JURNAL PENDIDKAN BITARA UPSI

Vol. 14 No. 2 (2021) / ISSN 1394 -7176 (78-86)

Essentials of Pre-Braille Skills in Braille Learning: A Literature Review

Alya Qasdina Ng Ai Lee1, Kway Eng Hock1 & Hasrul Hosshan1

1,2,3
Department of Special Education, Faculty of Human Development,
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Perak, MALAYSIA
*Correspondence email: [Link]@[Link]

Published: 29 December 2021

To cite this article (APA): Ng Ai Lee, A. Q., Eng Hock, K., & Hosshan, H. (2021). Essentials of Pre-Braille
Skills in Braille Learning: A Literature Review. Jurnal Pendidikan Bitara UPSI, 14(2), 76-86.
[Link]

To link to this article: [Link]

ABSTRACT
Pupils with visual needs have a difficult time acquiring tactile reading. For tactile reading, the dexterity of the
fingertips influenced the reading pace. The primary objective of this article is to discuss the essentials of pre-
braille skills in the early stages of braille literacy and to gain insight into instructional practises in Malaysia's
bilingual classrooms in comparison to other nations, including India, Spain, and the United States of America.
This paper is intended to provide an enhanced view on pre-braille skills through literature review and revising the
conventional instructional practice which emphasises more on rote learning. Henceforth, pre-braille skills are
fundamental for consistent and systematic practices during the initial stage of braille literacy. The consequence of
this paper will result in pre-braille skills will be prioritised before pupils with visual needs are exposed to more
advanced braille literacy. Additionally, the gathered and arranged knowledge may serve as an inspiration for
future study.

Keywords: Early Braille Literacy; Fluency; Tactile Reading; Pre-Braille Skills; Visual Needs

INTRODUCTION
Braille is a literacy medium for pupils with visual needs (Radojichikj, 2015). Braille reading refers to
the process of tactile input, the integration of input with semantic memory, and all higher levels of
language processing such as phonological, semantic, and syntactic processing (Martiniello & Wittich,
2020). From a neuroscience perspective, there are three main components in the braille reading process
viz., basic somatosensory processing of tactile information under passive stimuli, assimilated with basic
somatosensory via active pattern recognition, i.e. linking braille dot position with related braille code
to produce braille image, which forms in parts of the brain for subsequent reactions.
In the context of Malaysian braille literacy instructional practices, the modules presently
available emphasise the learning of Grade One (G1) braille literacy (Alphabetic Braille), followed by
Grade Two (G2) braille literacy through memorisation (Ahmad Yunus Mohd Noor, 2016; National
Council For The Blind, Malaysia (NCBM, 2020). G1 braille is a letter-for-letter translation for the
printed version. This is the recommended code for beginners since it enables pupils to get acquainted
with and identify many elements of the codes while learning to read braille. The G2 braille system
employs "contractions," which substitute shorter sequences for the whole spelling of frequently
occurring letter groups. G2 braille is the most frequently used kind of braille coding and may be found
in a variety of places, including textbooks, toiletries, and public signs. It is composed of 26 basic
alphabetic letters, punctuation, and contractions. For academic purposes, pupils in a bilingual setting in
Malaysia will need to acquire several braille codes, including contractions for two languages. Examples
of G2 braille for Malay Language (L1) and English Language (L2) are provided in Table 1.

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Table 1. G2 braille (contractions) for L1 and L2

Contractions
Alphabet
L1 L2
b bahawa but
c contoh can
d dengan do
e erti every
f faedah from
g guru go

Scheller et al. (2019) stated pupils with visual needs who have lost their capability to see may
depend on other modalities to develop a sensation of the environments in order to fulfil their various
special educational needs. The whole process of braille literacy learning should begin with the pre-
braille skills which emphasis on multisensory approach (Argyropoulos & Papadimitriou, 2017). Pre-
braille skills include sensory-motor exercises, particularly involving the hands and fingers, as well as
tactile awareness to improve finger dexterity so that pupils with visual needs may accurately identify
the position of the braille dots (Brown and Palmer, 2013). According to Floyd (2019), pupils with visual
needs must receive systematic and consistent interventions on pre-braille skills together with
meaningful language literacy activities to prevent experiencing difficulties throughout the subsequent
braille literacy processes.

Conventional Instructional Practices of Prebraille Skills

A review of many studies conducted over the last two decades demonstrated the importance of
consistently and systematically initiating pre-braille skills at the early stages of braille learning
(Argyropoulos & Papadimitriou, 2017; Brown & Palmer, 2016). Numerous assessments and checklists
have been used to determine if pupils have acquired significant pre-braille skills prior to applying such
skills to more complex braille codes (Sewell, 2020). In a nutshell, pre-braille skill is the first step in
instructional practices in braille learning. In consequence, the researcher will compare instructional
practices for pre-braille skills by listing the content accessible on pre-braille skills modules in Spain,
India, the USA, and Malaysia.
Pre-braille skills are taught in Spain through the Braitico Programme, which is a braille learning
and literacy curriculum (National Organisation of Spanish Blind Persons [ONCE], 2020). Five research
centres and 23 support teams cooperate to ensure that 99 percent of pupils with visual needs are included
in mainstream settings. Braitico's braille literacy concepts are inclusive, accessible, creative, inspiring,
and adaptable. In general, the Braitico module consists of four modules. Pre-braille skills are embedded
in Module 1 and Module 2 are used to teach early braille literacy to infants with visual needs as young
as 0-24 months. Module 1 is also known as Manitas focuses on psychomotor coordination, basic
concepts, sensory perception, and phonological awareness. Following that, in Module 2- Punto, the
intervention will concentrate more on braille pre-reading and pre-writing.
Meanwhile, pre-braille skills are included in the Visual Impairment Training Module in India
(Abiyah, 2020). This module is a collaborative effort between the Department of School Education and
Literacy, and the Ministry of Education India. The module is divided into 15 sections, with Section 4
devoted to Sensory Training using a multisensory approach and Section 9 to Braille Teaching
emphasising on pre-braille skills. Teachers were equipped with a well-structured pre-braille
skills teaching module and were accountable for implementing the modules on a consistent basis.
Similarly, in the United States, pre-braille skills are taught as a curriculum that pupils with
visual needs must acquire before moving on to learn more complex braille literacy (Brown & Palmer,
2013). The Pre-braille Curricula was developed by Cindy Reed-Brown and Peggy Palmer who are also
Preschool Education Consultants, Board of Education and Services for the Blind and sponsored by
Perkins School for The Blind. The pre-braille curriculum is developed based on a multi-sensory
approach (Brown & Palmer, 2013). The strategies emphasised in this module focus on the objective of
encouraging interest in reading among pupils with visual needs (Brown & Palmer, 2013). The

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curriculum was also followed by a Pre-braille Skills Assessment adapted from an instrument developed
by the Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired (Bishop, 1996; Sewell, 2020).
In Malaysia, The Code of Practice for Special Education serves as a guide and point of reference
for all stakeholders on the procedures for the administration of educational services for pupils with
special needs within the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education Malaysia (Special Education Division
[BPKhas], 2015). The Code of Practice was initiated in conjunction with Malaysia Education Blueprint
2013-2025 to ensure human capital among pupils with special needs to obtain equal opportunities and
quality in the education system. According to the Code of Practice for Special Education, preschool-
age for pupils with special needs begins at four years old and continues for an additional two years
throughout the education term (BPKhas, 2015).
The National Standard Based Curriculum for Special Education Preschool (KSPKPK) Visual
Impairment Category serves as the primary reference for preschool teachers who teach pupils with
visual needs in MOE’s accredited national schools. In the Communication Pillar of KSPKPK, Pre-
Reading Skills content standards require pupils to state symbols and embossing that lead to a specific
meaning. Fine Motor Development is a content standard in the Pillars of Physical and Aesthetics
Development viz., Orientation and Mobility (O&M) which demands pupils to handle a range of items,
use tactile senses, and eye and hand coordination in fine motor tasks. Simultaneously, in Field 2: Braille
Code, Tactile Graphics, and Assistive Device, pre-braille skill is added as a content standard in Year 1
subject i.e., Basic Skills of Individuals with Visual Impairment embedded in the Standards-Based
Curriculum for Special Education Primary Schools (KSSRPK) Visual Impairment Category, (BPK,
2018). In general, textbooks are provided to Malaysian pupils in primary and secondary schools. The
content about pre-braille skills was conveyed in the textbook with only one page (Mohd Fawzy et al.,
2016). Table 2 shows the Comparison of Conventional Instructional Practices of Pre-braille Skills in
Malaysia and other nations.

Table 2. Comparison of Conventional Instructional Practices of Pre-braille Skills in Malaysia and other nations

Countries Module Curriculum Assessment Focus

Sepanyol  - -  Sensory perception (haptic, tactile,
auditory).
India  - -  Sensory Training and Braille
Instruction.
The     Tactile perception and pre-braille
United skills must be acquired before more
States complex braille literacy skills are
introduced.
Malaysia - - -  Embedded as content standards in
KSSRPK (Revised 2017).

Eventually, pre-braille skills are seen as the foundation for braille literacy development. As a result,
Spain, India and the United States developed specialised modules and curricula to teach these vital skills.
However, in Malaysia, pre-braille skills are embedded as content standards in KSSRPK and applied implicitly in
the relevant pillars in KSPKPK. Pre-braille skills are overlooked in terms of implementation. Malaysian studies
on braille literacy frequently relate pupils' inability to learn a braille code to cognitive problems viz., memorization
problems; teachers credibility; time constraint; and learning environment (Ahmad Yunus Mohd Noor, 2016). In
conclusion, pre-braille skills are expected to get considerable attention, and as a result, improper teachings may
lead to fundamental issues of prebraille skills acquisition.

Fundamental Issues of Prebraille Skills Learning in Malaysia

Pre-braille skills provide the foundation for developing more advanced braille literacy skills. As a result,
such mechanical skills must be reinforced and taken seriously by all parties (Radojichikj, 2015).
Nevertheless, reviewing through the pre-braille skills content in the KSPKPK Teacher's Guidebook and
the textbook viz., Basic Skills for Individuals with Visual Impairment Year 1 (Mohd Fawzy et al., 2016),
the pre-braille activities suggested in the texts have been briefly recommended as the initial process

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before the onset of academic literacy skill. According to Ee (2019), the lack of consistent training
interventions of motor-sensory development from an early age is a weakening element in tactile
perception for the pupil with visual needs in Malaysia. Admittedly, numerous studies published over
the past two decades indicate that developing braille literacy should begin with pre-braille skills in
which a multisensory approach is used in conjunction with scaffolding to improve finger dexterity and
further build tactile reading skills among pupils with visual needs (Chen & Dote-Kwan, 2018;
Argyropoulos & Papadimitriou, 2017; Holbrook et al., 2017; Swenson, 2016)
Apart from that, one of the main challenges that pupils with visual needs eventually face is the
fingertip’s dexterity (Chen &Dote-Kwan, 2018). A study conducted at a Malaysian special education
school discovered that pupils with poor finger dexterity are unable to perform a competent tactile
reading. As a result, academic performance was adversely affected. The National Reading Panel (2000)
stated that efficient tactile reading encompasses reading speed, reading accuracy, and having the correct
expression of the text being read. According to Rex et al. (1995), when typical pupils focus their
attention on two to ten letters at a time, pupils with visual needs can detect just a single-cell braille code.
This may occur when tactile readers are not given appropriate interventions to enhance the dexterity of
their fingertips; tactile readers seem to read at a considerably slower pace than visually reading pupils
(Khochen, 2011).
Ahmad Yunus Mohd Nor (2016) stated that Malaysian pupils with visual needs were unable to
acquire braille literacy in certain subjects was primarily due to weak metacognitive abilities to recall
the specific braille code. Furthermore, the local production of braille learning materials was published
with a greater emphasis on rote learning viz., memorisation and physical drilling (Mohd Fawzy et al.,
2016; Mohd Jais, 2019; Kway, 2008). These conventional practices are contradicted with the
instructional practices in other nations that define pre-braille skills as a comprehensive course to be
completed before learning G1 and G2 braille codes. Likewise, these conventional practices have indeed
resulted in pupils with visual needs being competent at brailling the text but unable to properly detect
braille dots during tactile reading (Ee, 2019). Day and McDonnell (2008), on the other hand, stated that
memorising braille code was one of the instructional techniques that needed to be changed since it was
not supported by empirical data.
Meanwhile, Kao & Mzimela (2019) stated that braille instructors are the most significant
independent variable that affects braille literacy learning. A braille instructor in other nations work on
an itinerant basis, visiting schools to offer braille learning interventions. Similarly, in Malaysia, this
role has been taken over by Braille Code Teachers (GKB) appointed by the MOE (BPKhas, 2015).
However, it seems that not all special educational programmes (PPK) in Malaysia are provided with
GKB (BPKhas, 2015). The GKB is exclusively allocated in special education schools (SPK) (BPKhas,
2015). As a result of these circumstances, the role of GKB in the Special Education Integration
Programs (PPKI) and Inclusive Education Program (PPI) may be occupied by regular academic teachers
(GAB) who are inexperienced and incapable of managing braille literacy intervention (Ahmad Yunus
Mohd Noor, 2016; Roe, Rogers, Donaldson, Gordon, & Meager, 2014). Likewise, teachers in Taiwan
acknowledge a lack of expertise in supporting special education preschool pupils, particularly in early
braille literacy. The instructional practices in the conventional classroom were based on the initiative
of teachers through self-learning or based on referrals to more experienced senior teachers (Hung,
2008).
In summary, the fundamental issues concerning pre-braille skills learning, have prompted this
article to discuss the pivotal role of implementing pre-braille skills during the early stages of braille
literacy to facilitate the acquisition of basic braille literacy and hence improve tactile reading among
pupils with special needs.

Essential of Pre-Braille Skills to Enhance Basic Braille Literacy

In contrast to the visual sensory modality, touch is a slower modality with less information. Katz (1989)
stated that touch operates by integrating different sensory functions and it is likened to the pupil's 'eyes.'
Heller & Balesteros (2015) stated that pupils with visual needs i.e., blind rely more on tactile
perception to acquire information than peers, who rely more on visual perception. Tactile reading is
closely related to the sensitivity of the finger pads. Diverse tactile experiences may increase finger
sensitivity and facilitate the acquisition of braille literacy (Wong, Gnanakumaran, & Goldreich, 2011).

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Revesz (1950) compared tactile perception and visual perception to determine the difference
between visual and tactile recognition of an object. This outcome is essential for teachers, since tactile
readers may derive different information from the stimuli provided. Subsequently, the process of
language acquisition for pupils with visual needs is more complex and challenging rather than their
typical peers (Azizah Jaafar, et al., 2015). Figure 1 illustrates the comparison of tactile perception and
visual perception which was adapted from McLinden & McCall (2002).

Figure 1: Comparison of tactile perception and visual perception

The study discovered that identifying an object through haptic touch is a unique and challenging
procedure since it requires manual analysis to determine the physical connection between the object's
features. Therefore, the images produced in the brain as a result of various perceptions are distinct.
Ely & Ostrosky (2018) stated the necessity for pre-braille skills interventions to solve tactile
reading problems among pupils with visual needs. Interventions in the form of enhancing finger
dexterity should be implemented gradually to allow pupils with visual needs to detect the position of
braille dots before being exposed to the learning of G1 and G2 braille codes. Thus, visually impaired
children must be trained to engage their tactile perceptions effectively (Mohd Zuri Ghani, 2014). In this
context, pre-braille skills embrace elements of motor-sensory training beginning with the palms,
thumbs, and fingers, bilateral hand use, clockwise and counterclockwise movements, motor strength in
the hands and fingers, light touch, and tracking, as well as tactile perception and braille dot detection
skills (Bishop, 1991; Brown & Palmer, 2013; Mangold, 1994). According to Fadjectic (2011), pre-
braille skills serve as a foundation for the development of further braille literacy skills.
Pre-braille skills must be incorporated with a more meaningful literacy experience (Swenson,
2016) i.e. by integrating pre-braille skills with language literacy activities based on a whole-language
approach (Ashton-Warner, 1963). In addition, Holbrook et al. (2017), Baker et al. (1994) and Stratton,
& Wright (1991) stated that early braille literacy learning for pupils with visual needs should begin with
braille dot detection exercises followed by the application of haptic touch and eventually accomplished
with language literacy activities i.e., letter recognition and letter sounds to produce the basic reading
skills (Mahzan Arshad, 2019). A similar statement was also featured by Toussaint & Tiger (2010) and

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noted that the difficulty to master the basic skills that will affect the reading braille text more complex
and include produce and combine sounds of the letters.
Pre-braille skills interventions should be implemented consistently for at least half an hour to
one hour a day and practiced collaboratively between all parties, especially therapists, parents or
guardians, and teachers (Holbrook & Koenig, 2000). Additionally, Fanshawe (2017) added pre-braille
skills help pupils in developing self-reliance and confidence while engaging in an inclusive education
together with their typical peers.
In essence, 27 research studies had been conducted in the early 1960s with the “First Grade
Studies funded by the United States Office of Education to determine the most effective method of
teaching beginning braille. In short, these studies concluded braille that (1) there is no one-size-fits-all
method for teaching early braille reading skills and (2) the classroom teacher is the most important
variable in determining effective reading instruction (Rex, et al., 1994).

DISCUSSION

The learning process can be performed only when pupils have acquired adequate relevant experience
to obtain new knowledge. Pre-braille skills are enriched with the exploration of the available senses and
to be done by actively engaging pupils via multi-sensory approach. Pre-braille skills elements include
interventions to improve finger dexterity starting with the palms, thumbs, and fingertips, bilateral hand
use, clockwise and counter clockwise movements, hand and finger motor strength, light touch, and
tracking, as well as tactile perception and braille dot detection skills which are implemented in step-by-
step basis viz., from basic to complex and from concrete to abstract (Gagne, 1970). The interventions
are meticulously sequenced into task analysis in order to get a comprehensive understanding of how
pupils complete their tasks and accomplish the learning objectives. In this case, consistent drillings may
also help pupils to remember previously acquired concepts by constructing meaningful context.
Teachers play an important role as facilitators in helping pupils in learning and using effective
approaches throughout the implementation process of pre-braille skills. According to social
constructivist development theory, learning and development are cooperative social engagements that
need the collaboration of individuals with expertise in a particular field of knowledge. Teachers are
important in this context because they establish an effective learning environment and optimize pupils’
performance. To create developmentally appropriate learning objectives, each pupil's zone of proximal
(ZPD) must be identified (Swenson, 2016). In the meantime, the learning process of pre-braille skills is
dynamic, and pupils acquire new knowledge by linking to their prior knowledge.
Behavioral learning theory is often used in special education research studies (Papazoglou,
2020). The applied behavioural analysis (ABA) is a systematic and consistent teaching technique which
divides complicated tasks into smaller units (Kearney, 2015). Consequently, pre-braille skills teaching
process has a systematic framework that includes successive elements, components, and units. Pupils
get hands-on instruction from the arm to the palm of their hand and all the way to the tips of their
fingers. Each pre-braille skill component is assessed using validated formative assessment, and
instructors will offer guidance to help pupils to improve their performance effectively.
On the other hand, the study about the dimension of early braille literacy skills viz., pre-braille
skills in Malaysia is very limited. Table 3 shows the literature review matrix which summarises studies
on pupils with visual needs published between 2012 and 2019 in the journal databases of three
Malaysian universities, notably UKM, UPSI, and USM. These institutions were selected because they
offer Special Education Programmes for both undergraduate and postgraduate levels.

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Table 3: Studies on pupils with visual needs between 2012 and 2019

Constructs
Authors
EBLM BL IC ADT CP TE TP
Ee, 2019   
Kway et al., 2019  
Mai Shihah Abdullah, 2019  
Hammad Mohd Saidi et al., 2018  
Aizan Sofia Amin & Badri, 2018  
Norliza Mohammad Fadzil et al.,

2017
Nurul Asmak Liana Bakar, 2017 
Ahmad Yunus Mohd Nor, 2016  
Fatimah Nazihah Mohd Nazir, et

al., 2016
Abdul Rashid Mohamed et al.,
 
2015
Alya Qasdina Ng Ai Lee & Kway,
 
2015
Manisah Mohd. Ali & Noorfaziha

Hassan, 2014
Kway, 2012   
Note: EBL= early braille literacy/motor skills, BL= braille literacy, IC= issues and challenges,
TE= tertiary education, ADT=assistive devices/ technologies, CP= career path, TP= teachers’ participation

Comparatively, the majority of research focuses on the acquisition of braille literacy for
functional purposes, the issues and challenges, the comparison of conventional and adapted methods of
assistive devices or technology, career paths, tertiary education, and, finally, teachers' perceptions of
pupils with visual needs across all disciplines of knowledge. Although the concept of pre-braille skills
has received inadequate attention from local researchers, the problem of tactile reading among pupils
with visual needs should be addressed seriously by all parties, as the importance of pre-braille skills has
been well described in this paper.

CONCLUSION

This article will make a valuable contribution for all stakeholders, especially preschool teachers and
teachers of braille code who teach early braille literacy skills. This article is intended to make teachers
aware of the significance of pre-braille skills. Pre-braille skills help develop fundamental braille
literacy and therefore improve tactile reading. The researcher hopes the stakeholders, particularly
BPKhas, BPK, Educational Resources, and Technology Division (BSTP), will utilise the conclusions
reached to apply pre-braille skills consistently and systematically in the KSPKPK and KSSRPK.
Subsequently, the researchers urged parents or guardians to continue teaching their children at home
in enhancing their metacognition concerning newly acquired early braille literacy skills. This research
calls into question teachers' long-held belief that the only accurate way is for pupils to memorise braille
alphabet letters. Finally, this paper is very significant and contributes to the discipline of knowledge
studied. Currently, research on early braille literacy is very limited and has garnered less attention from
Malaysian scholars. In a nutshell, this paper offers new insights to researchers who want to further
deepen the scope of the study in the field of early braille reading especially pupils with visual needs.
Teachers in Malaysia need a systematic module to teach pre-braille skills holistically, as other countries
accomplish.

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