telogenetic stage]” (Choquette and Pray, 1970, carbonate grains and evaporite nodules or crystals. Brit.
p. 220). usage – “mould.”
Meteoric diagenesis – Near-surface alteration in surface- Moldic porosity – Descriptive of pores formed by the selective
derived waters. Meteoric diagenesis mostly involves fresh removal of a former individual constituent of the sediment
water and the major processes are carbonate dissolution, or rock (see definition of mold). Moldic is often used with
localized cementation and the formation of soil. In the modifying prefixes, including oomoldic or dolomoldic,
vadose (or unsaturated) zone, pores periodically contain feldspar-moldic. Brit. usage – “mouldic porosity.”
water, air or both. In the phreatic (or saturated) zone, Mudrock – This is the general term used to describe all non-
pores are always fluid-filled. In coastal regions, phreatic metamorphic argillaceous deposits and thus is a term at an
meteoric ground water passes laterally into a mixing zone organizational level equivalent to “sandstone”. Mudrocks
with seawater. are divided into “siltstone”, “mudstone” and “claystone”
Methanogenesis – The conversion of organic matter into although the relative percentages of clay and silt in those
methane and carbon dioxide by anaerobic microbes subdivisions vary in different classifications (see glossary
(termed methanogens, these are microbes from the entries for those terms). Used by some workers as a
kingdom or domain Archaea). Because they thrive without synonym for shale.
oxygen, methanogenic organisms play an important role Mudstone – A fine-grained, dark-colored rock consisting
in the subsurface, where oxygen is commonly absent. primarily of compacted and hardened silt and clay, similar
Microbially-formed (biogenic) methane can constitute a to shale but without the lamination and fissility of shale (in
significant fraction of natural gas deposits. its restricted meaning). The proportions of silt and clay in
Mica – A group of sheet silicates (phyllosilicates), related to mudstone are approximately equal.
clay minerals. The common forms seen in sediments are Myrmekite – An intergrowth of plagioclase feldspar (generally
muscovite and biotite. Because chlorite is also a layered orthoclase) and quartz (generally replacing potassium
silicate with mica-like properties it commonly termed a feldspar during later stages of igneous consolidation
mica. If a rock contains abundant mica it is said to be or during a subsequent igneous event). The quartz
micaceous. intergrowths occur as blobs, droplets or vermicular fabrics.
Microcline twinning (also tartan, tweed or grid twinning)
– Informal terms for a combination of albite and pericline Negative crystal – A cavity in a mineral that has the
law twinning found mainly in microcline feldspars. The crystallographic form of a  crystal. In sandstones, these
right–angle intersection of those twins yields a distinctive are most commonly seen in quartz crystals of originally
reticulate pattern. volcanic origin.
Microcrystalline – Composed of crystals that average less Neoformation (of clays) – (1) Authigenesis of clay minerals
than 10 microns (µm) in diameter. as a result of direct precipitation from a pore fluid. (2) The

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neomorphism of one clay mineral polymorph to another. Paragenesis – A sequential order of physical changes and
(3) The replacement of a precursor mineral by a new clay mineral formation or transformation. Generally applied to
mineral. the sequence of diagenetic events a sediment undergoes
throughout it history from deposition through progressive
Occlusion – The reduction or replacement of porosity by burial and potentially during later episodes of uplift and
mineral growth or internal sediment infilling. even re-exposure.
Oil wet – Preference of a solid to be in contact with an oil Paramorphism – The transformation of internal structure of
phase rather than a water or gas phase. Generally, polar a mineral without change of external form or of chemical
compounds or asphaltenes deposited from the crude oil composition.
onto mineral surfaces cause the oil-wet condition. Some Pedogenic – Pertaining to soil formation.
minerals, such as kaolinite, are particularly susceptible to
oil wetting. Pegmatite – An exceptionally coarse-grained intrusive
igneous rock, generally with granitic composition and
Oncoid – In North American usage, an oncoid is a coated found in veins and pods. A major source of coarsely
grain of microbial or algal (but not red algal) origin that crystalline quartz in gravels and often characterized by a
is coarser than 2 mm in diameter; a spheroidal form of a milky white color due to incorporation of abundant water–
microbial/algal stromatolite showing a series of concentric filled inclusions.
(typically irregular or scalloped) laminations produced by
mechanical turning or rolling. Common European usage is Pelite – A sediment or sedimentary rock consisting of the
less genetic as a microbial/algal origin is not a prerequisite finest clay–sized particles regardless of composition (but
or using the term. typically clay, calcium carbonate and/or minute quartz
particles). Includes mudstones, calcareous mudstones
Ooid – A spherical to ellipsoidal grain, 0.25 to 2.00 mm and shales. Generally equivalent to the term “lutite”.
in diameter, with a nucleus covered by one or more
precipitated concentric coatings that have radial and/ Peloid – A carbonate grain (allochem) formed of
or concentric orientation of constituent crystals. Ooids cryptocrystalline or microcrystalline carbonate regardless
can have calcareous, ferruginous (especially hematite of size or origin. This term (coined by McKee and
or chamosite), siliceous, bauxitic, phosphatic, evaporitic Gutschick, 1969) allows reference to grains composed
(gypsum, halite) or other concentric coatings. of micrite or microspar without the need to imply any
particular mode of origin (can thus include pellets, some
Opal-A – An amorphous form of silica (SiO2 nH2O), probably vague intraclasts, micritized fossils, degraded ooids, and
colloidal in origin, that composes the precipitated skeletal other grains of problematic origin including some probably
material of diatoms, radiolarians and siliceous sponges. microbial precipitates (e.g., Chafetz, 1986).
The mineral is colorless to gray or brown, has high negative
relief, and is isotropic in thin section. It can contain up to Penecontemporaneous – Generally referring to cements or
20% water, but usually has 3–9%. Typically converts to replacement textures indicating that, in the opinion of the
opal–CT or quartz at higher temperatures during sediment user, the feature or mineral formed at almost the same
burial. time as the original sediment was deposited, that is, close
to the sediment–air or sediment–water interface. Syn:
Overgrowth – Secondary material deposited in optical and syndepositional.
crystallographic continuity around a crystal grain of the
same mineral composition. Pericline twin (pericline law twinning) – Twinning in
triclinic feldspars in which the twin axis parallels the
Overpressure – Subsurface pressure that is abnormally crystallographic b–axis and the composition surface is
high, exceeding hydrostatic pressure at a given depth. a rhombic section. It can occur alone or in combination
Overpressures can be produced by rapid overburden with albite–law twinning and in the latter case can yield
loading of low-permeability strata (i.e., loading that exceeds complex cross–hatched twinning (variously and informally
rates of fluid escape).In some cases, overpressuring may termed gridiron, tartan, tweed or microcline twinning).
be produced through exceptional thermal heating of waters,
organic maturation and hydrocarbon generation, gypsum Perlite / perlitic texture – A volcanic glass with rhyolitic
dehydration and other mechanisms (e.g. Swarbrick and composition. Perlite forms when an extrusive body of
Osborne, 1998). rhyolite or obsidian has a high water content. The perlitic
texture is characterized by concentric fractures formed
Palagonite – A typically yellow, orange or brown alteration around closely spaced centers.
product (a microinclusion-rich glass) created through the Permeability – The property or capacity of a porous rock or
interaction of water with volcanic glass in rocks with a sediment to transmit a fluid. It is a quantifiable measure
chemical composition similar to basalt. Commonly found of the relative ease of fluid flow under unequal pressure.
in interstices between basalt pillows or in amygdules. Perthite (microperthite) – A variety of alkali feldspar consisting
Paleosol – A fossil soil. In petrographic terms soil textures of parallel to sub–parallel intergrowths of a potassium–rich
are recognised by rhizoliths, admixing of silt and clay, feldspar (generally microcline) from which a sodium–rich
cutans, circum-granular cracks, pisoids and glaebules, phase (normally albite) has exsolved, producing a fabric
and cements (sphaerosiderite or calcrete). with blobs, strings or veinlets of one feldspar incorporated

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within another. Perthite refers to such structures visible to (rhombohedral), aragonite (orthorhombic) and vaterite
the naked eye; microperthite refers to the same structure (hexagonal) are polymorphs of calcium carbonate.
when visible only with a microscope. Polysynthetic twinning – Three or more successive
Phenocryst – A  relatively large and generally conspicuous twins following the same twin law in a single crystal
crystal distinctly larger than the grains of the groundmass producing fine parallel bands or alternating lamellae of
in an igneous rock. reversed crystal structure (common with albite twinning in
Phreatic zone – The area in an aquifer, below the water plagioclase feldspars).
table, in which essentially all pores and fractures are Porcellanite (alt. porcelanite) – A hard, dense rock that
saturated with water. Sometimes termed the “saturated resembles unglazed porcelain. Typically it is an impure
zone”. Contrast with “vadose” or “unsaturated zone”. variety of chert that contains considerable clay and/or
carbonate material. Generally less dense and crystalline
Phosphorite – A sedimentary rock with a sufficient content of
than pure chert, it generally has blocky fracture rather
phosphate minerals to be considered of economic interest.
than the conchoidal fracture of chert. It is an opal-CT-rich
Primary phosphorite typically consists of bedded rocks
intermediate stage between a siliceous ooze (opal-A) and
containing shell and bone fragments, pellets, peloids,
a diagenetically mature quartz chert.
coated grains and nodules composed of one of several
microcrystalline varieties of apatite (primarily calcium Pore – A small opening or void in a rock. In sedimentary
fluorapatite). Phosphorites also can form as guano petrographic terminology one also can refer to pores
accumulations or through weathering and concentration that have been “reduced” by partial filling with cement or
of phosphatic material in secondary deposits. “occluded” or “filled” through complete cementation and
thus are no longer open spaces. Pores can range in size
Phyllarenite – A term coined by Folk (1968; shown as later
from large caverns to minute openings in the nanometer to
1980 edition in reference list). It refers to a litharenite that
picometer range (see Fig. 22.1).
contains primarily foliated, schistose, phyllosilicate-rich
rock fragments interpreted to be of metamorphic origin Pore throat – In a granular rock, the small pore space at
(slate, phyllite or schist). the point where two grains meet and which connects two
larger pore volumes.
Phyllosilicate – The phyllosilicates, or sheet silicates, are
an important group of minerals that includes the micas, Porosity – The percentage of voids (empty space/pores),
chlorite, serpentine, talc and the clay minerals. whether isolated or connected, in Earth material such as
soil or rock. For a classification of pore types, mainly in
Placer – a surficial mineral deposit formed by mechanical carbonate rocks but also applicable to clastic terrigenous
concentration of heavy mineral grains, most commonly in rocks, see Choquette and Pray (1970).
beach or fluvial deposits.
Pressure solution / pressure dissolution – Dissolution
Pleochroic (pleochroism) – a mineral’s ability to absorb occurring preferentially at the grain contacts in a
or reflect different wavelengths of light depending on the sedimentary rock where external overburden pressures
crystallographic orientation. The mineral changes color exceed confining pore-fluid pressures. The dissolution
during rotation of the stage (under plane-polarized light). broadens grain contacts and liberates solutes that can
Some strongly pleochroic minerals are biotite, chlorite and contribute to overall cementation and porosity loss.
hornblende.
Primary pore – A pore formed during final sedimentation or
Plutonic – Intrusive igneous rock believed to have solidified present in the rock or sediment at the time of deposition.
deep within the earth. A granite is an example of a plutonic The term “primary porosity” includes all predepositional
rock. and depositional porosity of a particle, sediment, or rock.
Poikilotopic (poikilitic) – Textural term denoting a condition It also refers to any postdiagenetic remnant of primary
in which small granular crystals or grains are irregularly pore space. (See Choquette and Pray, 1970, p. 249).
scattered without common orientation in a larger crystal of Provenance – The source area from which the constituent
another mineral (generally sand or silt grains in a single, particles of a sedimentary rock were derived.
coarse cement crystal). See Friedman (1965).
Pseudomatrix – Clay- and silt-sized material formed by
Polycrystalline quartz – A single quartz grain composed of ductile deformation of clay- or mica-rich lithic clasts
two or more optically different quartz crystal units (Conolly, interspersed between sand-sized detrital particles.
1965). Polycrystalline quartz includes subvarieties that Pseudomorph – A mineral whose outward crystal form is that
have been termed composite quartz, schistose quartz and of another mineral species; it has developed by alteration,
pressure quartz. substitution, encrustation or paramorphism.
Polymict – Referring to a sedimentary rock containing Pseudouniaxial cross – an extinction pattern under cross-
clasts of multiple rock types, for example an intraclastic polarized illumination in which domains of radially-oriented
limestone or calclithite with varied clast lithologies or fabric crystals (or ones tangentially oriented to spherical cores,
types. (Syn.: polymictic; contrast with monomict). such as in some ooids) exhibit darkened extinction in
Polymorph – One of two or more crystalline forms of a cross-shaped pattern similar in appearance to the
the same chemical substance. For example, calcite completely unrelated optic axis figure of a uniaxial mineral.

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Ptygmatic structure – a sedimentary feature deformed by in many cases, iron (1–33 mol%). It occurs as either a
dishamonic folding. cement or a replacement, is commonly associated with
hydrothermal ore mineralization, sulfate–rich carbonates,
Quartzarenite – A term coined by McBride (1963) as a and the presence of hydrocarbons. It has been interpreted
contraction for the earlier and looser term “quartz arenite”. to indicate formation through sulfate reduction at elevated
As such it is a sandstone that is composed primarily of temperatures (60–150°C). See Radke and Mathis (1980)
quartz (typically >95% quartz) although McBride included and Folk and Assereto (1974). Syn.: baroque dolomite.
chert and quartzite fragments in his quartz total, something
Salina – A salt pan or other land area encrusted by salts.
not done in some other classifications (e.g., Folk, 1980).
Generally divided into intertidal to supratidal coastal
Radiolaria – Planktic marine protozoa that live at depths salinas and inland salinas (including saline lake shores
and interdune flats). See Warren (2003).
from a few meters to hundreds of meters and produce
delicate and complex mineral skeletons composed Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) – Sample
of opaline silica. Individual radiolarians normally are examination using a scanning electron microscope that
hundredths to tenths of millimeters, and they rarely produces images by raster-scanning a focused electron
exceed a millimeter. Radiolaria range from Cambrian to beam across the sample surface and recording the
Recent and are major contributors to deep–water cherts produced secondary electrons.
and siliceous shales, especially during the Paleozoic and Secondary pore – A pore created through alteration of
early to mid–Mesozoic. sediment or rock after deposition. Some secondary pores
Recrystallization – The formation, essentially in the solid can form in near-surface settings, especially in carbonate
state, of new crystalline mineral grains in a rock. The new rocks (e.g. caves). In sandstones, most secondary pores
grains are generally larger than the original grains, and may are created during burial diagenesis and are related to
have the same or a different mineralogical composition. dissolution of unstable grains and/or fracturing.
Refractive index (RI) – An important optical property used Septarian nodule – A hard, roughly spherical, diagenetic
in mineral identification. The refractive index is the ratio nodule or concretion formed of calcite, siderite, iron oxides,
of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity in the or other materials. The most distinctive characteristic is a
mineral. complex network of intersecting radial and/or concentric
fractures similar to shrinkage cracks. The fractures are
Replacement – In its general sense, the term refers to
commonly filled with calcite cements, in many cases
the transformation of one mineral to another –– either a
consisting of multiple generations of yellowish–brown to
polymorph or a mineral of a different composition. In the
white, fibrous to bladed calcite.
stricter, and more widely used, definition proposed by Folk
(1965), the term refers to the replacement of a mineral Sericitzation – A process in which plagioclase feldspars
by one of a different composition (e.g., silica or dolomite and other minerals are replaced by sericite (a fine-
replacement of calcite). Replacement can occur through grained, white potassium mica, essentially muscovite in
rapid transformations occurring at micron or smaller scales composition). The process commonly is associated with
or it can occur by dissolution followed, at a substantially relatively low-temperature hydrothermal solutions.
later time, by filling of the void by another mineral (termed Shard – A vitric fragment tuffaceous (pyroclastic) rocks,
solution-cavity fill by Folk, 1965). commonly with characteristically curved fracture surfaces
Residual oil – Staining and other remnants of largely insoluble due to the disintegration of bubbles in pumice.
hydrocarbons. Residual oil commonly coats quartz grains Silcrete – “An indurated product of surficial and penesurficial
and their overgrowths or stains interstitial clays. (near surface) silicification, formed by the cementation
Resorption – Melting or partial remelting of a crystal within and/or replacement of bedrock, weathering deposits,
a magma. unconsolidated sediments, soil or other materials
Rhizoliths – Organosedimentary structures produced by and produced by low-temperature physio-chemical
accumulation and/or cementation around, cementation processes...” (Summerfield, 1983).
within, or replacement of, higher plant roots by mineral Siliciclastic – Pertaining to clastic noncarbonate rocks, or
matter (Klappa, 1980). Includes root casts, tubules, and to sedimentary fragments of previous rocks, comprised
molds as well as rhizocretions and root petrifications. dominantly of silicon–rich minerals such as quartz or
Rhizoliths are commonly millimeters to centimeters in feldspar.
diameter and centimeters to meters in length, occur
Silicification – The replacement or pore filling of a rock by
just below hiatus surfaces, and may taper slightly. See
one or more forms of silica (opal, chert, chalcedony or
Esteban and Klappa (1983).
megaquartz).
Saddle dolomite – A variety of dolomite that has a warped Siltstone – A mudrock containing particles predominantly
crystal lattice; it is characterized by curved crystal faces, in the silt grain-size range (i.e., finer than sandstone and
curved cleavage, and sweeping extinction. Saddle dolomite coarser than claystone). The exact percentage of silt-
is slightly enriched in calcium (typically 50–60 mol%) and, sized material required for a rock to be termed a siltstone

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varies in different classifications. For example, Blatt et al. Stylolite – A jagged, columnar surface in rocks which may
(1972) specify >2/3rd silt; Hawkins and Pinches, (1992) be at any orientation relative to bedding; produced by
specify at least 75% silt. pressure–induced dissolution and grain interpenetration
Skeletal – Carbonate components (or the rocks they form) and often associated with large amounts of insoluble
derived from hard material secreted directly by organisms. material accumulated as a result of such dissolution.
A substitute for the confusing term “organic” of some older Subaerial – A term descriptive of location, of processes, or
literature. conditions operating in open air or immediately beneath
Solution-cavity fill – A phrase used by Folk (1965) to land surfaces.
describe the multi-stage process in which an unstable Subhedral – Exhibiting some traces of crystal shape.
mineral is dissolved, leaving a void space; then, after the
Sulfate reduction – The reduction of sulfate ions in the
passage of an indeterminate period of time, the void space
presence of iron to produce pyrite. This is normally a
is filled with a newly precipitated mineral that contains
bacterially mediated process during early diagenesis,
essentially no relict inclusions of the original material that
but it may also occur later through inorganic processes
once occupied the area. Some workers include this under
(thermochemical sulfate reduction). (alt. sulphate
the term “replacement”; others do not.
reduction).
Solution seam – A low–relief internal surface produced by
Sutured boundary – Seen within heavily compacted
subsurface pressure dissolution of soluble carbonate,
sandstones, quartzites or metamorphic quartz-rich
generally marked by the presence of clays, organic
rocks to varying degrees. The constituent grains have
matter or other insoluble material. Similar to stylolites but
complexly curved, interlocking grain boundaries kink-band
marked by lower relief and less obvious insoluble residue
boundaries or deformation twin boundaries. The sutured
and generally occurring as closely spaced swarms of
boundaries result from strain-induced boundary migration.
such dissolution surfaces. Syn. Horse–tail seam or
microstylolite. Symplectite – Worm-like (vermicular) intergrowth of
minerals. Myrmekite is the most common example.
Sorting – A measure of the diversity of particle grain sizes
within a sediment. This is generally expressed as the Syndepositional – See “penecontemporaneous.”
standard deviation of the grain size distribution. Syneresis cracks (also written as synaeresis or synæresis)
Spastolith – An ooid or other coated grain that has been – Irregular, radiating, elongate to lenticular cracks,
deformed, generally by compaction of a partially leached extending from bedding surfaces downward (resembling
grain or by shearing the concentric laminations away desiccation cracks). However, syneresis cracks form by
from each other or from the nucleus. Especially common subaqueous shrinkage rather than desiccation, and thus
in chamositic ooids where some cortex layers were are not an indicator of subaerial exposure. The process
dissolved and others may have been replaced by siderite of syneresis refers to the expulsion of fluids from a gel
or phosphate. and in claystones results from changes in clay volume
related to local variations in salinity, temperature or other
Spherulitic texture – A spherulite is a cluster of radiating
factors. Some syneresis cracks have been attributed to
acicular or lath-like crystals found in igneous rocks such
earthquake-induced dewatering (Pratt, 1998).
as rhyolitic glass. Spherulites form by devitrification during
rapid cooling where nucleation is impeded. Syntaxial – Refers to overgrowths that are in optical continuity
with their underlying grains such that the original crystal
Spicule / spiculitic / spiculite – In sediments these are
and the overgrowth form a single larger crystal, sharing
grains formed of silica or calcium carbonate, which
the same crystallographic axes.
originally supported the soft tissue of sponges. The
simplest (monaxon) forms are shaped like an elongated,
sharply-pointed cigar; more complex (triaxon, multi-axon)
Tabular – Crystal or grain shape which displays straight,
parallel sides.
forms are also common. Siliceous spicules typically have
a hollow central canal. A spiculite is a rock composed Tasmanitids – A group of organic microfossils (including the
largely of sponge spicules. genus Tasmanites) interpreted as unicellular prasinophyte
algal cysts. Their known range is Cambrian to Miocene
Staining – The process of using a dye to selectively color
and they are a major organic constituent of many mid- to
various minerals in thin sections or rock slabs, facilitating
late Paleozoic shales.
their identification. Unstained thin sections are best for
identification of mafic minerals, determination of optical Telogenetic stage or telogenesis – Occurring in the time
properties, and recognition of textural characteristics. In interval during which long-buried sediments or rocks
many cases, however, it is difficult to distinguish between are located near the surface again, as a result of crustal
colorless feldspars and quartz, particularly if the feldspars movement and erosion, and are influenced significantly by
are untwinned or between calcite and dolomite in grains processes (e.g., karst development) associated with the
and cements. The most common stains are for plagioclase, formation of an unconformity (Choquette and Pray, 1970).
K-feldspar, and carbonate minerals and they are especially Contrast with eogenetic and mesogenetic.
useful where quantitative mineral proportions are needed Tempestite – An academic’s way of saying a storm deposit.
(e.g., point counts).

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 506 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Terrigenous – Derived from a land area and transported Volcaniclastic – A epiclastic terrigenous rock composed
mechanically to a basin of deposition; commonly, chiefly of rock fragments of volcanic origin.
essentially synonymous with “noncarbonate” (e.g. Vug – A pore that is somewhat equant, is larger than 1/16 mm
terrigenous sand vs. carbonate sand). in diameter, and generally does not specifically conform in
Trachytic texture – A subparallel, thin-section-scale position, shape or boundary to particular fabric elements
arrangement of lath-shaped feldspars in the groundmass to the host rock (i.e., is not fabric selective). Typically
of an igneous rocks. formed by dissolution, but the term is descriptive, not
Travertine – A relatively dense, banded deposit of CaCO3 or genetic (Choquette and Pray, 1970).
silica especially common in caverns or in cold-springs
where it is formed by microbial growth and evaporation Wacke – An impure sandstone containing at least 10%
of spring or river water (Pettijohn, 1957). Also common detrital muddy matrix in the Williams, Turner and Gilbert
at hot springs where it is formed by degassing, cooling (1953) sandstone classification as well as in the Dott (1964)
of waters and biogenic and/or inorganic precipitation of classification. Prefixes like “quartzose”, “feldspathic” or
dissolved materials. “lithic” are used to express the mineralogical composition
of the sand fraction in wackes.
Tuff – A general term for consolidated pyroclastic volcanic
rocks. Formerly a term for a volcaniclastic sandstone. Water wet – Preference of a solid to be in contact with a
water phase rather than an oil or gas phase. Oil or water, if
Twinning – The development of a twin crystal (one with present, would be found as bubbles or droplets effectively
reversed or reflected crystal symmetry) by growth, isolated from contact with the mineral phases in the rock.
transformation or gliding. A common feature in strained,
unrecrystallized calcite crystals. Weathering – A term that encompasses the entire spectrum
of processes acting at or near the surface of the Earth to
Uniaxial – Uniaxial minerals are a class of anisotropic alter, decompose or degrade rocks Such processes can
selectively alter soluble or susceptible minerals and thus
minerals that include all minerals that crystallize in the
tetragonal and hexagonal crystal systems. They are affect the balance of materials derived from a source area.
called uniaxial because they have a single optic axis.
Unit extinction – A type of extinction behavior under crossed
Xenomorphic – Referring to a mineral grain that does not
have a characteristic crystal outline because of deforming
polarizers in which an entire grain reaches extinction at pressure from surrounding grains; anhedral.
the same time as the microscope stage is turned. (Syn.:
straight extinction) Zebraic – A term applied to banded, coarsely-fibrous
Undulatory (undulose) extinction – A type of extinction chalcedony in which, when viewed along the fiber
of crystals under cross-polarized illumination that occurs elongation direction under cross-polarized light, the fiber
successively in adjacent areas as the microscope stage bands appear as light and dark stripes as a result of
is turned (Syn.: wavy extinction or sweeping extinction). twisting of the crystal axes. Can occur in cements and in
silica replacements of evaporite minerals.
Vacuolization – The formation of numerous small, generally Zeolite – Any of a large group of minerals consisting of
water-filled, inclusions (vacuoles) as part of the diagenetic hydrated aluminosilicates whose lattice can enclose
degradation of grains such as feldspars. sodium, potassium, calcium, strontium and barium. They
Vadose – Pertaining to that zone of partial or complete can be readily dehydrated and rehydrated, and commonly
groundwater saturation subject to aeration and lying occur as cements in sandstones, especially in volcaniclastic
between the land surface and the phreatic zone (above deposits. About 40 natural zeolites have been identified
the groundwater table). That is, it is a zone in which both and some of the more common ones in sandstones and
water and air may be present in pores. mudstones are analcime, chabazite, clinoptilolite, erionite,
heulandite, laumontite, mordenite and phillipsite.
Variolitic texture – A variolitic texture consists of a fan-like
arrangement of elongate, locally branching, crystals. The Zoning (mineral zoning) – A texture found in solid-
term is used primarily to describe such textures in igneous solution minerals characterized optically by changes in the
rocks, especially diabase (dolerite). color or extinction angle of the mineral from the core to the
rim. This optical zoning is a reflection of chemical zoning
Vermicular – A crystal or cluster of crystals having a worm– in the mineral. For example, a plagioclase feldspar can be
like shape. Especially common in phyllosilicate minerals zoned from a core that is calcium-rich to a sodium-rich rim.
such as chlorite, vermiculite, kaolinite/dickite or glauconite Zoning also can reflect variations in precipitation rate and/
as well as in myrmekitic intergrowths of quartz and feldspar. or inclusion content.
Vesicle – A cavity of variable shape in a lava, caused by the
entrapment of a gas bubble in the once molten rock.

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 Glossary 507

REFERENCES CITED IN DEFINITIONS

Blatt, H., G. V. Middleton, and R. C. Murray, 1972, Origin of Sedimentary Klappa, C. F., 1980, Rhizoliths in terrestrial carbonates: Classification,
Rocks: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall Inc., 634 p. recognition, genesis and significance: Sedimentology, v. 27, p. 613-
Brewer, R., 1964, Fabric and Mineral Analysis of Soils: New York, Wiley, 629, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3091.1980.tb01651.x.
470 p. McBride, E. F., 1963, A classification of common sandstones: Journal of
Chafetz, H. S., 1986, Marine peloids: A product of bacterially induced Sedimentary Research, v. 33, p. 664-669, doi: 10.1306/74D70EE8-
precipitation of calcite: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 56, p. 812- 2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D.
817, doi: 10.1306/212F8A58-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D. Muskat, M., 1949, Physical Principles of Oil Production: New York,
Choquette, P. W., and L. C. Pray, 1970, Geologic nomenclature and McGraw–Hill, 922 p.
classification of porosity in sedimentary carbonates: AAPG Bulletin, McKee, E. D., and R. C. Gutschick, 1969, History of the Redwall
v. 54, p. 207–250. Limestone of northern Arizona: Boulder, CO, GSA Memoir 114, 726
Conolly, J. R., 1965, The occurrence of polycrystallinity and undulatory p., doi: 10.1130/MEM114-p1.
extinction in quartz in sandstones: Journal of Sedimentary Pettijohn, F. J., 1957, Sedimentary Rocks (2nd Edition): New York,
Research, v. 35, p. 116-135, doi: 10.1306/74D71208-2B21-11D7- Harper Brothers, 718 p.
8648000102C1865D. Pratt, B. R., 1998, Syneresis cracks: Subaqueous shrinkage in argillaceous
Dott, R. H., 1964, Wacke, graywacke and matrix; what approach sediments caused by earthquake-induced dewatering: Sedimentary
to immature sandstone classification?: Journal of Sedimentary Geology, v. 117, p. 1-10, doi: 10.1016/S0037-0738(98)00023-2.
Research, v. 34, p. 625-632, doi: 10.1306/74D71109-2B21-11D7- Radke, B. M., and R. L. Mathis, 1980, On the formation and occurrence
8648000102C1865D. of saddle dolomite: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 50, p. 1149–
Esteban, M., and C. F. Klappa, 1983, Subaerial exposure environment, in P. 1168, doi: 10.1306/212F7B9E-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D.
A. Scholle, D. G. Bebout, and C. H. Moore, eds., Carbonate Depositional Summerfield, M. A., 1983, Silcrete, in A. S. Goudie, and K. Pye, eds.,
Environments: Tulsa, OK, AAPG Memoir 33, p. 1–54. Chemical Sediments and Geomorphology: Precipitates and Residua in
Folk, R. L., 1959, Practical petrographic classification of limestones: the Near-surface Environment: London, Academic Press, p. 59-92.
AAPG Bulletin, v. 43, p. 1–38. Swarbrick, R. E., and M. J. Osborne, 1998, Mechanisms that generate
Folk, R. L., 1962, Spectral subdivision of limestone types, in W. E. Ham, abnormal pressures: An overview, in B. E. Law, G. F. Ulmishek, and
ed., Classification of Carbonate Rocks: Tulsa, OK, AAPG Memoir 1, V. I. Slavin, eds., Abnormal Pressures in Hydrocarbon Environments:
p. 62–84. Tulsa, OK, AAPG Memoir 70, p. 13-34.
Folk, R. L., 1965, Some aspects of recrystallization in ancient Swineford, A., A. B. Leonard, and J. C. Frye, 1958, Petrology of the
limestones, in L. C. Pray, and R. S. Murray, eds., Dolomitization and Pliocene pisolitic limestone in the Great Plains: Lawrence, KS, Kansas
Limestone Diagenesis: Tulsa, OK, SEPM Special Publication No. 13, Geological Survey Bulletin 130, Part 2, p. 97–116
p. 14-48, doi: 10.2110/pec.65.07.0014. Tyson, R. V., and T. H. Pearson, 1991, Modern and ancient continental
Folk, R. L., 1980, Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks: Austin, TX, shelf anoxia: An overview, in R. V. Tyson, and T. H. Pearson, eds.,
Hemphill’s Book Store, 184 p. Modern and Ancient Continental Shelf Anoxia: London, Geological
Folk, R. L., and R. Assereto, 1974, Giant aragonite rays and baroque Society of London Special Publication 58, p. 1-24, doi: 10.1144/GSL.
white dolomite in tepee–fillings, Triassic of Lombardy, Italy: AAPG SP.1991.058.01.01.
and SEPM, Annual Meeting Abstracts, v. 1, p. 34–35. Walton, E. K., 1956, Limitations of graded bedding: and alternative
Friedman, G. M., 1965, Terminology of crystallization textures and fabrics criteria of upward sequence in the rocks of the Southern Uplands:
in sedimentary rocks: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 35, p. 643- Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society, v. 16, p. 262-271,
655, doi: 10.1306/74D7131B-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D. doi: 10.1144/transed.16.3.262.
Hawkins, A. B., and G. M. Pinches, 1992, Engineering description of Warren, J. K. 2006. Sabkhas, saline mudflats and pans, in J. K. Warren,
mudrocks: Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, Evaporites: Sediments, Resources and Hydrocarbons: Berlin, Springer,
v. 25, p. 17-30, doi: 10.1144/GSL.QJEG.1992.025.01.02. p. 139-220, doi: 10.1007/3-540-32344-9.
Holmes, A., 1928, The Nomenclature of Petrology [2nd Edition]: London, White, D. E., 1957, Thermal waters of volcanic origin: GSA Bulletin, v. 68, p.
Thomas Murby, 284 p. 1637-1658, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[1637:TWOVO]2.0.CO;2.
Ingersoll, R. V., T. F. Fullard, R. L. Ford, J. P. Grimm, J. D. Pickle, and Williams, H., F. J. Turner, and C. M. Gilbert, 1954, Petrography: An
S. W. Sares, 1984, The effect of grain size on detrital modes: A test of Introduction to the Study of Rocks in Thin Section (1st Edition): San
the Gazzi-Dickinson point-counting method: Journal of Sedimentary Francisco, CA, W. H. Freeman & Co., 406 p.
Research, v. 54, p. 103-116, doi: 10.1306/212F83B9-2B24-11D7-
8648000102C1865D.

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 Index 509

INDEX
Information shown in parentheses is supplementary material designed to aid users in identifying terms;
stratigraphic units and their ages are shown in bold-faced type; location designations for units and
features are for samples shown in this book only; county-scale and more local localities along with
glossary terms and bibliographic citations are not indexed

A anaerobic 109
Aachen Sandstone (Cretaceous; Belgium) 160 analcime 298-300, 307
Aalenian iron ore (Jurassic; France) 137 anatase 3, 90, 362, 365, 415, 416
Abo Formation (Permian; New Mexico) 104, 160 andalucite 7, 55
abrasion marks 152 andesite 73
Absaroka volcanic field (Wyoming and Montana) 140 porphyry 70, 72-74, 102, 380
Abu Dhabi (U.A.E.) 308, 313, 339a andesitic island-arc 74
acicular 8, 89-91, 98, 299, 303, 305, 311 anhedral 20, 31, 65, 317, 337, 342, 398
acidic igneous rocks 20, 90, 102, 103, 140, 366 anhydrite 109, 129-131, 260, 275, 334, 336, 337, 343, 374, 390, 391,
acidic pore waters 275 398, 399, 421, 438
actinolite 3 dissolution 340
aegirine 103 embayment of quartz 339
aegirine-augite 103 inclusions 129, 407-409
agglomerates 109 nodules 130, 408, 457, 478
agglutinated 110, 203, 204 replacement 404
alabastrine gypsum 336 ankerite 30, 209, 242, 266, 269, 271, 310-312, 322-324, 326, 328-332,
Alamitos Formation (Pennsylvanian; New Mexico) 8, 32, 65, 88, 91, 348, 389, 390, 397, 398, 402, 403, 421, 457, 458
95, 267, 410 anomalous birefringence 73, 83, 85, 109, 249, 274, 275, 292, 337, 407
Alaska (USA) 34, 53, 74, 137, 174, 240, 264, 266, 268, 269, 271, 272, green birefringence 134
278, 285, 300, 305, 323, 379, 385, 404, 455, 471, 473 ultrablue 59, 86, 94, 95, 101
Albian (Cretaceous) 135, 136, 217, 231, 232, 276, 277, 322, 362, 363, anorthite 28, 31
386, 387, 397, 413, 435, 451, 456 anorthoclase 20, 32, 36
albite ix, 20-30, 32-37, 67, 266-268, 270, 275, 298, 300, 305, 376, 377, anoxic 3, 214, 312, 341, 348, 351
379, 397, 399, 456, 484, 485, 487 antiperthite 26, 65
cements 37, 266 apatite x, 2, 3, 8, 81, 84, 92, 93, 108, 215, 362, 363, 416, 470, 482
exsolution lamellae 35 aphanitic matrix 65, 69-74
inclusions 32 aphanocrystalline 217, 312, 316, 398, 460
lamellae 34, 35, 37 Appalachian Basin (USA) 183
overgrowths 266, 271, 403, 475 Aquitanian (Miocene) 220
twinning 20-23, 25, 27, 33, 66, 401 aragonite 108, 112, 113, 308, 310, 311, 313, 337, 374, 383, 396, 398, 409
albitization 25, 27, 298, 365, 397-399, 404 arc-trench systems 171
K-feldspar 397, 398, 486 argillaceous 40, 47, 55, 184, 241, 473
plagioclase 305, 364, 398 arid 249, 254
algae 108, 114, 125, 126 climatic conditions 171, 177, 178, 355, 399
Family Tasmanacea 200 regions 109, 128, 178, 336
algal cysts 125, 126, 200, 201, 208, 351 Arikaree Formation (Miocene; Wyoming) 24, 31, 33, 66, 100, 103,
Alhisa Phosphorite Formation (Cretaceous; Jordan) 121, 122 411
alkali feldspars 20, 30, 35, 36, 68, 69 Arizona (USA) 23, 49, 173, 175, 255, 299, 301
alkaline waters 275, 298 Arkansas (USA) 224
alluvial deposits 41, 42, 150, 316, 317, 355, 459, 475 Arkansas bauxite (Cretaceous-Tertiary; Arkansas) 224
alluvium 223, 258, 453, 479 arkosic sandstone 25, 37, 289, 292, 388, 398, 454
almandine 97 Arroyo Peñasco Group (Mississippian; New Mexico) 407
Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (France) 341 arthropods 111
alteration viii, x, 2, 5, 9, 16, 17, 20, 21, 24-29, 32, 34, 66, 68, 70-73, 80, Aruba 258, 462
82, 94, 98, 104, 108, 109, 133, 134, 136, 141-143, 153, 161, 208, ash 73, 108, 109, 140, 142, 249, 261, 274, 275, 301
210, 215, 246, 249, 255, 261, 266, 274, 275, 279, 288, 293, 298, 300, asphalt 426
303, 304, 307, 310-312, 314, 336, 337, 348, 350, 355, 359, 367, 378, asphaltic hydrocarbon residues 283, 319, 368, 369, 426, 472
396-401, 406, 410-412, 415, 469, 470, 483 Asterosoma-type burrow 189
grain 267 augite 70, 71, 102, 103, 355
rims 70, 142, 312, 416 Austin Chalk (Cretaceous; Texas) 220
surficial 99, 101, 213, 214, 311, 479 Australia 191
aluminosilicate 274, 298 Austria 42, 53, 158, 159, 174
aluminous phosphate mineral 123 Axiolite 76
amorphous material 75
amphibole 3, 57, 63, 69-71, 81, 100-102, 355, 365, 380, 410, 413, 416 B
amygdaloidal basaltic glass 71 Baca Formation (Eocene; New Mexico) 32, 316, 355, 390, 470
amygdule 65, 76, 367 backscatter electron imaging xii, 91, 250, 325, 343, 354, 379, 482
An t-Sròn Formation (Cambrian; United Kingdom) 363 bacteria 348, 349

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 510 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks
bacterial oxidation 277 blueschists 94, 101
bacterial sulfate reduction 405, 407 Blålange Formation (Cretaceous; Norwegian Sea) 35, 320, 411
Bakken Shale (Devonian; Saskatchewan, Canada) 184 Boehm lamellae 6, 10, 440
ball-like structures 225 Bohemia 126
banded iron formation (BIF) 138 bolide impacts 68, 421, 439
Precambrian 109 Bone Spring Formation (Permian; Texas) 199, 237, 426
Barbados 436, 437 Bone Valley Formation (Pliocene; Florida) 123, 360, 364
Barents Sea (offshore Norway) 30, 62, 75, 291, 324 bone bed 220
barite 2, 20, 109, 336, 337, 341-343, 409, 415, 421, 433, 470 bones 92, 108, 118-123, 188, 220, 353, 363
Barmer Basin (India) 155 Book Cliffs (Utah) 189, 191
Barmer Hill Formation (Paleocene; India) 113, 114 boring 214-216, 220, 274
Barnett Shale (Mississippian; Texas) 183, 204 porosity 452
Barremian (Cretaceous) 478 sponges 216, 452
Barrow Sandstone (Jurassic; Alaska) 137 botryoidal 261, 315, 364, 416
Barstow Formation (Miocene; California) 296 boxwork habit 285
basal lag 54, 207, 411 brachiopod 405, 436, 472
basalt 2, 65, 84, 306, 315, 416, 479 chitonophosphatic 46, 120
porphyry 296, 307 inarticulate 120
dikes 300 lingulid 108
glasses 70 phosphatic 452
pillows 314, 432 Breathitt Group (Pennsylvanian; Kentucky) 127
“basement sands” (Cretaceous Maxon Fm.; Texas) 256 breccia 31, 176, 226, 259, 306, 407
basic volcanic rocks 72, 95, 102, 103, 148, 159, 182, 247, 428, 439, 444, brecciated 109, 197, 259, 432
447, 468 Bridger Range (Montana) 218
bauxite 214, 215, 224 Brine-reflux settings 337
beach environments 2, 87, 95, 97, 98, 101, 103, 104, 150, 152, 153, 164, Brines ix, 246, 266, 312, 336-338, 340, 356, 366, 374, 398, 399, 408,
179 469, 478
beach sediment 87, 95, 97, 98, 101, 103, 104 Brisi Sandstone (Cretaceous; Germany) 241
beachrock cement 310, 311, 313 brittle deformation 94, 163, 234, 286, 418, 420, 424, 439
bedding 84, 125, 152, 180, 186, 188, 189, 191, 193, 201, 206, 228, 387, brittle grains 228, 235, 437
421, 423, 424, 427, 433, 434, 436, 489 bronzite 102
bedload 184, 185, 187, 199 brookite 362, 415, 416
Beekmantown Group (Cambrian; Pennsylvania) 118 Brunswick Formation (Triassic-Jurassic; New Jersey) 412
beidellite 284 Brushy Canyon Formation (Permian; Texas) 8, 44, 251, 450
Belgium 160, 292 bryozoan 277
Bell Canyon Formation (Permian; Texas) 159, 205, 372 Bundoran Shale Formation (Carboniferous; United Kingdom) 242
Belt Basin (Alberta, Canada) 256 Bunter Sandstone (Triassic; Austria) 158, 159
Belt Supergroup (Proterozoic; Montana) 192, 196 Burdigalian (Miocene) 220
benthic 108, 110-112, 116, 196, 203, 204, 447 burial ix, 6, 29, 49, 58, 71, 82, 86, 92, 100, 103, 111, 117, 119, 125, 129,
organisms 111, 112, 447 133, 135, 158, 201, 202, 205, 208, 214-217, 228, 229, 231, 232, 235,
bentonites 109, 140, 275 237, 242, 248-250, 257, 274-276, 278, 279, 293, 294, 310-313, 320-
Berea Sandstone (Mississippian; Michigan, Ohio) 232, 326, 329, 330, 323, 325, 331, 336, 348, 356, 362, 383, 385, 386, 398, 402, 408, 420,
382 423, 427, 428, 468-470, 472
berthierine 108, 109, 135, 136, 274-277, 348, 456 -related compaction 236, 415
Big Sandy Formation (Pliocene; Arizona) 299 -related pore-fluid chemistry variations 266
bimodal 3, 150, 153, 163, 164, 176, 255, 355, 433, 439, 463 -related transformations 276
bioclasts 52, 64, 109, 111, 112, 137, 219, 220, 238, 277, 310, 311, 318, compaction 140, 215, 239, 470
319, 350, 383, 398, 450, 451 diagenesis 80, 88, 90, 114, 130, 214, 250, 266, 275, 298, 310-312,
biodegradation 362 323, 325, 329, 357, 365
biofilm 192 history 209, 215, 246, 448, 468, 469
biogenic ix, 16, 108, 116, 123, 182, 188, 198, 201, 214, 218, 220, 249, burrow 116, 123, 155, 180, 186, 188-191, 194, 207, 212, 214-216, 223
263, 310, 313, 385, 447 deformation 422
bioherm 405 fill 112, 190, 237, 353, 423, 452
biota 257, 405 burrowing organisms 188, 214, 216, 452
biotite 7, 9, 31, 55-58, 60, 61, 63, 67, 72, 78, 80, 82-87, 89, 92, 98, 135, Bursum Formation (Pennsylvanian; New Mexico) 27, 28, 66, 81, 82,
141, 157, 158, 206, 208, 234, 348, 355, 365, 410, 411, 415 281, 341, 388, 399, 480, 485
bioturbation 108, 153, 164, 182, 183, 189-191, 207, 210, 212, 221, 450,
452, 462
bitumen 3, 98, 127, 161, 250, 367, 368, 371, 390, 408 C
bituminite 127 Cairn Formation (Devonian; Alberta, Canada) 10
maceral 127 calcic plagioclase 21, 31, 268, 374, 398, 399
bituminous 126, 127, 209 calcispheres 108, 117
hydrocarbons 369, 370 calcite ix, x, xii, 24, 27, 28, 37, 40, 44, 63, 70-72, 82, 108, 110-114, 117,
Bituminous Marl Formation (Oligocene; Romania) 209 120, 124, 129, 160, 204-206, 209, 215, 220-223, 231, 239, 266, 299,
Blackhawk Formation (Cretaceous; Utah) 189, 191 308, 310-321, 326, 350, 354, 356, 360, 364, 374, 383, 394, 396-399,
Bloomsburg Formation (Silurian; New Jersey) 14, 56, 294 401-403, 408-410, 421, 426-428, 430-437, 451, 456, 458-461, 463,

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 Index 511

466, 469-472, 474-478 dissolution 446, 451, 458

cement 15, 17, 42, 46, 47, 52, 64, 70, 71, 73, 91, 100, 110, 121, 133, Cenomanian (Cretaceous) 202, 204, 205
141, 173, 176, 187, 201, 202, 204, 217, 218, 223, 234, 236, 242, 251, Cenozoic 4, 24, 35, 36, 64, 78, 84, 139, 183, 212, 249, 302, 304
252, 267, 269, 270, 281, 306, 310, 314-321, 327, 338, 339, 344, 367, Cerro Conejo Member (Miocene Zia Fm.; New Mexico) 217, 319,
371, 388, 398, 406, 409, 415, 416, 425, 426-430, 432, 434, 435, 450, 387, 459
458, 472, 474, 475- 477, 487 chabazite 298, 299, 301
ferroan 52, 64, 76, 91, 100, 111, 176, 218, 252, 310, 311, 320, 321, chalcedony ix, 2, 17, 40, 51, 54, 76, 108, 114, 117, 118, 143, 200, 244,
332, 348, 408, 410, 415, 428, 433, 437, 459, 471, 472, 476-478 249, 258-261, 263, 292, 307, 353, 356, 374, 383, 390, 406-409, 470,
inclusions 405 478
radial-fibrous morphology 311 fracture fills 385
radial crusts 317 cements 160, 198, 437
calcitization 249, 312, 383, 398 moganite grain 386
dolomite 405 zebraic 260, 261, 398
evaporites 399 length-fast 259, 407
calcium length-slow 259, 394, 398, 407
phosphate 92, 215, 276 chalk 111, 182, 183, 201, 202, 212, 219, 220, 228, 229, 488
sulfate 336, 391, 405, 409, 422, 432, 434, 438 chamosite 85, 108, 109, 135-137, 274, 276, 277, 322, 348
calclithite 42, 44, 52, 54, 168, 174 ooids 135, 136, 231, 386, 387, 456
calcrete 215, 310 channel porosity 459
alpha 221 Chattanooga Shale (Devonian; Tennessee) 184, 185, 193, 195, 200,
beta 222 205, 207, 208
caliche 43, 44, 215, 221-224, 308, 310, 313 Cheltenham Formation (Pennsylvanian; Missouri) 225
California (USA) 13, 14, 16, 68, 87, 93, 95, 97, 101, 103, 115, 248, 284, chemical
285, 296, 302, 304-307, 368 compaction 214, 228-230, 237, 239
Cambrian 31, 43, 46, 50, 51, 108, 110, 112, 113, 115, 118, 120, 133, 135, embayment 450
156, 157, 162-164, 175, 194, 210, 220, 231, 232, 234, 242, 248, 363, stability 80, 81, 87, 97, 98, 379
366, 414, 431, 439, 472, 473 weathering 60, 96, 98, 224
Camp Run Member (Devonian New Albany Shale; Kentucky) 346, zonation 397
350, 353, 412 Cherokee Basin (Kansas) 469
Campanian (Cretaceous) 26, 121, 122, 292, 352 chert ix, x, 2, 14, 17, 40, 42, 49, 51-55, 72, 74, 75, 86, 108, 109, 114, 115,
Canada ii, 10, 43, 50, 118, 129, 138, 156, 175, 184, 256, 282, 289, 304 117, 138, 143, 174-176, 178, 182, 197, 200, 203, 236, 240, 244, 249,
caniculi 120 252, 259, 274, 282, 285, 374, 386, 396, 398, 408, 409, 413, 427, 428,
carbonate 430, 431, 432, 437, 449, 461, 474, 478
clasts 40-43, 52, 186 arenite 168, 171, 172, 174, 258, 323, 327 385, 471, 473, 476
precipitation 313, 321, 348 dissolution 457
carbonatite 3 intraclasts 118
Carboniferous 45, 86, 173, 222, 242, 425 nodule 215, 218, 219, 390
Caribbean 72, 173, 258 porosity 385
Carlane Formation (Permian Enler Group; United Kingdom) 234 replacement 198
Carlos Sandstone (Eocene Jackson Group; Texas) 261 cherty
Carlsbad twins 20-24, 31, 33, 35, 403 calclithite 54, 174
Carmel Formation (Jurassic; Utah) 308, 318, 338, 391, 392, 405, 406, litharenite 174
422, 427, 435, 438 lithic wacke 174
Caroline Ridge (Pacific Ocean) 115 chicken-wire 129, 390
Carpathians (Romania) 206 Chicxulub impact (Yucatán, Mexico) 440
Castile Formation (Permian; New Mexico) 129 Chinle Formation (Triassic; Arizona, Colorado) 49, 159, 173
cataclastic deformation band 420, 434 chlorite ix, 3, 55, 56, 58-61, 63-65, 67, 69, 70, 73, 82, 86, 99, 101, 135,
Catahoula Formation (Oligocene; Texas) 262 140, 160, 233, 250, 257, 258, 274-277, 279, 284, 285, 290-294, 304,
cathodoluminescence viii, xi, xii, 15, 29, 32, 121, 203, 230, 249, 250, 305, 324, 378, 397, 404, 411, 448
253-255, 266, 311, 328, 397, 482 booklets 9
cave 40, 339 cements 75, 85, 290-293, 382
caverns 446 chloritized 60
cavities 119, 260, 305, 316, 362, 397, 399, 451, 459 Chlorophyta 125
cavity-filling cement 397 Chondrites trace fossil 189
Cedar Valley Limestone (Devonian; Illinois) 255 Cincinnati Arch (Indiana) 207
celadonite 411 circumgranular
celestine 109, 336, 337, 341-343, 409 dissolution features 392, 424
Cement oilfield (Oklahoma) 478 fracturing 47, 459
cement x, xi, 15, 27, 30, 37, 45, 53, 59, 64, 70, 71, 76, 77, 85, 99, 109, porosity 223
121, 135, 138, 141, 152, 153, 157, 158, 161, 162, 172, 178, 179, 201, shrinkage 453, 479
209, 214, 215, 217, 218, 220, 223, 228, 230, 232, 240, 242, 244-249, shrinkage porosity 453
251-254, 256-258, 260-263, 265-267, 269-280, 282-286, 289, 290, surfaces of dissolution 421
292-294, 297-299, 302-304, 306, 308-331, 335-344, 347-351, 353, clay viii, x, 10, 11, 28, 37, 40, 48-53, 65, 72, 75, 77, 94, 108, 109, 127,
354, 356, 357, 361-365, 367, 371, 374, 376, 377, 379, 381, 384-386, 133-136, 142, 152-162, 173, 175, 179, 186-188, 191, 193, 194, 196,
388-392, 396-398, 403, 405, 409, 412, 413, 416, 420-422, 424, 426- 201, 209-211, 221-225, 228, 232, 233, 237-242, 251, 257, 268, 270-
430, 432, 434-438, 448, 449, 452, 454-458, 461, 468-478, 487 277, 279, 283-294, 299, 320, 323, 325, 343, 350, 354-356, 363-365,

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368, 369, 370, 384, 391, 392, 396, 397, 399, 421, 423, 427, 429, 440, basal 72
445-449, 453, 455, 460, 468-471, 474, 488 basal lag 411
-bound water 444 Coniacian (Cretaceous) 35
cements 45, 53, 153, 156-158, 178, 202, 241, 242, 271, 273, 274, 285, Connecticut (USA) 11, 12, 18, 25, 30, 31, 56-60, 63, 82, 84, 88, 89, 95-
289, 292, 303, 344, 376, 377, 379, 382, 424, 449 99, 104, 157, 226, 235, 267, 293, 400
coatings 224, 239, 250, 253, 258, 285, 286, 288, 302, 331, 355, 469, Conococheague Formation (Cambrian; Virginia) 431
471, 475 conodont 108, 120, 207
cutans 215, 222, 223, 275, 285, 354, 358, 479 contact metamorphic rocks 35, 66, 84, 98, 366
matrix 48, 152, 155, 156, 159-162, 188, 239, 250 contact twins 21, 89, 91, 99
minerals 16, 49-51, 55, 134, 136, 241, 247, 266, 274-276, 284, 289, continental
298, 310, 348, 352, 401, 410, 416, 464 margins 363
rims 471 shelf 116, 122
transformations 404 wetland 324
claystone 40, 41, 48, 49, 74, 109, 153, 156, 181, 187, 216, 225, 229, 440 Co-op Creek Member (Jurassic Carmel Fm.; Utah) 406, 427, 435
cleats, endogenetic 434 coral 350
Cleveland Shale (Devonian; Kentucky) 203, 208 cortical layers 113, 136, 231, 232, 234, 386
climate ix, 129, 171, 275 Cowhead Breccia (Ordovician; Newfoundland, Canada) 226
clinoptilolite 296, 298, 299, 302-304, 471, 475 Crab Orchard Formation (Silurian; Kentucky) 207
clinopyroxene 70, 73, 81, 94, 102, 103 Craie Grise (Cretaceous; The Netherlands 16
clinozoisite 95 crenulated 55, 56, 61, 64, 284
Clinton Ironstone (Silurian; Virginia) 46, 163, 176, 239, 355 Cretaceous 6, 7, 16, 22, 26, 33-35, 53, 54, 58, 68, 72, 74, 85, 87, 91, 106,
Coahuila (Mexico) 6, 26, 292 108, 110-112, 115-119, 121, 122, 124, 125, 134-136, 160, 166, 173,
coal 40, 108 109, 126 174, 176, 180, 182, 185-194, 197, 198, 201, 202, 204-206, 217-220,
-bed methane 434 224, 231, 232, 235, 237, 241, 252, 254, 256, 258, 264, 268, 269, 271,
macerals 127 272, 276, 277, 279, 280, 283-285, 290-292, 300, 313, 314, 320-322,
coastal 328, 338, 341, 346, 350-352, 358, 359, 362, 363, 376, 379, 382, 386,
alluvium 223, 453, 479 387, 391, 409-411, 413-415, 422, 423, 426-432, 435, 436, 451, 452,
marine settings 108, 109, 123, 313 455-457, 459, 461, 462, 466, 471, 472, 476, 478, 484
coated grains 108, 118, 122, 137, 221 crevasse splay 452
Cobalt Group (Proterozoic; Ontario, Canada) 289 cristobalite 2, 16, 139, 143, 305, 430
coccolith 201, 204, 447 cross-hatch twinning 32
coccolithophore 108, 209 cruciform extinction 311, 324
coccosphere 447 crustacean 112, 214
Prediscosphaera sp. 201 crust 108, 215, 219, 221, 222, 224, 258, 292, 310, 317, 336, 358, 359,
cold-seep 109 462, 470, 471, 479
collophane 119, 121 cryoturbation 221
Colombia 428, 431, 461, 476 Crystal Creek Member (Jurassic Carmel Fm.; Utah) 391, 422, 438
Colorado (USA) 14, 22, 25, 28, 29, 37, 42, 43, 54, 68, 83, 85, 87, 90-92, crystallite 208, 336
94, 110, 115, 117-119, 124, 158, 159, 161, 162, 164, 176-178, 187, Cub Mountain Formation (Eocene; New Mexico) 29, 37, 318, 377,
188, 190, 192-194, 197, 198, 206, 233, 237-242, 251-254, 271, 272, 378, 413, 424, 454, 455, 460, 473
277, 279-283, 286, 313, 314, 318, 326, 327, 338, 350, 365, 366, 376, Curtis Formation (Jurassic; Utah, Colorado) 17, 42, 43, 164, 190,
386-388, 409, 414, 422, 423, 425-427, 429, 432, 436, 440, 449, 452, 238, 277, 318, 326, 422, 452, 477
456, 457, 461, 462, 466, 472, 477 cutan 215, 222, 223, 275, 285, 288, 354, 358, 479
compaction ix, x, 6, 34, 35, 40, 43, 44, 47-50, 58, 59, 75, 82, 83, 94, 100, Cutler Formation (Permian; Colorado) 25, 83, 85, 94, 158, 233, 239,
118, 133, 140, 143, 152, 153, 156, 173, 177, 185, 194, 197-201, 203- 286
205, 208-210, 214-216, 227-240, 249, 255, 274, 277, 284, 286, 291, Cutoff Formation (Permian; Texas) 428, 429
294, 311, 320, 351, 357, 374-377, 379, 381-387, 415, 421-423, 429, Cylindrichnus trace fossil 189
430, 434, 447-450, 454, 456, 460, 468-473, 475 Czech Republic 126
accentuated grain orientation 423
bands 228
features 228, 229, 236, 392, 423 D
deformation 190, 234, 422, 477 dacitic 75
dewatering 246 Dakota Group (Cretaceous; Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming) 54,
drape 119, 199, 215, 216, 229, 236, 237 91, 252, 254, 271, 272, 283, 376, 386, 391, 457, 472
fracturing 437 Danish sector, North Sea 201, 202, 219, 352
-related deformation features 420 Dartry Limestone Formation (Mississippian; Ireland) 342
stresses 242 Deborah Volcanic Formation (Oligocene; New Zealand) 70, 71, 296,
concavo-convex boundaries 229, 232 306, 307, 314, 315, 416
concentrations 109, 177, 186, 312, 323, 329, 405, 421, 432, 487 debris flows 41, 77, 140, 195
conchoidal fracture 16, 87, 94, 95, 99, 102, 103, 225, 236 dedolomitization (see also calcitization of dolomite) 405
concretion 187, 194, 196, 200, 207, 209, 214-218, 228, 229, 310-312, deep-marine sediments 108, 138, 298, 432, 436
317, 319, 321, 341, 348, 353, 362, 363, 387, 430, 459 deep-sea siliceous ooze 115
condensed section 108, 215 deep-shelf facies 408
cone-in-cone structure 206, 420, 421, 436, 437 deeper-water environment 42, 53, 115, 116, 128, 129, 159, 198, 229, 311,
Conemaugh Group (Pennsylvanian; Ohio) 236, 270, 354 312, 336, 337
conglomerate 22, 43, 45, 47, 52, 54, 62, 236, 327, 437, 471, 476 deformation 2, 6, 10, 24, 30, 47, 49, 51, 55, 58, 68, 76, 85, 94, 108, 135,

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156, 158, 159, 163, 190, 195, 214, 226, 228, 231, 234-237, 277, 286, dolomoldic 385, 389
357, 365, 377, 381, 383, 384, 412, 418-422, 427, 429, 430, 433, 434, Dowelltown Member (Devonian Chattanooga Shale; Tennessee) 207
437-440, 450, 459, 460, 468, 469, 471-473 downlap 184, 185
band 357, 420, 421, 433, 434, 438, 459, 469 Dowra Sandstone Member (Carboniferous Bundoran Shale Fm.;
features 229, 419, 420, 422, 424, 437, 439 United Kingdom) 242
lamellae 421, 439, 440, 477 Draupne Formation (Jurassic; offshore Norway) 116
deformed ooids 355 dravite 89
degassing 141, 434 dry-gas 312, 463
degradation 122, 156, 161, 178, 275, 304, 348, 365 ductile deformation 40, 43, 47, 48, 49, 52, 58-60, 65, 82, 85, 86, 228,
degraded oil 98, 369 231-233, 235, 286, 365, 385, 418, 422, 425, 472
dehydration 71, 129, 228, 246, 336 dunes 128, 164, 336
deltaic 189, 275, 311 duricrust 254, 258, 462
density-driven brines 336 dysaerobic 109, 351
desiccation 135, 194, 224, 231, 425, 460, 462, 470, 479 dysoxic 204
detrital x, xi, 5, 6, 9-11, 17, 21, 31, 40, 44-46, 48, 55-57, 72, 80-83, 85,
87, 89-94, 98, 99, 103, 104, 107-109, 118, 128, 151-153, 156-160,
162, 171, 172, 178, 188, 203, 204, 209, 217, 221, 241, 242, 249-258, E
260, 262, 266-270, 272, 274, 275, 277, 283, 285, 286, 290-292, 300, Eagle Ford Shale (Cretaceous; Texas) 182, 183, 202, 204, 205, 218,
305, 312, 319, 323, 324, 326, 329, 331, 336, 337, 339, 340, 348-350, 220, 321
354-356, 358, 362, 364-366, 369, 374, 377-379, 381, 382, 384, 386, Eau Claire Formation (Cambrian; Indiana) 194, 210
396, 398, 403, 404, 415, 416, 424, 429, 437, 439, 440, 446-448, 453, Echinodermata 111, 220, 277, 278, 311
454, 457, 469, 474, 475, 483 blastoids 111
devitrification 5, 73, 75-77, 139, 141-143, 262, 303, 440 cidaroid 111
devolatilization 127 crinoid 111, 117, 318
Devonian 10, 33, 72, 116, 125, 127, 129, 137, 184, 185, 190-193, 195, echinoid 111, 214, 238, 318, 451
198, 200, 201, 203, 205, 207-211, 218, 255, 287, 339, 343, 346, 349- diadematoid 111
351, 353, 401, 404, 411, 412, 464, 484 ecologites 101
dewatering ix, 195, 236, 246, 266, 275, 375, 422, 434 EDS or EDX (Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) 248, 268, 274,
diamictons 150 275, 284, 285, 304, 371, 380, 480, 482, 485, 486
diaplectic 440 Eilean Dubh Formation (Cambrian; United Kingdom) 164
Diaspri Radiolarite (Jurassic; Italy) 197, 432 Ekofisk Formation (Paleocene; North Sea) 212
diatom x, 40, 108, 249 Eldfisk Formation (Jurassic; North Sea) 59
freshwater 114, 263 Enler Group (Permian; United Kingdom) 234
pennate 113 enstatite 102
tests 263 Entrada Formation (Jurassic; Colorado, Utah) 28, 29, 37, 51, 87,
diatomaceous 108, 113, 126, 249 90, 161, 162, 177, 178, 242, 251, 253, 280-282, 327, 349, 356-358,
diatomite 114, 126, 182 365, 366, 377, 381, 383-385, 388, 389, 413, 432-434, 442, 449, 457,
dickite ix, 257, 274, 275, 278, 279, 281-283, 293, 396, 397 461, 474, 477
dike 64, 66, 155, 320 Eocene 21, 22, 29, 32, 37, 42, 45, 53, 69-71, 73, 91, 92, 94, 102, 114, 119,
dilational deformation zone 434 126, 140, 142, 143, 155, 174, 194, 196, 199, 216, 219, 236, 244, 261,
Dilsburger Beds (Carboniferous; Germany) 86 302, 303, 316-318, 328, 355, 357, 359, 369, 376-378, 380, 383, 384,
discoidal crystals 128, 150, 299, 337, 391, 406 389, 390, 394, 402, 403, 413, 424, 430, 431, 436, 437, 452, 454-456,
discontinuous zoning 22, 189 458, 460, 470, 471, 473, 475
displacive 109, 129, 130, 131, 221, 246, 293, 300, 318, 324, 326, 330, eogenesis 214, 246, 249, 274-276, 283, 300, 311-319, 321, 322, 336,
336, 337, 390, 406, 408, 412, 477 348, 355, 359, 362, 374, 375, 398, 399, 405, 444, 453, 454, 462, 470,
dissolution viii, x, 2, 4, 16, 23, 25, 29, 33, 35-37, 53, 54, 67, 69, 90, 113, 473, 474, 478, 479
116, 136, 142, 143, 152, 155, 186-188, 200-202, 214, 221, 228, 233, eolian 3, 128, 150, 152, 153, 159, 161, 163, 164, 177, 178, 234, 357
237, 239-241, 246, 247, 249, 250, 252, 257, 262, 266-268, 271, 272, sandstone 217, 275, 319, 433, 434
280, 310, 322, 325-327, 331, 336-340, 344, 353-355, 364, 365, 370, epidote 93-95, 101
373-392, 396-399, 401-408, 410, 416, 421, 424, 430, 431, 438, 442, erionite 298, 299, 301, 303, 305
444, 446-448, 451, 453-459, 461, 462, 468-471, 474-477 erosion ix, 11, 27, 41, 42, 46, 70, 80, 152, 171, 193, 207, 214, 215, 219,
pores 340, 374, 382, 387, 392, 442, 451 454-456, 458, 459 220, 283, 337, 384, 385, 400
Dockum Group (Triassic; New Mexico) 44 eruption 77, 140
Dogger Eisenoolith (Jurassic; Germany) 137 eruptive degassing 141
dolocrete 310 Ervay Member (Permian Goose Egg Fm.; Wyoming) 120
dolomite ix, 40, 41, 43-45, 50, 108, 113, 114, 118, 188, 215, 218, 228, eulite 102
251, 300, 310-312, 319, 320, 326-331, 336, 340, 348, 374, 378, 385, eustatic events 109
388-391, 421, 426, 431, 437, 449, 457, 458, 461, 464, 469-471, 476- evaporation 109, 339
478 evaporative shelf 478
baroque 312, 329, 367, 398 evaporite ix, 40, 108, 109, 129, 131, 132, 260, 266, 336, 337, 339, 340,
cement 17, 45, 52, 281, 286, 312, 327, 328, 476 344, 367, 372, 374, 381, 390, 391, 397-399, 406, 407, 409, 420,
concretions 196 435, 438, 457
limpid 406 exposure-related meteoric dissolution 385
ferroan 312, 323, 327, 328, 383, 389, 390, 405 exposure surfaces 215, 221, 310, 312
saddle ix, 312, 314, 329, 342, 390, 405, 433, 469, 470, 476 expulsion 228, 336, 399, 420
dolomitization 10, 43, 117, 136, 398 exsolution lamellae 26-28, 35, 36, 67, 235, 399

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exsolve 30, 34, 77 flocculated 184

extraclasts 40-44, 54, 108 Florida (USA) 108, 123, 244, 360, 364
flowage 55, 75, 131, 139, 156, 195, 233, 242
fluid conduit 368, 387, 420, 426, 468
F fluid inclusion 6, 8, 95, 132, 250, 310, 343, 470
fabric 6, 27, 28, 51, 54, 68, 74, 80, 112, 113, 136, 139, 148, 152, 155, geothermometry 266, 300, 408, 421, 469, 482
159, 160, 182, 183, 185, 186, 190-192, 196, 197, 204, 206, 207, 210, homogenization temperatures 312
211, 216, 219, 222, 228, 236, 254, 282, 286, 301, 303, 311, 315, liquid-filled 7
316, 385, 387, 390, 397, 399-401, 405, 407, 438, 439, 446, 453, liquid hydrocarbon 426
472, 473, 479 oil inclusion 266, 308, 428, 408, 478
Famennian (Devonian) 127, 207, 351 traces 337
Fatehgarh Formation (Paleocene; India) 155, 223, 224, 288, 304, 305, water-filled 51, 259, 262
324, 364, 365, 369, 370 water/brine-filled 131
faults 27, 176, 191, 195, 246, 336, 420, 428, 432, 439, 469 fluid overpressure 206, 420, 436, 448
fayalite 103 fluorapatite
fecal pellets 40, 108, 112, 133, 186, 197, 202, 204, 205, 274, 348 calcium 92, 118, 363
feldspar ix, x, xii, 2, 5, 10, 14, 18-22, 24-37, 40, 48, 55, 62-69, 71-73, carbonate 108, 120, 362, 363
76, 80, 82, 87, 93, 94, 139, 140, 143, 158, 159, 161, 164, 168, 172, fluorescence xi, 91, 109, 126, 127, 254, 321, 326, 327, 368, 386, 425,
174, 176, 178, 232, 234, 235, 239, 241, 247, 249, 252, 257, 262, 426, 428, 456, 477, 478, 482
265-271, 274-276, 280, 283-285, 288, 302, 310, 319, 324, 330, 343, fluorite 336, 337, 342, 344, 409, 415, 421, 433, 470
365, 370, 374, 376-382, 384, 394, 396-404, 414, 415, 447, 453-456, fluvial sediments 41, 42, 47, 77, 140, 150, 217, 224, 234, 262, 275, 317,
471-476, 482, 485 324, 334, 348
alteration 274, 378, 397, 399 foliation 55-61, 81, 120, 233
cements 25, 265, 266, 269, 270, 377 Folkestone Beds (Cretaceous; England, UK) 217, 362
dissolution 29, 67, 331, 376, 398, 402, 442, 454-456, 469, 474 Fontainebleau Sandstone (Oligocene-Miocene; France) 244, 250
overgrowths 266-269, 327, 378, 379, 471, 472 foraminifera 42, 202-204, 216, 219, 277, 320, 350, 447
phenocrysts 35, 73, 380 agglutinated 203
feldspathic arenaceous 112, 116
arenite 14, 15, 26, 45, 53, 169, 176-178, 286, 298, 304, 305, 338, 341, benthic 110, 116
476, 485 fusulinid 450
chert arenite 172 globigerinid 123
debris 35 planispiral 110
litharenite 176, 376, 409 planktic 108, 110, 187, 202, 352, 423
wacke 177, 178 Fordham Gneiss (Precambrian; New York) 99, 101
felsic rocks 3, 21, 68, 69, 74, 88, 99, 141 foreland basin 174-176
Fensfjord Formation (Jurassic; North Sea) 63, 323 foresets 193
fermentation 209 forsterite 103
ferricrete 254, 356, 359 fortification zoning 398, 407
ferroan xii, 242, 310-312, 319-321, 451 fossil fragments 541, 3, 111, 124, 174, 183, 193, 199, 223, 229, 348, 353,
calcite 52, 64, 76, 91, 100, 111, 176, 218, 252, 310, 311, 320, 321, 374, 383, 412
332, 348, 408, 410, 415, 428, 433, 437, 459, 471, 472, 476-478 Four Corners Formation (Pennsylvanian; Kentucky) 126
carbonates xii, 109, 310, 312, 328 Fox Hills Sandstone (Cretaceous; South Dakota) 112
cement 477 frac sands 163
dolomite 312, 323, 327, 328, 383, 389, 390, 405 fracability x
ferromagnesian minerals 86, 275, 304, 355, 411 fracture ix, 2, 3, 6, 16, 20, 37, 42, 47, 49, 52, 76, 87, 94, 95, 99, 102, 103,
ferrosilite 102 135, 182, 185, 187, 188, 214, 218, 225, 228, 229, 233-236, 241, 246,
ferrous oxides 108 256, 271, 274, 281, 282, 298, 299, 307, 308, 312, 321, 336, 340-343,
ferruginous 358, 366, 367, 378, 384, 385, 388, 402, 413, 415, 418, 420-422, 424-
cement 159, 389, 432 439, 434, 437-439, 454, 469, 476-478, 486
crusts 358, 359 horizontal 192
oxides 124 hydraulic 421, 435
FIB-SEM 488-490 microfractures 42, 266, 324, 428, 439
fibrolite 7, 98 pores 15, 231, 235, 259, 357, 374, 392, 420, 422, 427, 431, 444, 447,
filaments 108, 109, 287 459-462, 471, 478
Finis Shale (Pennsylvanian; Texas) 203 vertical 425, 427, 461
firm substrates 314 France 137, 180, 244, 250, 341
firmgrounds 215 Franciscan Group (Jurassic; California) 115
fish 92, 118-120, 188, 197, 199, 204, 350, 353, 412 francolite 118, 121, 122
debris 188, 197, 204, 350, 353, 412 Franson Member (Permian Park City Fm.; Utah) 17
scales 119 Frasnian (Devonian) 207
tooth 119 Freshwater Molasse (Miocene, Switzerland) 425
Fish Canyon Tuff (Oligocene; Colorado) 92 Frontier Formation (Cretaceous; Wyoming) 284
fissility 182, 237, 460 frustules 113, 114
fission-track dating x Fucoid Member (Cambrian An t-Sròn Fm.; United Kingdom) 363
‘flame perthite’ 35 Fulmar Formation (Jurassic; North Sea) 10, 24, 36, 48, 49, 63, 67, 88,
flame structures 192, 193 89, 93, 98, 178, 239, 260, 261, 272, 325, 327, 353, 354, 366, 370,

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371, 378, 379, 383 green marine clays 108, 109, 133, 135, 275, 276
fumarole 339 Green River Formation (Eocene; Wyoming) 119, 194, 196, 199, 216,
fungi 126 236, 383, 384, 394, 454
greenhouse intervals 313
G Greenland 15, 21, 34, 45, 47, 58, 60, 61, 64, 66, 69, 70, 72, 73, 100, 177,
gabbro 65 216, 279, 319, 320, 342-344, 403, 405, 409, 411, 415, 428, 433, 459,
galena 342, 362, 415, 421, 433, 470 472, 477
Galisteo Formation (Eocene; New Mexico) 317, 328, 389, 458 greensand ix, 134, 135, 231, 450
garnet 58, 78, 81, 95-97 greenschist 15, 101, 293
gas bubbles xi, 141 greenstone 109
Gaspé Peninsula (Quebec, Canada) 43, 50, 156, 175 greigite 352
gastropod 41 Grenville basement (Canada) 414
Gatesburg Formation (Cambrian; Pennsylvania) 112, 113, 162, 234, grid
366 twinning 31, 33, 36
Gault Clay (Cretaceous; United Kingdom) 363 zoning 20
Gazzi-Dickinson method 40, 171 Griffel Schiefer (Ordovician; Germany) 293
Geneseo Shale (Devonian; New York) 349 grossular 97
geochronology 81, 348 groundwater 261, 275, 311, 339, 364
geopetal structure 316 paleoflow paths 215
Germany 44, 45, 58, 86, 137, 173, 204, 206, 237, 238, 241, 293, 423, 425 grus 16
Gesso Solfifera (Miocene; Italy) 128 Guadalupian (Permian) 8
Gila Group (Pliocene-Pleistocene; New Mexico) ii, 302, 372, 382, 442, Guajira Province (Colombia) 476
475 Gulf Coast (USA) 29, 336
gilsonite 362 Gunflint Formation (Paleoproterozoic; Ontario, Canada) 118
glacioeustatic sea-level 222 gypcrete 336
glaebules 215, 222 gypsarenite 128, 336
glass shard 2, 5, 17, 65, 70, 71, 73, 75-77, 109, 139-143, 249, 262, 298, gypsum xii, 2, 17, 20, 108, 109, 128-130, 246, 259, 260, 275, 300, 336-
300, 301, 303, 307, 374, 413, 414, 416, 430, 440 341, 343, 374, 390-392, 399, 406, 407, 421, 432, 435, 438
glassy matrix 72, 76 -anhydrite transformations 398
glauberite 336 dehydration 129, 228
glauconite 48, 87, 108, 109, 112, 119, 133-135, 137, 164, 172, 187, 190,
215, 217, 219, 220, 229, 231, 238, 362, 274-278, 318, 326, 348, 359, H
362, 363, 386, 387, 410, 411, 450, 452, 456, 470, 472, 477 halide minerals 40, 131, 246, 247, 335-337, 421
cements 277, 278 halite 109, 131-133, 172, 260, 275, 334, 336, 337, 340, 343, 344, 374,
glauconitization 42, 219 391, 397, 406, 407
glaucony facies 109, 134 halos 84, 87, 310
glaucophane 55, 101, 103 hardground 108, 123, 214-216, 219, 220, 228, 310, 311, 362
Globigerina Limestone Formation (Oligocene; Malta) 123, 220 Harmony Hills Tuff (Miocene; Nevada) 22
gneiss 18, 25, 30, 31, 55, 62-65, 67, 82, 84, 97, 99, 101, 168, 267 Haute Maritime (France) 180
goethite 3, 109, 348, 349, 356-359, 470 haversian canals 120
Goose Egg Formation (Permian; Wyoming) 120 Hayner Ranch Formation (Miocene; New Mexico) 355, 381
gouge filled 420 Heath Formation (Mississippian; Montana) 436
Graham Formation (Pennsylvanian; Texas) 203 heavy minerals ix, x, 40, 80, 87, 88, 92, 100, 104, 177, 362, 374, 381,
grain-supported 155, 160 398, 447, 453
grain deformation 150, 163, 229, 231, 286, 449, 469, 472 Hell Creek Formation (Cretaceous-Paleogene; North Dakota) 440
grain shape 16, 150, 233 hematite 2, 3, 28, 46, 51, 91, 104, 109, 133, 157, 163, 190, 191, 224, 231,
grain size 2, 148-150, 154, 162-164, 182, 203, 228, 274, 317, 433, 439, 259, 286, 340, 348, 354-359, 381, 397, 399, 412, 413, 432, 450, 470
448 grainstone 138
average 148 ooids 137
grainstone 42, 118, 138 oolitic ironstone 355
granite 5, 16, 27, 29, 32, 35, 65-69, 74, 75, 82, 84, 95, 168, 177, 238, 240, Hercynian basement (Greenland) 177
253, 329, 381, 392, 401, 483 Herkimer diamond 399
pegmatites 95 heulandite 298, 299, 302, 304
pluton 29 hiatal surfaces 108, 215, 219, 220, 223, 348, 363, 364, 452
Granite Wash (Pennsylvanian-Permian; Oklahoma) 5, 68, 69, 74, 75, Hickory Sandstone Member (Cambrian Riley Fm.; Texas) 46, 163,
240, 329, 392 439
granoblastic 62 high-energy settings 87, 122, 150, 152, 219
granophyres 65, 68, 69 high-grade metamorphism 12, 14, 15, 56, 58, 61, 62, 67, 97, 102
granule 15, 123 high-magnesium calcite 108, 112, 113, 310, 311, 398, 409, 451
graphic granite 65, 68, 238, 240, 381, 401 High Plains (Texas) 221
gravel 148 highstand flooding events 215
gravity flow 41, 45 highstand systems tracts 310
Gray Sandstone (Pennsylvanian Strawn Gp.; Texas) 252 Hitchock Lake Schist (Cambrian; Connecticut) 31
graywacke 173, 174 Hod Group (Cretaceous; North Sea) 201, 202, 219, 352
Great Salt Lake (Utah) 128 Hoing Sandstone Member (Devonian Cedar Valley Ls.; Illinois) 255
Great Unconformity (Texas) 163 Holder Formation (Pennsylvanian; New Mexico) 222, 479

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 516 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks
Holocene 313, 453, 479 /smectite 53, 65, 272, 274, 275, 284-289, 299, 302, 325, 331, 352,
beach sediment 87, 95, 97, 98, 101, 103, 104 375, 396, 397, 400, 471, 475, 476
grus 16 illitization 25, 158, 398, 399
gypsum dunes 128 feldspars 159, 399
sabkha sands 339 illuviation 155, 224, 470
hopper crystals 131, 132 ilmenite 90-92, 415
hornblende 57, 58, 63, 65, 67, 89, 94, 100, 101, 141, 348, 355, 381, 410 image analysis 148, 447, 449, 453, 455, 485, 488
Horse Spring Formation (Oligocene-Miocene; Nevada) 17, 23, 141, imbrication 148, 152
142 impact viii, 152, 163, 214, 220, 258, 274, 337, 368, 374, 420, 421, 439
horsetail seams 237, 238 inclusion iii, 2-11, 17, 20-23, 26-28, 30-32, 34, 51, 53, 60, 65, 67, 69,
hot-spring 315, 339, 438 70, 84, 89-93, 95-97, 99, 112, 128, 129, 131-33, 141, 162, 198, 210,
travertine 315 221, 239, 249-253, 259, 260, 262, 266, 268-270, 281, 300, 308, 310,
tufa 438 313, 326, 337, 338, 340, 343, 356, 369, 378, 397-399, 401-403, 405,
Huambos Formation (Eocene; Peru) 142 407-409, 413, 416, 421, 426-428, 435, 440, 458, 468-470, 478, 482
Hueco Formation (Permian; Texas) 52, 54, 437 India ii, 5, 69, 75, 76, 91, 113, 114, 140, 155, 186, 223, 224, 254, 288,
Huizachal Formation (Triassic-Jurassic; Mexico) 28, 59, 103, 104, 304, 305, 324, 356, 364, 365, 367, 369, 370, 412
289, 294, 401 Indiana (USA) 194, 207, 209, 210, 464, 484
Huledal Formation (Permian; East Greenland) 45, 47, 64, 66, 69, 70, inertinite 126, 127
72, 73, 320, 411 Inglis Formation (Eocene; Florida) 244
humid environment 225, 275 injection dike 155
tropical 254 inland sea 193
Hyden Formation (Pennsylvanian Breathitt Gp.; Kentucky) 127 Inoceramus 111
hydraulic fracing 420 insoluble residues 221, 237-239, 240-242, 377, 391, 392, 421, 424, 479
hydraulic fracture-filling cements 435 interbedded 106, 109, 117, 140, 185, 207
hydrocarbon viii, x, 3, 182, 201, 214, 228, 247, 266, 278, 281, 288, 310- interdune 336
313, 319, 321, 326, 327, 329, 349, 362, 367-371, 375, 390, 399, 408, interstitial
420, 425-429, 444, 447, 448, 455, 460, 468, 476-478 clay 175
-bearing mud diapirs 436 matrix 152, 476
inclusions 369, 426, 435, 477, 478 intraclasts ix, 40, 41, 43, 108, 112, 118, 122
leakage 348 intraformational conglomerate 43
migration 356, 405, 407, 421, 426, 429, 469, 476, 477 intrusive dike 320
reservoir 246, 421 ion milled 21, 183, 210, 211, 447, 463, 464
residues 283, 421, 426, 461, 469, 472 Ireland (Republic of Ireland) 266, 342
secondary 428 Ireland, Northern (United Kingdom) 13, 36, 56, 60-62, 234, 242, 286,
“window” 312 334, 340, 379, 401
hydrogen sulfide 348, 353 iron 95, 102, 104, 136-138, 141, 208, 209, 218-221, 236-239, 251-254,
hydrologic model 448 286, 319-324, 347-350, 353-357, 413, 432, 472
hydrophyllic 17, 77, 141 formations 109, 137, 138, 348
hydropressure 421 hydroxide 277, 348, 349, 357
hydrothermal 2, 3, 6-9, 11, 15, 32, 40, 82, 90, 92-94, 101, 255, 317, 318, minerals 124, 137, 348, 356, 359, 392, 421
336, 337, 341, 342, 344, 362, 366, 375, 400, 402, 405, 411, 414, 421, monosulfides 348
433, 470, 479, 483 ooids 136
mineral 409, 415 oxide 3, 10, 11, 17, 37, 40, 44, 46, 70, 73, 91, 104, 109, 124, 136, 138,
hydroxide 108, 124, 247, 258, 277, 322, 328, 330, 331, 347-350, 357, 158, 159, 215, 218-221, 232, 236-239, 247, 251-253, 258, 271, 283,
359, 421, 452, 462, 475 288, 311, 312, 322, 326-331, 348, 350, 356, 357, 359, 388-390, 448,
coatings 311, 322, 348 452, 457, 462, 470, 475
hydroxylapatite 92, 108, 362, 363 oxyhydroxides 137, 138, 254, 320
hypersaline 128, 312, 336, 374 silicates 348
hypersthene 102 sulfides 17, 347, 349, 412, 421, 452
hypervelocity impact 421 ironstones ix, 46, 109, 135, 137, 163, 176, 277, 348, 355
hypervelocity shock features 440 island arc volcanism 72
isopachous 71, 313, 357, 470
isotropic 17, 58, 65, 88, 95, 108, 120, 123, 131, 133, 141, 224, 249, 261-
I 263, 298, 300, 337, 339, 340, 344, 353, 363, 364, 366
icehouse climatic periods 311, 313
isotropism 123, 224
Idaho (USA) 121, 315, 316, 479
Italy 62, 106, 128, 185, 186, 188, 190, 197, 231, 260, 430, 432
igneous rock fragment 3, 20, 21, 47, 55, 64, 65, 67, 90, 93, 95, 101-103,
Ivishak Formation (Triassic; Alaska) 240, 323, 385, 473
258, 299, 366
ignimbrite 35, 36, 65, 76, 139, 414
Ildefonso Formation (Cretaceous; Puerto Rico) 72, 74, 166, 173 J
Ile Formation (Jurassic; North Sea) 90, 233, 280, 290, 370 Jackson Group (Eocene; Texas) 261
Illinois (USA) 127, 210, 211, 255 Jameson Land (Greenland) 15, 60, 64, 73, 319, 342, 343, 403, 409, 411,
Illinois Basin 127 433, 459, 472, 477
illite ix, 20, 28, 40, 55, 59, 65, 157-159, 224, 242, 250, 257, 266, 274- jarosite 357
276, 279, 284, 286-290, 294, 312, 343, 344, 352, 354, 370, 380, 397, Jauf Formation (Devonian; Qatar) 287, 343
399-401, 416, 470 Jefferson Formation (Devonian; Montana) 218
/chlorite 287 Jordan 121, 122

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 Index 517
Jubah Formation (Devonian; Qatar) 339, 404 limestone 10, 16, 41-43, 46, 47, 52, 54, 108, 113, 123, 164, 182, 199,
Jurassic 6, 8, 10-12, 14, 17, 24, 26, 28-30, 34, 36, 37, 42, 43, 48, 49, 51, 219, 220, 228, 234, 237, 255, 258, 342, 383, 418, 436, 451
56-60, 63, 67, 83, 87-90, 92, 93, 95-100, 103, 104, 106, 108, 110, limonite 2, 109, 136-138, 231, 348, 354, 357, 450
114-117, 124, 137, 161, 162, 164, 177, 178, 187, 190, 197, 204, 206, Lion Mountain Member (Cambrian Riley Fm.; Texas) 120, 133, 135,
233, 238, 239, 242, 251, 253, 255, 257, 258, 260, 261, 272, 277, 278, 220, 231, 472
280-282, 289-291, 294, 305, 308, 318, 323, 325-327, 332, 336, 338, liptinite 126, 127
341, 349, 350, 352-354, 356-358, 365, 366, 369-371, 377-381, 383- litharenite 22, 49, 153, 168, 173-176, 376, 380, 385, 409
385, 388, 389, 391, 392, 401, 404-406, 412, 413, 422, 427, 432-435, lithic
438, 442, 448, 449, 452, 456, 457, 461, 474, 477 arenite 12, 13, 47, 52, 64, 71-73, 80, 173, 175, 176, 294, 320, 330,
344, 366, 425, 458, 472
arkose 176, 177
K grains 12, 26, 38, 39, 40, 46-48, 70, 80, 168, 171, 172, 174, 178, 217,
K-feldspar (see also potassium feldspars) 5, 20, 24, 26-30, 32, 34-37, 48, 231, 234, 252, 258, 261, 276
60, 63, 65, 69, 75, 76, 176, 233, 266, 268-272, 275, 284, 320, 327, rich 25, 63, 168, 414, 448
374, 380, 397-399, 454, 472, 473, 474, 484, 486, 487 sandstone 12, 45, 47, 76, 82, 240, 300, 339, 342
arenite 168, 177 subarkose 178
K/Pg boundary clay layer 440 wacke 174, 175
K/T boundary 440 lithified pavement 215
Kansas (USA) 201, 469 lithoclasts 41, 42, 164, 310, 427, 429
kaolinite ix, 20, 52, 110, 202, 210, 224, 257, 272, 274-283, 288, 293, lithostatic stresses 228, 239
331, 365, 369, 370, 377, 388, 396, 397, 402, 416, 449, 453, 455-457, Little Belt Mountains (Montana) 15, 255
469, 474-476 Llano Uplift (Texas) 29, 32, 35
cements 240, 293, 381, 390, 455, 461 load structures 192, 193
karstification 212, 214, 225, 343, 407 Lockatong Formation (Triassic; New Jersey) 300
Karstryggen Formation (Permian; East Greenland) 343, 409, 472, Long Mountain Granite (Cambrian; Oklahoma) 69
477 Lorrain Formation (Proterozoic Cobalt Group; Ontario, Canada)
Karstryggen Plateau (Greenland) 15, 21, 34, 58, 61, 66, 100, 177, 216, 282, 289
279, 320, 344, 415 , 428 Louisiana (USA) 290, 382, 448
Kazanian (Permian) 124 low-magnesium calcite 108, 112, 113, 310, 311, 313, 383, 398
Keg River Formation (Devonian; Alberta, Canada) 129 luminescence 266
Kenilworth Member (Cretaceous Blackhawk Fm.; Utah) 189, 191
Kentucky (USA) 126, 127, 203, 207, 208, 346, 350, 351, 353, 412
kerogen 187, 188, 196, 204, 210, 398, 463 M
Kharaib Formation (Cretaceous; Qatar) 478 Maastrichtian (Cretaceous) 85, 134, 410
Kimmeridge Clay (Jurassic; England, UK) 187 Macho Member (Mississippian Terrero Fm.; New Mexico) 407
Kimmeridgian (Jurassic) 187 Madera Formation (Pennsylvanian; New Mexico) 418
Kongahu Breccia (Oligocene Nile Gp.; Westland, New Zealand) 31, mafic igneous rocks 3, 21, 73, 298
176 magma 23, 32, 68, 71, 77, 103, 141
Kulm greywacke (Carboniferous; Germany) 173 magmatic alteration 5, 72
kyanite 55, 97, 98 magnesite 311
magnetite 3, 91, 104, 109, 138, 177, 354, 413, 415
Malani Igneous Suite (Precambrian; India) 140
L Malta 123, 212, 220-222
lacustrine deposits 108, 112, 128, 196, 216, 236, 275, 298, 300, 301, 348 mammal 120
lag deposits 54, 108, 163, 202, 207, 208, 350, 353, 411, 412 Mancos Shale (Cretaceous; New Mexico, Utah) 110, 111, 484
lagoonal 150, 164 Manesquan Formation (Cretaceous; New Jersey) 134
lahar 109 Marble Falls Formation (Pennsylvanian; Texas) 117
Lake Mead (Nevada) 142 marcasite 124, 208, 346, 348, 353, 354, 356, 412, 413
Lake Tecopa (California) 306, 307 Marcellus Shale (Devonian; New York) 183, 464
lamellae 6, 10, 26-28, 30, 32, 34-37, 67, 235, 268, 399, 401, 421, 439, marginal marine environment 47, 114, 313, 338, 355
440, 477 marine ix, 48, 53, 70, 71, 86, 108-110, 112, 115, 122, 123, 125, 126, 133,
laminae 104, 129, 138, 184, 185, 188, 189, 191, 192, 195, 196, 199, 200, 135, 140, 176, 214, 215, 217, 219, 220, 236, 246, 260, 274-278, 283,
219, 300 298, 306, 310-316, 318, 323, 325, 329, 338, 341, 348, 350, 352, 362,
lamination 182, 187, 193, 222, 423, 433, 452 378, 479
Lander Sandstone (Ordovician; Wyoming) 3 Marnes Bleues (Cretaceous; France) 341
Laney Member (Eocene Green River Fm.; Wyoming) 383, 384, 394, Martinsburg Formation (Ordovician; Pennsylvania) 12, 330, 434
454 Massachusetts (USA) ii, 94
Lange Formation (Cretaceous; North Sea) 279, 285, 291 matrix x, xi, 5, 23, 40, 41, 44-46, 48, 50, 51, 53, 56, 69-74, 76, 83, 118,
laterite 92, 109, 137, 214, 357 122, 128, 136, 137, 140, 148, 152, 153, 155-162, 164, 168, 171, 173-
laumontite 266, 298, 299, 304, 305, 364, 396, 404 175, 177, 178, 188, 190, 199, 202, 204, 218, 219, 223, 224, 231, 232,
lava 65, 73, 75, 76, 140, 223, 314, 367 235, 239, 250, 251, 293, 363, 380, 385, 424, 426, 427, 429, 430, 432,
Leatherwood Coal Bed (Pennsylvanian Four Corners Fm.; Kentucky) 446, 453, 459, 461, 476, 479, 485, 489
126 mature 52, 93, 158-161, 163, 173-178, 190, 191, 221, 383
length-fast gypsum plate 259 maturity classification 159, 164
lepispheres 16, 113 Maxon Formation (Cretaceous; Texas) 256
Lepsa Formation (Paleocene; Romania) 206 Meade Peak Member (Permian Phosphoria Fm.; Utah) 363
leucite 298 Mediterranean 109, 221, 336

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 518 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

Melke Formation (Jurassic; Norwegian Sea) 89, 96, 377 118

melt inclusions 21, 65, 69, 70 Miocene 9, 13, 14, 17, 22-24, 31, 33, 52, 66, 68, 86, 100, 103, 108, 109,
menisca 216, 358 111, 114, 120, 123, 128, 135, 141, 142, 217, 220, 244, 250, 263, 284,
Mesaverde Group (Cretaceous; Colorado, New Mexico) 33, 54, 68, 285, 296, 303, 305, 306, 319, 320, 336, 355, 378, 381, 387, 399, 400,
85, 87, 235, 241, 426, 459, 461, 462 402, 411, 425, 453, 459, 475
mesogenesis 28, 214, 246, 249, 274-276, 283, 300, 310-312, 316-318, Mississippian (Lo. Carboniferous) 116, 125, 185, 198, 200, 201, 204,
321, 328, 329, 331, 336, 337, 374, 375, 397-399, 405, 433, 444, 225, 232, 326, 329, 330, 342, 382, 392, 407, 436, 450, 460
462, 470, 476 Missouri (USA) 225
mesoperthite 32 mixing-zone settings 215
mesosaline 336 modal analysis 55, 65
Mesozoic 16, 97, 205, 387, 425 moganite 54, 249, 259, 385, 386, 398
Messinian (Miocene) 128 molasse 44, 86, 378, 425
metamorphic moldic pore/porosity 52, 113, 141, 142, 271, 372, 374, 382, 387, 390,
reaction rims 103 391, 403, 406, 408, 446, 447, 453-457, 474
rock fragments 3, 20, 35, 39, 49, 50, 55-57, 59-65, 67, 84, 87, 88, 96- Mollusca
98, 101, 102, 173, 175, 206, 257, 289, 366, 410, 484 pelecypod 52, 216, 238, 239, 383, 451, 452
source 12, 15, 25, 55, 56, 58-60, 84, 97, 99 Inoceramus 111
metasomatism 68 gastropod 41
meteoric scaphopod 450
diagenesis 387, 399, 402 monazite 84, 87, 98, 369
dissolution 375, 385 Montana (USA) 15, 192, 196, 218, 255, 436
waters 246, 261, 283, 310, 311, 313, 330, 362, 375, 398, 428, 457, Monte Antola Formation (Cretaceous; Italy) 185, 186, 188, 190, 231
478 Monterey Formation (Pliocene; California) 182, 368
methane 3, 277, 313, 314, 434 montmorillonite 284, 298
methanogenesis 209, 311, 312, 324, 348 monzonite xvi, 4, 24
Mexico ii, xvi, 6, 8, 18, 21, 22, 26-29, 32, 33, 37, 44, 45, 59, 65, 66, 70, mordenite 298, 299, 305, 306, 414
71, 73, 77, 81, 82, 87, 88, 91-95, 101-104, 110, 111, 129, 132, 140- Morgan Trail Member (Devonian New Albany Shale; Indiana) 207
143, 155, 160, 217, 222, 235, 267, 281, 289, 292, 294, 302, 303, Morrison Formation (Jurassic; Colorado) 14, 117, 456
316-319, 328, 334, 338, 340, 341, 343, 355, 372, 376-378, 380-382, Morrow B Sandstone (Pennsylvanian; Texas) 37, 180, 216, 253, 269,
386-392, 399, 401-403, 407, 408, 410, 413, 418, 424, 442, 450, 453- 271, 324, 325, 330, 331, 358, 388, 394, 401-404, 415, 416, 424, 434,
456, 458-460, 470, 471, 473, 475, 479, 480, 485 454, 455, 458, 460, 462, 474, 476
micas 40, 48, 55-59, 61, 62, 80-83, 85, 109, 135, 173, 206, 233, 275, mounds 313, 314
288, 410, 447, 460 Mowry Formation (Cretaceous; Colorado, Utah) 22, 110, 115, 118,
Michigan (USA) 232, 329, 330, 382 119, 124, 125, 176, 187, 188, 192-194, 197, 198, 206, 237, 338, 350,
micrite 41, 43, 112, 216, 311, 392, 488 409, 414, 422, 423, 426, 427, 429, 432, 436, 452, 466
micritized ooids 112 Mt. Isa Group (Proterozoic; Australia) 191
micro-reducing environments 350 Muddy Sandstone (Cretaceous Dakota Group; Wyoming) 283
microbial ix, 40, 123, 214, 215, 280, 311-316, 331, 348, 470 mudrocks 40, 181, 206, 246, 249, 250, 266, 324, 421, 422, 444-446, 460
crusts 219 mudstones viii, 40, 41, 43, 106, 108, 120, 181-184, 246, 300, 310, 336,
decomposition 220, 362 337, 374, 396, 397, 398, 420, 423, 425, 435, 444, 447, 468, 483, 488
degradation 122 muscovite 55-59, 61, 62, 80-84, 86, 88, 94, 98, 99, 158, 206, 233, 234,
filaments 108, 109 275, 289, 332, 410, 487
growth 219, 479 myrmekite 65, 68
mats 196 Møre Basin (Norwegian offshore) 13, 23, 26, 30, 35, 67, 85, 89, 96, 257,
methanogenesis 311, 312 280, 284
shrubs 315, 316, 479
sulfate reduction 348
heads 219 N
travertine 316 Nahr Umr Formation (Cretaceous; Qatar) 106, 135, 136, 231, 232,
microcline 5, 20, 21, 24, 29-33, 35, 36, 63-65, 67, 235, 264, 268, 378 276, 277, 322, 386, 387, 413, 451, 456
twinning 20, 32, 378 Naknek Formation (Jurassic; Alaska) 305, 404
microfault 420, 424 nannofossils 186, 205, 447
microfibrous 314, 416 nannoplankton 108
microfossil 186, 205 native sulfur 438
micrographic intergrowth 65, 68, 69 natrolite 298
microlites 76 Navajo Sandstone (Jurassic; Arizona) 255
microperthite 31 Navesink Formation (Cretaceous; New Jersey) 134
micropoikilotopic 281 Needles Range Formation (Paleogene; Nevada) 4
microprobe viii, xii, 27, 302-304, 312, 330, 331, 379, 396, 397, 399, negative crystal 4
402, 405, 482 Neihart Quartzite (Precambrian Belt Supergroup; Montana) 15, 255
microspar 311 neoformation ix
microspherulitic 311 Neogene 4, 23, 139, 217, 221, 222, 317, 380
microstylolites 186, 187, 237, 238, 240, 241, 423 neomorphism 274, 396
mineral inclusions 2, 7-9, 21, 22, 26, 27, 95, 251, 343, 397-399, 403 nepheline 298
Mineral Wells Formation (Pennsylvanian; Texas) 470 neritic 150
Mines Dolomite (Cambrian Beekmantown Group; Pennsylvania) Neroly Sandstone (Miocene San Pablo Gp.; California) 284, 285

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 Index 519
Ness Formation (Jurassic; North Sea) 8, 26, 34, 48, 83, 90, 92, 99, Ohio Shale (Devonian; Kentucky) 127, 207, 351
124, 332 oil viii, 98, 114, 127, 129, 182, 196, 199, 224, 250, 266, 274, 283, 288,
Netherlands 16, 310, 319, 337, 340, 348, 349, 354, 360, 367-371, 376, 390, 426,
Nevada (USA) xvi, 4, 17, 22-24, 35, 36, 78, 84, 139, 141, 142, 400, 414 428, 448, 478
New Albany Shale (Devonian; Indiana, Kentucky) 207, 209-211, 346, heavy 362
350, 353, 412, 464, 484 impregnation 386
New Hampshire (USA) 7, 55 migration 408, 461
New Haven Arkose (Triassic-Jurassic; Connecticut) 11, 12, 82, 88, oil/water contact 362
157, 226, 235, 293, 400 Oil Creek Formation (Ordovician Simpson Gp.; Oklahoma) 368
New Jersey (USA) 14, 56, 134, 294, 300, 410, 412 Oklahoma (USA) iii, 5, 68, 69, 74, 75, 125, 185, 198, 200, 201, 240, 264,
New Mexico (USA) ii, xvi, 8, 18, 21, 22, 27-29, 32, 33, 37, 44, 45, 65, 269, 270, 319, 329, 349, 360, 368, 371, 392, 478
66, 70, 71, 73, 77, 81, 82, 87, 88, 91-95, 101, 102, 104, 110, 111, Old Red Sandstone Group (Devonian; United Kingdom) 33, 401
129, 132, 140-143, 155, 160, 217, 222, 235, 267, 281, 302, 303, Oligocene 17, 21, 22, 31, 44, 52, 62, 70, 71, 73, 83, 86, 92, 101, 102,
316-319, 328, 334, 338, 340, 341, 343, 355, 372, 376-378, 380-382, 115, 123, 135, 141-143, 155, 176, 209, 244, 250, 262, 267, 296, 302,
386-392, 399, 402, 403, 407, 408, 410, 413, 418, 424, 442, 450, 453- 303, 306, 307, 314, 315, 317, 318, 376, 380, 399, 400, 402, 403, 416,
456, 458-460, 470, 471, 473, 475, 479, 480, 485 451, 456, 471, 475
New York (USA) 99, 101, 190-193, 349, 414, 463, 464 olivine 65, 103, 355
New Zealand 31, 70, 71, 114, 123, 135, 176, 219, 223, 296, 306, 307, Oman 116, 117
314, 315, 416, 450, 451, 453, 479 oncoids 118
Newby Member (Eocene Reklaw Fm.; Texas) 359 Ontario (Canada) 118, 282, 289
Newfoundland (Canada) 226 ooids 42, 43, 106, 108, 109, 112, 113, 118, 121, 122, 128, 135-137, 231,
Newland Formation (Proterozoic Belt Supergroup; Montana) 192, 232, 234, 274, 275, 311, 355, 386, 387, 397, 456
196 oolitic ix, 109, 128, 355
Newtown Gneiss (Ordovician; Connecticut) 18, 25, 30, 267 ironstone formation 137
Nile Group (Oligocene; New Zealand) 31, 176, 451 limestones 40
Niobrara Formation (Cretaceous; Kansas) 201 oomoldic 456
Nise Formation (Cretaceous; North Sea) 26, 268, 351 ooze 115, 116, 228
nodular 108, 129, 324, 337, 390, 398 opal 53, 116, 146, 261-263, 302, 339, 356, 374, 411, 430, 442, 466, 475
anhydrite 398 -A 2, 113, 249
nodule 16, 40, 108, 123, 129, 130, 205, 214-216, 218-220, 222, 236, 300, biogenic 16, 188
310, 321, 324, 334, 336, 343, 362, 367, 372, 390, 399, 407-409, 453, -cement 261, 262, 372, 409
457, 478 -CT ix, 2, 16, 108, 113, 114, 117, 249, 396
nonmarine 108, 109, 126, 138, 174, 188, 197, 214, 215, 225, 246, 275, dissolution 188
311, 315-318, 323-325, 348, 350, 357, 362, 479 opaline 2, 53, 108, 114-117, 249, 257, 263, 383, 461
nontronite 284 silica frustules/tests 114
North Carolina (USA) 120, 358, 359 skeletons 250
North Dakota (USA) 440 ophiolite 115, 197
North Sea 6, 8, 10, 11, 24, 26, 29, 34, 36, 43, 48, 49, 57, 59, 63, 67, 83, Ordovician 3, 12, 18, 25, 30, 84, 97, 99, 111, 137, 207, 226, 237, 238,
88-90, 92, 93, 98-100, 124, 178, 201, 202, 212, 219, 228, 233, 239, 267, 293, 330, 368, 423, 434, 463
257, 258, 260, 261, 266, 272, 277-279, 285, 286, 290, 291, 323, Oregon (USA) 52, 83, 86, 114, 263, 303, 399, 400, 430, 431
325, 327, 332, 336, 341, 350, 352-354, 366, 367, 370, 371, 378-380, organic
383, 405, 474 fragments 114, 124, 178, 187, 223, 370
North Slope (Alaska) 34, 53, 137, 174, 240, 264, 268, 269, 271, 272, 278, inclusions 53, 198
285, 300, 323, 379, 385, 455, 471, 473 matter ix, 40, 108, 109, 122, 125, 186-188, 202, 220, 237, 241, 246,
Northern Ireland (United Kingdom) 13, 36, 56, 60-62, 234, 242, 286, 277, 313-315, 331, 348-351, 392, 406, 421, 423, 434, 445-447, 452,
334, 340, 379, 401 463, 479, 486, 489, 490
Norway 30, 62, 75 degradation 348
Norwegian Sea 13, 23, 26, 30, 35, 67, 85, 89, 96, 257, 268, 280, 284, 320, pore 445, 446
323, 351, 365, 369, 370, 377, 411 maturation 228, 375, 447
Norwegian sector, North Sea 6, 8, 11, 26, 34, 48, 57, 59, 63, 83, 90, 92, particles 108, 109, 188, 197
99, 100, 116, 124, 201, 202, 212, 233, 257, 258, 277-279, 285, 290, plant debris 40, 108, 115, 124-126, 188, 191, 197, 215, 447, 479
291, 323, 332, 341, 350, 352, 380, 405, 474 Ortega Formation (Proterozoic; New Mexico) 93
Nova Scotia (Canada) 304 orthoclase x, xvi, 18, 20, 21, 27, 32-34, 36, 37, 235, 264, 266, 268-271,
Nuevo Leon (Mexico) 59, 294 377, 378, 399, 403, 455, 471, 487
Nuka Formation (Pennsylvanian-Permian; Alaska) 278 cements 269
nutrient-rich waters 108, 122, 275, 414 orthopyroxene 102
Ortiz Mountains (New Mexico) 317
oscillatory zoning 20-22, 96
O Ostracodes 111
Oamaru 70, 114, 123, 219, 296 Otago (New Zealand) 70, 71, 114, 123, 219, 296, 306, 307, 314, 315, 416
Oamaru Diatomite (Eocene; New Zealand) 114 Otekaike Formation (Oligocene-Miocene; New Zealand) 123, 135,
Oberaudorf Beds (Eocene; Austria) 42, 53, 174 219, 450
Obispo Formation (Miocene; California) 305, 306 overbank 205
Ochor Sandstone (Permian; Russia) 124 overburden loading 135, 193, 216, 228, 277, 391, 421-424, 438
odinite 275 overcompacted 286
Ohio (USA) 127, 155, 207, 236, 270, 283, 326, 351, 354 overgrowth x, 7, 10, 11, 25, 36, 88, 150, 153, 161-163, 214, 224, 232,

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249-255, 258, 264, 266-270, 285, 286, 288, 290, 318, 324, 327, 329, 368, 375, 376, 383, 388, 420, 421, 426, 433, 444, 447, 448, 454,
362, 366, 377-380, 403, 448, 455, 470, 471, 473, 484 459, 488, 489
formation 250, 257, 266, 270, 331, 477 reducing 362
nucleation 242, 253 Permian 5, 8, 15, 17, 21, 25, 34, 41, 44, 45, 47, 50-52, 54, 58, 60, 61, 64,
overpressures 201, 202, 206, 214, 228, 229, 375, 420, 421, 435, 436, 66, 68-70, 72-75, 83, 85, 94, 100, 104, 119-122, 124, 129-133, 158-
447, 448 160, 177, 187, 195, 199, 205, 216, 233, 234, 236, 237, 239, 240, 251,
loss 375, 438 264, 269, 270, 278, 279, 286, 287, 319, 320, 327, 329, 331, 334, 338,
oxalate-rich waters 375 340, 342-344, 349, 360, 363, 371, 372, 390-392, 403, 405-409, 411,
Oxfordian (Jurassic) 89, 96 415, 426, 428, 429, 433, 437, 449, 450, 457, 459, 471, 472, 476-478
oxidation 277, 319, 322, 326, 327, 330, 348, 353, 357, 412 perthite 27, 28, 30, 33-37, 65, 67, 235
oxides 3, 11, 17, 37, 40, 46, 65, 70, 73, 91, 104, 108, 109, 124, 136, 138, Peru 142
159, 215, 218-221, 236-239, 247, 251, 288, 327, 330, 348-350, 356, phaneritic 65
357, 359, 388-390, 415, 421, 448, 452, 457 Phanerozoic ironstones 108, 109, 348
ozocerite 362 phenocrysts 20-22, 35, 65, 69-73, 75, 102, 140, 141, 206, 380, 400, 411,
413
phi 148-150
P phillipsite 70, 296, 298, 299, 306, 307, 314, 416
packing 148, 152, 217, 228, 322, 374, 449, 452, 469, 470, 472, 473 phonolite 35
packing density 228, 469, 473 phosphate 46, 92, 116, 118-123, 135-137, 204, 231, 236, 275-277, 360,
Packsaddle Schist (Precambrian; Texas) 16 362-364, 446, 452
packstones 41 cement 318, 362, 364
palagonite 70, 71, 307, 314, 416 concretions 216, 217, 362
Paleocene 5, 13, 23, 25, 67, 75, 76, 110, 113, 114, 155, 177, 206, 212, crusts 108, 219
223, 224, 284, 288, 304, 305, 323, 324, 356, 364, 365, 367, 369, fish debris 199
370, 410, 415 grains 108, 118, 119, 123, 220, 364
paleoclimates viii, 324 nodule 40, 205, 219, 220
paleoecological information 216 ooids 121, 122
Paleogene 4, 5, 11, 41, 42, 46, 110, 164, 218, 250, 251, 259, 270, 321, peloids 122, 363, 364
427, 429, 430 replaced 414
paleokarst 215 shell 120, 121
paleomagnetic information 348 vertebrate 108
Paleoproterozoic (Precambrian) 118, 138, 354 Phosphoria Formation (Permian; Wyoming, Idaho) 119, 121, 122,
paleosols 222, 223, 270, 275, 311, 324, 357, 358, 454, 479 363
Paleozoic 7, 55, 94, 111, 120, 125 Phosphoria shelf 408
Palombino Formation (Cretaceous; Italy) 430 phosphorite 92, 108, 109, 121, 122, 362
palygorskite 274, 275 photic zone 198
Paradise Formation (Mississippian; New Mexico) 392, 450, 460 phreatic environment 313, 316, 317, 356
paragenesis 214, 290, 467, 468, 470, 474, 475, 478 Phycodes Group (Ordovician; Germany) 237, 238, 423
parasequence boundaries 310 phyllarenite 168, 171, 173
Paris Basin (France) 244, 250 phyllosilicate 55, 85, 233, 307, 348, 464
Park City Formation (Permian; Wyoming, Utah) 17, 390, 408, 409, Piceance Basin (Colorado) 54, 68, 85, 241, 426, 461, 462
449, 478 Pierre Shale (Cretaceous; Colorado) 313, 314
Patula Arkose (Cretaceous; Mexico) 6, 26, 292 pillow basalts 70, 306, 314, 315, 416, 479
Patuxent Formation (Cretaceous; North Carolina) 358, 359 pisoids 215, 221, 224, 308, 313
peats 40, 108, 109 pisolite 215, 224
pebble 123, 150, 151, 215 pisolitic caliche 308, 313
pebble-phosphate 123 placer 87, 88, 97, 104, 414
pedogenic ix, 474 plagioclase x, xii, 20-26, 28-33, 37, 44, 60, 63, 66, 67, 69-75, 94, 102,
calcite 221, 222 103, 141, 168, 176, 177, 206, 226, 235, 262, 268, 275, 298, 304,
processes 155, 316, 421 305, 353, 370, 374, 376, 377, 380-382, 398-404, 411, 454, 466, 484
pegmatites 3, 8, 9, 82, 88, 90, 95, 99, 103, 253, 483 authigenic 267
pelecypod 52, 216, 238, 239, 383, 451, 452 cement 267, 376
pellets 40, 108, 109, 112, 120-122, 128, 133-135, 180, 186, 197, 202, volcanic 20, 23
204, 205, 220, 274-278, 311, 315, 316, 348, 363, 364, 472 planktic organisms x, 108, 115, 204, 205
Pennsylvania (USA) 6, 9, 10, 12, 47, 111-113, 118, 156, 162, 175, 179, plankton 108, 115, 518
234, 254, 330, 366, 434, 439, 440 planktonic
Pennsylvanian (Up. Carboniferous) 5, 8, 27, 28, 32, 37, 54, 65, 66, 68, fecal pellets 197, 202, 204
69, 74, 75, 81, 82, 88, 91, 95, 117, 126, 127, 155, 180, 203, 216, microorganisms 204
222, 225, 236, 240, 252, 253, 267, 269-271, 278, 281, 283, 324, 325, organic-walled 108
329-331, 336, 341, 354, 358, 388, 392, 394, 399, 401-404, 410, 415, plant material 40, 108, 115, 124-126, 188, 191, 197, 215, 447, 479
416, 424, 434, 454, 455, 458, 460, 462, 466, 469, 470, 474, 476, conifer 124
479, 480, 485 gymnosperm 124
pericline twinning 20, 23, 24, 30, 32 pollen 108, 126
perlitic 65 ray tracheid 124
Perm region (Russia) 52, 124, 131-133, 390, 391, 406, 407, 457 tracheids 124
permeability 148, 150, 172, 214, 224, 228, 246, 258, 274, 279, 288, 289, wood 108, 124, 197, 396

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plastic deformation 228, 229, 422 455, 457, 462-464, 476, 489
playa 108, 109, 128, 196, 336 intracrystalline 280, 283, 289, 385, 388, 451, 453, 455, 456, 475
Pleistocene ii, 77, 108, 140-142, 258, 301, 302, 306, 307, 313, 382, 442, intragranular 29, 33, 37, 199, 246, 266, 271, 277, 278, 302, 374, 376,
453, 462, 475, 479 378-381, 384-386, 421, 438, 446, 450
pleochroism 2, 20, 57, 63, 72, 82-85, 87-89, 92, 93, 97-103, 130, 324, inversion 383
353, 366, 412, 414 loss 214, 228-230, 232, 242, 246, 249, 252, 311, 331, 448
Pliocene ii, 93, 123, 175, 258, 299, 301, 302, 360, 364, 368, 382, 442, macroporosity 83, 124
462, 475 microporosity 114, 205, 249, 252, 254, 261, 274, 279, 280, 305, 326,
plutonic 2, 6, 11, 15, 29, 31, 63, 65, 66, 88, 90, 99, 101, 240, 255, 256, 327, 353, 368-370, 380, 385, 404, 455, 457, 461, 486
483, 484 moldic 271, 382, 390, 455, 456
poikilotopic 300, 310, 311, 320, 336-341, 474 organic matter 463, 486
anhydrite 340 permeability patterns 375, 420, 447
calcite 120, 133, 141, 217, 319, 388, 402, 406, 409, 415, 416 root 453
gypsum 338, 339 secondary porosity x, 29, 54, 116, 136, 155, 160, 235, 241, 266, 310,
Point Sal ophiolite (Jurassic Franciscan Group; California) 115 338, 340, 374, 375, 379, 382, 385, 388, 391, 403, 410, 438, 448, 453,
Poland 129-131 454, 459, 464
polymodal distributions 150 shelter 451
polymorph 4, 16, 54, 75, 262, 274, 282, 311, 396 shrinkage 453
Ponce-Coamo area (Puerto Rico) 72, 74, 166, 173 types 214, 446, 447, 453
porcellanite 113, 114, 306 porphyritic 65, 71, 73, 75
pore 33, 47-49, 115, 122, 135, 208, 209, 231-233, 255-259, 266, 270- porphyroblast 60, 95, 96
272, 278-281, 285-289, 302, 304, 311, 321, 325-327, 329, 330, 344, porphyry 4, 65, 69, 70-73, 75, 296, 307, 380
349, 358, 365, 367-370, 374-376, 402-407, 409, 443-447, 450, 451, Portland Formation (Triassic-Jurassic; Connecticut) 56-60, 63, 89,
453-456, 458-461, 463, 464, 468, 470, 487-489 95, 96
bridging clay 224, 275 Portugal 9, 111, 320, 328
classification 444-446 Posidonia Shale (Jurassic; Germany) 204, 206
clay/mica framework 446, 464 potassium feldspar 20, 31, 377-380, 404, 474
crystal moldic 389-391, 446, 457, 458, 461 Potsdam Sandstone (Cambrian; New York) 414
dolomoldic 385, 389 Pottsville Formation (Pennsylvanian; Ohio) 155, 283
filling 153, 220, 256, 274, 278, 279, 285, 292, 303, 305, 312, 320, Powwow Conglomerate (Permian Hueco Fm.; Texas) 52, 54, 236,
336, 337, 343, 348, 362, 363, 388, 402, 455, 476 327, 437, 471, 476
intercrystalline pores 447 Prasinophyceae 125
intergranular 228, 283, 300, 305, 374, 415, 449, 457, 463, 464 Precambrian 15, 16, 27, 32, 46, 67, 93, 99, 101, 108, 109, 118, 120, 125,
intragranular 35, 220, 378, 380, 381, 415, 447, 458, 460, 475, 486 138, 140, 163, 183, 255, 282, 288, 348, 354
intraparticle 446 precipitation 40, 108, 153, 156, 214, 215, 246, 254, 266, 275, 280, 310,
mica framework 446 312-315, 320, 321, 325, 326, 329, 331, 336, 339, 348, 349, 353, 355,
moldic 37, 372, 374, 382, 387, 390, 391, 403, 453-457, 474 364, 366, 374, 375, 377, 390, 396, 405, 430, 456, 457, 469-471,
open 51, 143, 151, 152, 211, 242, 251, 253, 268, 320, 323, 337, 474-476
397, 479 prehnite 362, 367
organic matter 445, 446 pressure
pressures 430 dissolution 228, 249, 250, 266, 392, 471
rimming 261 solution 118, 188, 199, 228, 229, 237-242, 246, 364, 374, 404, 423,
secondary 69, 271, 291, 375, 376, 380, 383, 387, 444, 474 424, 450, 462
shelter 447, 451 wispy pressure solution 186, 237, 238
shrinkage 453 primary matrix 51, 155, 156, 158, 175
size terminology 444 Prince Creek Formation (Cretaceous; Alaska) 34, 53, 174, 264, 268,
space 10, 15, 35, 40, 43, 47, 49, 51, 85, 113, 152, 218, 228, 232, 233, 269, 271, 272, 285, 379, 455, 471
235, 241, 246, 249, 252, 255, 271, 279, 281, 283, 286, 288, 289, 323, proppant 426
327, 337, 340, 348, 368-370, 375, 381, 415, 416, 451, 454, 460 Proterozoic 93, 186, 191, 192, 196, 256, 282, 289, 483
pore fluid provenance information 21, 55, 171, 483
chemistry 256 pseudo-boxwork 287
conditions 135 pseudomatrix x, 40, 48, 50, 51, 153, 156-158, 231-233, 235, 240, 274,
pore-water entry inhibition 71 365, 473
porosity viii, 40, 45, 52, 69-71, 148, 150, 172, 201, 202, 223, 224, 228- pseudomorphs 274, 358, 408
233, 240-251, 256-258, 269-271, 277-279, 281-283, 288, 291, 292, psedouniaxial crosses 416
310-312, 315, 317, 320, 322, 336-338, 340, 341, 355, 357, 363, 367, ptygmatic folding 194
374-379, 381-392, 398, 406, 409, 416, 426, 429, 431-434, 437, 442- Puerto Rico 72, 74, 166, 173
444, 446-464, 468, 469, 471-475, 477-479, 485, 488-490 pumice 5, 40, 65, 73, 77, 140-142
boring 452 pyrite 47-49, 104, 110, 124, 125, 188, 193, 194, 197, 198, 207-210, 215,
burrow 452 231, 238, 300, 322, 324, 348-354, 356-358, 370, 413, 423, 452, 488,
channel 459 489
distribution 421 authigenic 48, 277, 352, 412
fracture 15, 231, 374, 392, 427, 431, 459-461, 471 cubic 83
framework 445, 446, 464 framboid 49, 178, 187, 200, 202, 208, 277, 320, 348, 350-352, 354,
intergranular 47, 58, 71, 215, 228-230, 239, 240, 242, 246, 278, 302, 356
362, 364, 368, 384, 388, 403, 404, 421, 438, 444, 446, 449-451, 454, pyritized lag 350

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pyroclastic 5, 139, 140, 299 redox conditions 341
pyrope 78, 95 Reedsville Formation (Ordovician; Pennsylvania) 111
pyroxene 24, 65, 70, 71, 73, 97, 100, 101, 298, 304, 348, 365, 411 regional
overpressuring 214, 228
paleohydrology 324
Q rehydration 129
Qatar 106, 135, 136, 231, 232, 276, 277, 287, 322, 339, 343, 344, 386, Reklaw Formation (Eocene; Texas) 359
387, 404, 413, 451, 456, 478 relict
QFL diagrams 168, 169 bedding 189
quartz coatings 382
authigenic 11, 44, 200, 203, 204, 209, 210, 249, 288, 325, 338, 352, deformation lamellae 440
426, 464, 477 host mineral 396
β-quartz 4 layering 207
composite 6, 12, 15 material 415
embayed xvi, 4, 5, 67, 69, 70, 139 replacement viii, x, 10, 16, 17, 24, 25, 40, 47, 58, 69, 70, 73, 82, 85, 86,
inclusions 34, 97, 401 94, 99, 108, 109, 113, 117, 129, 131, 143, 158, 193, 197, 198, 209,
inhibition of overgrowth 224 214, 215, 218, 223, 231, 242, 246, 247, 249, 266, 274, 275, 287, 293,
length-slow fibrous 17, 259 298, 300, 310, 312, 322, 323, 336, 337, 342, 349, 352, 358, 362, 363,
megaquartz 2, 40, 54, 76, 118, 258, 390, 398, 406-408, 431, 470, 478 374, 390, 391, 395-413, 415, 416, 433, 468, 469, 476, 487
microcrystalline quartz x, 17, 52, 54, 76, 114, 115, 143, 161, 249, 250, reservoir
257, 260, 261, 268, 279, 325, 380 homogeneity 420
monocrystalline quartz 14, 82, 151, 168, 172, 175, 178, 249, 252, performance 337, 380, 420, 426
253, 257, 258, 386 permeability 421
overgrowths x, 2, 7, 10, 11, 37, 162, 163, 224, 230, 232, 239, 240, porosity 270, 312
249-258, 266, 268, 269, 272, 279, 280, 283, 285, 288-291, 294, 319, properties 258, 311, 420
331, 338, 341, 354, 356, 369, 370, 376, 377, 382, 391, 392, 448, 449, residence time 310
450, 456-458, 470, 473, 477, 478 Retort Shale Member (Permian Phosphoria Fm.; Wyoming) 119, 122
polymorph 54 retrograde 58, 67
polycrystalline 2, 12-15, 44, 60, 61, 64, 168, 177, 178, 235, 258, 459 Rhaxella spp. 383
second-cycle grains 11, 46, 176 rhizocretions 223
semicomposite 2, 7, 11, 12 rhizoliths 215, 221-223, 223, 359, 453, 479
shocked 440 calcareous 212
syntaxial overgrowths 2, 10, 230, 249, 252, 253, 256, 376, 391, 470 rhodochrosite 310, 311
volcanic xvi, 4, 67, 69, 70, 77, 139, 140, 483 rhyodacites 35
undulatory 2 rhyolite 35, 65, 69, 70, 76, 77, 84
quartzarenite (quartz arenite) ix, 3, 15, 17, 41, 51, 54, 108, 162, 163, 168, Ricker Sandstone Member (Pennsylvanian Mineral Wells Fm.;
169, 174, 178, 179, 254, 255, 256, 322, 357, 358, 368, 381, 384, 389, Texas) 470
392, 398, 433, 448-450, 456, 488 Rieselberger Flysch (Cretaceous; Germany) 58
quartzine 398 rift-basin 300
quartzite 13, 15, 40, 45, 55, 59-62, 172, 255, 425 Riley Formation (Cambrian; Texas) 46, 120, 133, 135, 163, 220, 231,
Quaternary 16, 254, 315, 316, 356, 479 439, 472
Quebec (Canada) 43, 50, 138, 156, 175 Rio Ancho Formation (Cretaceous; Colombia) 428, 431, 461, 476
Queen Formation (Permian; New Mexico) 338, 340, 343 rip-up clasts 186, 196, 205, 207, 220, 311
Queensland (Australia) 191 ripples 187
rivers 87
rock-water interactions 214, 375, 376
R Rock House Canyon Tuff (Eocene-Oligocene Spears Gp.; New
radiation haloes 84 Mexico) 143
radioactive 84, 98, 132, 369 Rockdale Formation (Eocene; Texas) 357
radiolaria x, 40, 108, 115-117, 188, 197, 198, 200, 201, 219, 249, 257, Rocky Mountains (USA) 336
423, 428, 431, 432, 447, 461, 476 Romania 206, 209
Nassellarian 115 “Rome Beds” (Miocene; Oregon) 303
radiolarian chert 117, 197, 428, 431, 432, 461, 476 Rotliegend Sandstone (Permian; North Sea) 286
radiolarite 116 Rush Springs Formation (Permian; Oklahoma) 264, 269, 270, 319,
Radiolariti (Jurassic; Italy) 260 349, 360, 371, 478
radiometric x, 171, 275, 468, 470 Russia 52, 124, 131-133, 390, 391, 406, 407, 457
Rajasthan (India) 5, 69, 75, 76, 91, 113, 114, 140, 155, 223, 224, 254, rutile 2, 3, 8, 89-92, 95, 362, 365, 415
288, 304, 305, 324, 356, 364, 365, 367, 369, 370, 412
Rampur Shale (Proterozoic; India) 186
rapid S
burial 420, 448 Saar Basin (Germany) 86
thermal stressing 438 sabkha 109, 129, 164, 312, 336, 338-340, 408
Recent 81, 108-110, 112, 113, 115, 339, 362, 397, 436, 438, 482, 483 Salado Formation (Permian; New Mexico) 132
recrystallization 2, 42, 75, 114, 133, 138, 157, 158, 201, 242, 249, 288, salinas 109, 312, 336, 338, 340
395, 396, 469 saline
red bed 343, 348, 409 brines 312
Red Sea 109 pans 336

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salinity 112, 246, 337, 470 basinal 108

San Antonio Pumice (Pleistocene; New Mexico) 77, 140-142 calcareous 206, 428
San Juan Basin (New Mexico) 110, 111 gas 127, 205
San Pablo Group (Miocene; California) 284, 285 marly 226
Sanders Canyon Formation (Eocene; New Mexico) 45 rip-ups 207
sandstone classification 20, 48, 167, 154, 168, 169, 171, 182, 183 organic-rich 40, 41, 313
Dott classification 168, 170, 173, 174, 176-178, 485 shallow marine 41, 48, 108, 109, 117, 122, 123 133, 135, 137, 163, 176,
Folk classification 168, 171, 173, 174, 176-178, 485 177, 190, 194, 204, 217, 229, 275-277, 311, 322, 348, 362, 363
McBride classification 169, 173, 174, 177, 178 shards 17, 65, 76, 77, 109, 139-143, 300, 301, 303, 307
sanidine 20, 21, 35, 36 shear
Santa Fe Group (Neogene; New Mexico) 217, 317, 319, 380, 381, 387, band 131
402, 453, 459, 475 zone 432, 434
Saskatchewan (Canada) 184 shelter pores 447
scaphopod 450 Shenandoah Valley (Virginia) 51, 157, 232, 242
schist 7, 16, 31, 55-62, 82, 84, 94, 95, 98, 99, 101, 103, 173, 175, 176, Sherwood Sandstone Group (Triassic; United Kingdom) 13, 36, 56,
206, 410 60-62, 286, 334, 340, 379
schistosity 55, 56 shortite 196
schorl 89, 414 shrinkage 49, 191, 218, 223, 369, 430, 434, 453, 462, 479
Schuchert Dal Formation (Permian; East Greenland) 15, 60, 64, 73, Shumagin Formation (Cretaceous; Alaska) 74, 174
319, 403, 459 Shumagin Islands (Alaska) 74, 174
Scolicia burrows 189 siderite ix, 6, 11, 109, 114, 135, 136, 215, 218, 274, 276, 277, 310-312,
Scotland (United Kingdom) iii, 33, 164, 363 322-325, 332, 348, 365, 369, 374, 385-387, 398, 451, 456, 462, 473,
Scotland Formation (Eocene, Barbados) 436, 437 474
scour 193 sphaerosiderite 311, 324, 325, 454, 474, 476
sea level 137, 164, 207, 222 Sierra Blanca (New Mexico) 318
Seabee Formation (Cretaceous; Alaska) 300 silcrete 40, 249, 254, 258, 261, 356, 462
seafloor 109, 122, 123, 186, 192, 195, 216, 219, 236, 278, 320, 432 silica 1, 2, 35, 40, 52, 53, 106, 108, 113-118, 124, 125, 141-143, 188,
alteration 134 197-200, 203, 215, 219, 228, 240, 245, 247, 250, 257, 258, 260-262,
cementation 220 275, 299, 307, 348, 374, 381, 383, 385, 386, 390, 396-398, 404-409,
hydrocarbon cold-seeps 313 421, 425, 430, 431, 438, 461, 470, 478
methane 314 biogenic 182, 198, 218, 249
mounds 313 hydrous 249
searlesite 307 silicification 118, 188, 218, 219, 372, 397, 398, 405, 407, 408, 430, 478
seawater 108, 109, 129, 246, 337 silicoflagellates 108
second-cycle grains 10, 11, 46, 163, 164, 176, 253 Sillery Group (Cambrian; Quebec, Canada) 43, 50, 156, 175
sector-zoned crystal 96, 344 sillimanite 3, 7, 55, 98
sedarenite 168, 175 silt viii, x, 40, 41, 46, 48, 129, 148, 152-157, 159, 164, 181, 182, 184-
sediment accumulation 214, 217, 362 189, 191-196, 200, 202, 203, 205, 210, 215, 216, 221, 237, 240, 312,
slow 215, 219, 276, 318 326, 349, 384, 422, 426, 430, 433, 436-438, 447, 452, 477, 483
sedimentary rock fragments x, 39-43, 45-52, 54, 55, 117, 153, 156, 157, Silurian 6, 9, 10, 14, 46, 47, 56, 156, 162, 163, 175, 176, 179, 207, 239,
159, 163, 164, 175, 229, 284, 326, 384, 385, 422, 427, 430, 437, 254, 294, 355, 439, 440
473, 477 Simpson Group (Ordovician; Oklahoma) 368
sedimentation rate Simsboro Member (Eocene Rockdale Fm.; Texas) 357
fast 109, 133 Siyeh Formation (Proterozoic; Alberta, Canada) 256
slow 108, 135, 137, 220, 414 Skagerrak Formation (Triassic; North Sea) 43, 367
seepage 435 skarn 3, 88, 99
selective dissolution 29, 69, 228, 266, 378, 389, 454, 458 skeletal ix, 40, 108, 111, 119, 121, 218, 266, 277, 278, 321, 374, 377,
SEM 15, 16, 21, 35, 80, 91, 113-115, 126, 152, 183, 201, 202, 204-206, 379, 397, 402, 406, 408, 410
208-211, 224, 248, 249, 257, 258, 261, 268, 272, 274, 275, 278, 279, Skolithos burrow 189
284-288, 290, 291, 296, 298, 299, 301-306, 325, 343, 344, 351, 352, Skull Creek Shale (Cretaceous; Wyoming) 435
354, 371, 380, 382, 463, 464, 480, 482, 483, 485, 489 Slick Rock Member (Jurassic Entrada Fm.; Colorado, Utah) 349,
semi-arid environments 249, 254, 258, 275, 399, 475 356-358, 377, 383-385, 413, 432-434, 474
septarian nodules/concretions 215, 218, 321, 430 slide surface 130
sequence boundary 207, 350, 353, 412 smectite ix, 70, 134, 109, 136, 209, 224, 250, 266, 274-276, 285, 287,
sericite 20, 24, 26, 55, 64, 66, 82, 94, 286, 289, 397, 400, 411 289, 398, 416
sericitization 2, 26, 64, 66, 266, 267 -chlorite 325, 396
serpentine 135 trioctaedral 275
serpentinite 275 Smoky Hill Member (Cretaceous Niobrara Fm.; Kansas) 201
Setúbal Peninsula (Portugal) 9, 111, 320 Snadd Formation (Triassic; Barents Sea, offshore Norway) 30, 62,
Sevier orogenic belt 176, 484 75, 291, 324
shale viii, 47, 49-53, 74, 108-111, 115-119, 122, 124-127, 138, 156-159, sodic playa lakes 108
164, 171, 173, 180-211, 215, 216, 218, 220, 228, 229, 231-233, 236- soft-sediment deformation 195, 420, 422, 452
238, 242, 247, 293, 300, 311-313, 314, 321, 331, 346, 349-351, 353, soil 40, 153, 155, 190, 191, 214, 215, 221-224, 354, 357-359, 453, 462,
390, 391, 412, 422-425, 432, 435, 436, 444, 447, 457, 463, 464, 477, 479
479, 483, 484, 488, 489 crust 44, 221, 222, 359
arenite 156, 168, 175 Sokoman Formation (Paleoproterozoic; Quebec, Canada) 138

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 524 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

solid-solution series 312 sulfidic 277, 339

Solikamskaya Horizon (Permian; Russia) 52, 131-133, 390, 391, 406, sulfur 343, 351, 438
407, 457 supermature 46, 153, 161-163, 168, 173, 178, 179
solution supratidal mudflat 164
enlargement 392, 420 surface texture 148, 152
films 405 surficial weathering viii, 92, 362
front 396 suspension 58
seam 186-188, 228, 229, 237, 238, 240, 242, 246, 374, 392, 422-424, Switzerland 86, 378, 425
446, 462 sylvite 132, 133, 336
Sonyea Group (Devonian; New York) 190-193 symplectic intergrowth 65, 103
sorting 149, 151, 173 syneresis (synaeresis) 194
measurement 150 syneresis cracks 194
source rocks x, 5, 15, 16, 25, 31, 42, 84, 98, 251, 266, 267, 397, 400,
421, 483
South Dakota (USA) 112 T
South Tethyan Phosphogenic Province 121 tachylite 71
spastolith 136 Taconic orogeny 175, 176
Spears Group (Eocene-Oligocene; New Mexico) 21, 22, 70, 71, 73, Taenidium burrows 452
92, 94, 101, 102, 143, 155, 267, 302, 303, 317, 376, 380, 402, 403, Tagus Basin (Portugal) 9, 111, 320
456, 471, 475 Tang Formation (Paleocene; Norwegian Sea) 13, 23, 67, 284, 323,
Spekk Formation (Jurassic; Norwegian Sea) 30, 257, 369 365
sphalerite 362, 366, 405, 470 tar sand 311, 362, 368
sphene 99, 305, 362, 364 tartan twinning 20, 30-32, 235, 268
spherules 398 Tasmanites 125, 200, 201, 207, 208, 351
spherulite 16, 65, 70, 74-76, 139, 143, 262, 324, 381, 386, 416 cysts 200, 201
spicular cherts 42 Tatarian (Permian) 124
sponge 40, 214, 452 tectonic setting 432
borings 216 Teichichnus burrows 207
clionid sponge 216 telogenesis 214, 215, 246, 249, 319, 328, 329, 337, 358, 374, 375, 384,
Demospongia 198 388, 391, 398, 399, 405, 413, 432, 444, 447, 459462, 470, 478, 479
Hyalospongia 198 tempestites 189, 191, 196
monaxon spicules 117 Tennessee (USA) 184, 185, 193, 195, 200, 205, 207, 208
multi-axon spicules 117 tepee mounds 314
polyaxon spicules 116, 117 tephra-rich 298
spicule 42, 52, 53, 108, 111, 116, 117, 188, 198, 199, 201, 218, 219, terra rossa 212, 215, 221, 222
231, 249, 257, 260, 383, 385, 386, 405, 431 Terrero Formation (Mississippian Arroyo Peñasco Gp.; New
triaxon 116 Mexico) 407
spore cases 108, 126, 127, 200, 201 terrestrial ix, 126, 188, 317, 350, 357
spot-welding 228 plants 197
spreite (burrow-fills) 207, 212, 216 sediments 275
Springar Formation (Cretaceous; Norwegian Sea) 85 Tertiary xvi, 146, 224, 301, 400, 414, 448, 462
Sri Lanka 25, 110, 177, 410, 415 tests 108, 110, 112, 114-116, 198, 257, 263, 275, 277, 320, 348, 431,
staurolite 55, 99 447, 450, 451
storm-dominated shelf 189, 191 Tethyan 121, 197
storms 164, 187 Teuschnitzer Conglomerate (Carboniferous; Germany) 45
strain lamellae 421 Texas (USA) iii, 5, 7, 8, 11, 16, 29, 32, 35, 37, 41, 42, 44, 46, 50-52,
Strawn Group (Pennsylvanian; Texas) 252, 466 54, 67, 112, 116, 117, 120, 133, 135, 146, 159, 163, 164, 180, 187,
stress-induced twinning 318 195, 199, 202-205, 216, 218, 220, 221, 231, 233, 236, 237, 250-
stromatolitic 123, 219 253, 256, 258, 259, 261, 262, 269-271, 321, 324, 325, 327, 330,
stylolite 228, 229, 237, 240-242, 246, 249, 374, 387, 392, 420, 421, 423, 331, 346, 357-359, 372, 388, 394, 401-404, 415, 416, 424, 426-
424, 446, 462, 469, 476 430, 434, 437, 439, 450, 454, 455, 458, 460, 462, 466, 470-472,
stylolitic dissolution surface 241 474, 476, 483
subaerial exposure 108, 123, 215, 223, 310, 447, 453 textural
subarkose 168, 176, 178 analysis 150, 485
sublitharenite 176 fabrics 159, 230
submarine erosion 177, 219, 220, 314 inversion 153, 163, 164
submature 153, 155, 157, 159, 160, 168, 172, 173, 175-178, 380, 472 maturity 153, 156, 159, 160, 168, 179
suboxic 216, 311, 322 properties viii, 148, 150, 153, 168
sulfate ix, 130, 209, 215, 246, 247, 277, 312, 324, 335-339, 348, 362, texture 29, 36, 40, 44, 55, 62, 65, 68, 69, 74, 76, 129, 130, 148, 152,
391, 397-399, 405-407, 409, 422, 432, 434, 438 153, 155, 163, 168, 182, 204, 242, 259, 266, 275, 282, 287, 342,
-rich 407 379, 381, 405, 433, 436, 439
calcitization 399 Thalassinoides burrows 123
reduction ix, 209, 215, 277, 348, 362, 398, 405, 407, 409 Thar desert (Rajasthan, India) 254, 356
sulfide 17, 208, 238, 247, 347-349, 353, 357, 362, 366, 412, 413, 421, thermal
452, 470 conductivity 336
-poor 322, 358 convection 246

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 Index 525

history 92, 344, 448, 468, 469 U

maturation 109, 119, 120, 124-127 Udden-Wentworth scale 148, 149
thermobarometer 483 Ufimian (Permian) 52, 131-133, 390, 391, 406, 407, 457
thermochemical uintaite 362
hydrocarbon generation ix Ula Formation (Jurassic; North Sea) 57, 257, 341, 380, 405
sulfate reduction ix, 362, 398, 409 ultrabasic igneous rocks 95, 102, 103
thin films 369, 371 ultrastable 80, 81, 87, 88
thorium 87 Unayzah Formation (Permian; Qatar) 287, 344
Thumbli Formation (Eocene; India) 69, 91, 369 unconventional viii, 182, 444, 447
tidal flat 164 undulatory extinction 2, 6, 11, 12, 60, 64, 67, 71, 242, 249, 312, 329,
Tilje Formation (Jurassic; North Sea) 6, 11, 100, 257, 258, 277, 278, 330, 429, 473, 476
290, 291, 350, 352, 474 Unicoi Formation (Cambrian; Virginia) 51, 157, 232, 242, 473
Tinton Formation (Cretaceous; New Jersey) 134, 410 unit extinction 4, 5, 402
titanite 3, 98-100, 362, 364, 365, 415 United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) 308, 313, 339
authigenic 305 United Kingdom (U.K.) ii, 13, 24, 33, 43, 56, 60-63, 88, 89, 93, 98, 164,
titanium 3, 365, 483 187, 217, 234, 242, 272, 340, 362, 363, 401
oxide 90, 415, 416 United Kingdom sector (North Sea) 10, 36, 43, 48, 49, 63, 67, 178, 239,
Toarcian (Jurassic) 204, 206 260, 261, 286, 325, 327, 353, 354, 366, 367, 370, 371, 378, 379, 383
Ton Mergel Beds (Oligocene Molasse; Germany) 44 uplift-related diagenesis 246, 330, 358, 384, 432, 478
Tongriano Conglomerate (Oligocene; Italy) 62 Upper Marine Molasse (Miocene; Switzerland) 86, 378
Topanga Formation (Miocene; California) 13, 14, 68 upwelling 108, 122, 363, 414
Tortonian (Miocene) 9, 111, 320 uranium 87
Tosi Chert Member (Permian Park City Fm.; Wyoming) 390, 408, Utah (USA) 17, 51, 125, 128, 161, 178, 183, 189, 191, 280, 308, 318,
409, 478 338, 349, 356-358, 363, 377, 381, 383-385, 389, 391, 392, 405, 406,
Totara Limestone (Eocene; New Zealand) 219 413, 422, 427, 432-435, 438, 442, 449, 474, 484
tourmaline x, 2, 3, 7-9, 81, 88, 89, 92, 177, 362, 366, 414 Utica Shale (Ordovician; New York) 463
Town Mountain Granite (Precambrian; Texas) 29, 32, 35, 67, 483
trace elements 344
trachyte 35, 74 V
travertine 40, 315, 316, 318, 470 vacuoles 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 20, 21, 27, 34, 249, 269, 404, 439, 472
warm-spring 479 vacuolization 2, 25, 26, 66, 266, 267
Travis Peak Formation (Cretaceous; Texas) 7, 258 vadose zone 228, 316, 317, 355
Triassic 11-13, 28, 30, 36, 43, 44, 49, 56-63, 75, 82, 88, 89, 95, 96, 103, Valles Caldera (New Mexico) 140
104, 120, 157-159, 173, 226, 235, 240, 286, 289, 291, 293, 294, 300, Variscan orogeny 293
323, 324, 334, 336, 340, 367, 379, 385, 400, 401, 412, 473 varved evaporite 129
triclinic feldspars 20 vein 2, 3, 8, 93, 342, 362, 421, 428-430, 434, 477
tridymite 75, 262 -filling 337, 436
trilobite 133 Verde Formation (Pliocene; Arizona) 23, 175
thoracic segments 111 vermicular 109, 274, 275, 278, 282, 410
tripolite 182 chlorite 9, 293, 378
tropical settings 249, 313 glauconite 134
tsunamis 195 kaolinite 279, 281, 370, 381, 455
tufa 40, 339, 438 vermiculite 293, 410, 411
tuff 4, 17, 22, 35, 52, 92, 109, 300, 301, 303, 306, 307, 399, 400, 414 vertebrate 108, 118, 120-123, 220
crystal 5 vertical compression 210
vitric 140 vertical lithostatic stresses 228
welded 76, 139, 143 vesicles 65, 71, 77, 76, 140, 296, 299, 307
turbidites 128, 153, 177, 185, 187, 191, 192, 214, 436, 437 Vieja Group (Paleogene; Texas) 5, 11, 41, 42, 46, 164, 218, 250, 251,
distal succession 186 259, 270, 321, 427, 429, 430
turbidity 128, 153, 192, 214 Virgin Valley Formation (Miocene; Oregon) 114, 263
Turonian (Cretaceous) 218 Virginia (USA) 46, 51, 157, 163, 176, 232, 239, 242, 355, 431, 473
Tuscaloosa Formation (Cretaceous; Louisiana) 290, 382 vitrinite 126, 127
Tuscarora Sandstone (Silurian; Pennsylvania) 6, 9, 10, 47, 156, 162, vivianite 410
175, 179, 254, 439, 440 void filling 17, 143, 218, 275, 399, 401, 404
twinned cement 218, 401
crystal 36, 337 void spaces 246, 267, 444
feldspars 10 volcanic xvi, 2-5, 20-23, 40, 46, 47, 55, 64, 67, 69-75, 84, 101, 139-143,
plagioclase 26, 74, 235, 399 251, 261-263, 296, 300-303, 306, 307, 315, 365
twinning 2, 5, 20-27, 29-33, 266, 269, 311, 312, 318, 326, 332, 341, 377, arenite ii, 73, 166, 168, 171, 173, 174, 302, 303, 317, 372, 380
396, 430 ash 108, 249, 274, 275, 301
Carlsbad twins 20-24, 31, 33, 35, 403 clasts 70, 71, 140
grid 31, 33, 36 glass 5, 17, 65, 73, 77, 141-143, 249, 262, 298, 300, 301, 413, 416,
polysynthetic and/or albite 20-23, 32, 25, 27, 33, 66, 400, 401 430
stress-induced 318 grain 75, 262
tartan 20, 30-32, 235, 268, 378 island arc 173, 174
Tyrol (Austria) 158, 159 rock fragment 2, 3, 20-22, 35, 52, 65, 69, 70-75, 84, 95, 102, 109,

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 526 Petrography of Sandstones and Associated Rocks

206, 262, 266, 275, 302, 314, 324, 365, 372, 374, 380, 381, 411, 413, Woodford Shale (Devonian – Mississippian; Oklahoma, Texas) 116,
430, 438, 475, 483 125, 185, 198, 200, 201
sandstone 83, 86 worms 112, 214, 293
volcaniclastic 140, 259, 262 Wyoming (USA) 3, 4, 24, 31, 33, 38, 66, 100, 103, 119, 120, 122, 138-
grains 173, 174, 259 140, 194, 196, 199, 216, 236, 283, 284, 339, 354, 383, 384, 390, 394,
sandstone 21, 23, 24, 92, 94, 102, 140, 267, 284, 305, 362, 430, 431, 408, 409, 411, 435, 438, 454, 478
471, 475
strata 298
volcanism 72, 402
X
X-ray computed tomography 447, 482, 488
vug 27, 54, 298, 300, 362, 367, 374, 387, 420, 459
X-ray diffraction viii, 114, 182, 224, 248, 249, 274, 275, 282, 284-286,
vuggy pores/porosity 387, 447, 459
289, 293, 298, 299, 304, 305, 311, 312, 330, 331, 349, 379, 396,
Vøring Basin (offshore Norway) 268, 320, 323, 351, 365, 369, 370, 377,
399, 409, 413
411

Y
W Yates Formation (Permian; New Mexico) 408
wacke 168, 174, 175, 177, 178 Yellowstone Tuff (Neogene; Wyoming) 4, 139
wackestone 42 Yeso Formation (Permian, New Mexico) 334
Wagon Bed Formation (Eocene; Wyoming) 140 Yorktown Formation (Miocene; North Carolina) 120
washover fans 164
wave 122, 133, 135, 202, 204
wavellite 123, 362, 364 Z
Wegener Halvø Formation (Permian; East Greenland) 15, 21, 34, 58, Zechstein Z1/A1.Ca1 (Permian; Poland) 129-131
61, 100, 177, 216, 279, 342, 344, 405, 415, 428, 433 zeolite ix, 2, 70, 71, 109, 142, 247, 248, 275, 297-307, 314, 362, 374,
Western Silesia (Poland) 129 382, 396, 411, 414, 416, 471, 475
Westland (New Zealand) 31, 176, 451 Zia Formation (Miocene Santa Fe Gp.; New Mexico) 217, 319, 387,
Wetzstein Quartzite (Carboniferous; Germany) 425 459
whale 120 zircon x, 3, 8, 81, 84, 87, 88, 98, 177, 362, 369, 470
whole-rock XRD 298 Zoar Gneiss (Ordovician; Connecticut) 97, 99
Wind River Basin (Wyoming) 140 zoisite 55, 94, 95
Winsor Member (Jurassic Carmel Fm.; Utah) 405 zoning 20-24, 87, 96, 132, 143, 189, 250, 325, 327, 328, 358, 396, 398,
Wolfcamp Shale (Permian; Texas) 41, 187, 195 407
Wolfcampian (Permian) 236 Zoophycos burrows 212
Woodbine Formation (Cretaceous; Texas) 346

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