Details

Cecli C Handisyde
Everyday Details
EVERYDAY DETAILS
Cecil C Handisyde
AREA, MDp

The ArchftechureJ Press Ltd

LoiSr
First publishedinbook form in1976byTheArchitecturalPress
Ltd: London
Repnnted 1977 1978 1980 1981
© 1976The ArchitecturalPress Ltd
All rights reserved No part of this publicationmaybe reproduced
stored inaretrieval system or transmitted inanyform or byany
means electronic mechanical photocopying recordingor otherwise
without the prior permission ofthe publishers Such permission if
granted issubtect toa fee dependingonthe nature of the use
ISBN 085139213X
Printedin Great Britain byMackaysof ChathamLtd
Coitents
\,

Foreword' vii 6 Timberframedwalls: dpc atgroundlevel 25

General cinsiderations
1 Ground floor construction 1 Timber fram/cavityfbrick outer wall 25
General 1 Solidfloor;solidfloor andstepped concrete;suspended timber
Groundfloor levels 1 floor *

Suspendedfloors; solidfloors Timber frame/battens/tile hanging 27

Oversizeexcavation 3 Solidfloor;suspended timberfloor
Hardcore 4 Timberframe/timber cladding 27
Oversite damp-proof membranes 4 Solidfloor;suspended timberfloor
Woodfinishes.
Oversite concrete 6 7Masonry wails; jambswithtimberwindowframeS 29
Old and new construction 29
2 Strip foundations to external walls 8 The jamb 29
General 8 Degreeofsiteexposure;typesofproposedmaterials;
Examples 8 workmanship;order offixing; positionofframein wall;
Concrete strip footing with brick wall;trench concrete filledup preventionofwaterreaching to insideofstructure; protection of
tooversiteexcavation level;comparativecosts back offramefrom danpness; appearanceand convenience;
Checklist 10 positionof dpc
Design; specsfication; supervision Wall to frame joint—Straight joint: no fill 30
Straightjoint:dpc wraps roundbrickwork 30
3 Raft foundations for small buildings 11 Straight joint:dpc projects intoframe 30
When to use raft foundations 11 Frameset inwallrebate 31
Advantages and disadvantagas 11 Plaster finish to frame 31
Edge ofraft detail, 12
Reasonablesupport ofperimeter wall loads 8Masonry walls: metalwindows fixed direct 33
Protection against weather causing frost heave ordrying Fixing 33
shrinkage beneaththe edge oftheraft 13 Jambdetails 33
Simple and efficient damp-proofing 13 Fixing methods;built-in lugfixing;built-in lugfixingfor
Accommodation ofvariations in ground levels 14 fair-faced insidewall;scresfixing; lugfixing screwedto
Appearance 14 structure
Maintenance 15 Sill details 36
Costaspects ofrafts 15 Brick sill; concrete sill;metalsill
Structural design 15 Window heads 38
Concretelintels; metal lintels
4 Foundations to interalal walls '16
Choice offoundation 16 9 Tile hanging and timbercladding 39
Typesoffoundation 16 Construction
Wall direct on unreinforcedoversiteconcrete on hardcore; wall Tile hanging on masonry walls 39
on unreinforcedconcrete, thickened to depth ofhardcore;brick Windsiw anddoor openings; tile claddingwithframes projecting;
or slockstripfootingfoundation; concrete stripfootjng sill detail; tile claddingwirhframeflush;frame slightly
C6soni9
foundation;reinforcedconcrete asraftto internalwalls projecting; head detail; silldetail; divesfinish;external
angles; abutments;s'etting out; costcomparisons
Tile hanging on timber frame walls 43
5 Masonry walls: dpe at baseofexternal,walls 20 Projectingframe
Extrna1 wall dpc 20 Timber cladding onmasonry walls 43
Level ofdpc at theexternalface ofwall;appearanceofdpc at Jambs; head; sill; timbercladding on timberframe'
externalwallface; externaldpc with renderedwalls; dpc level Cost comparisons 45
atinside ofexternalwall;suspended floors, minimum air space; Tile hanging;slate hanging;asbestoscement slates; timber
dpe related to cavity; high levelground outside;linkingwall cladding
dpe tofloor dpm Cost comparisons offlashingmaterials 46
Floor dpm 23 Lead; copper;zinc;aluminium;proprietary flashingmaterials
Floor membrane beneathoversiteconcrete;floor membrane as Maintenance 46
sandwichbetween oversire concrete and.ccreed;floordpm as
mastic immediately beneathfloorfinish;floor level abovetoall 10 Cavity wall lintels 47
dpc; verthaldpinproblems Avoidatice ofrain penetration 47
Costconsiderations 24 Lintelappearance 49
Checklist 24 Fixings 51
Design;specification; supervision
 11 Windowsills 52 Four-way fallsto multiple internaloutlets 83
Dampon inside ofsailbene thwindow 52 Structure; rsops;drain4 appea-ance
Dampness and rainpenetrating wallbeneathsill 52 Four-way falls to two outlets and valley 83
Sill to wall bedjoint;sill to sub-silljoint;jointedsills; end of Rooffalling tointernalgutters 84
silltowalljoint Structure
External appearance ofwallingbelow sill 56 Internaldrainage generally 84
Sill projection; end ofsill water run-off;proprietary sills
19 Hatroofs:timber joist construction 85
12 Externaldoors: position offrame 58 Methodsofforming falls below the roofdeck 86
Effect offrameposition upondoor swing; secu?ngoutward Fails parallel to joist direction 86
openingdoors;relation ofdoor framepbsitiontl*walldpc in Joistslaidtofalls;joist cur tofalls;slopingjoists and
cavity; effect ofthrçsholduponframeposition suspended ceiling;firringon top ofjoists
Fails at tiglIt\angleto joistdirection 87
13 Externaldoors: thresholds 60 Firrzng on top ofandparallel tojoists;flrringat right angles to
Design checklist 60 joists; joist set on shapedwallplates orwallplatesfixedtoa
il'hresholddetails 60 fall
Weatherboard;inward openingdoors: totalwaterexclusion not Choice ofroofconstruction 88
essential;outwardopening doors;metalweatherbar threshold; What possible solutions are there? -
inwardopeningdoor: woodthreslzoldplus step; water
penetration benepththreshold;upperfloorproblems;outward 20 Flat roofs: verges oftimber joistroofs 89
opening doors,relationship ofwall/flooj dpc Criteria 89
Detils where roofjoists are at rightangles to wall 90
14 Maonry walls:- junction oftimber upperfloors 65 Details where roofjoists are at rightangles tp wall and
Plaster faults 65 projectto form a roofoverhang 92
Traditional construction;newconstruction Details whereroofjoists run paraileltowall 92
Joist deterioratioti 66 Details where joists are parallel,to walls and a roofoverhang
Effect offloor uponwallstability 66 is required 93
Floors suppotedon hangers Water overflow 94
Upstand details 94
15 Masonry walls: junctionwithconcreteupper Supportfor upstand; the effect ofrooffalls;the effect of
floors 68 thermal insulation;theeffect ofmethodofobtaininkrooffalls;
Preventing damppenetration 68 conclusions
The use ofbrick 'tiles' 70 Fall and joists parallel to kerb 96
The 'coldbridge' effect 70 Joists atright angles tokerb; fail parallel 96
Fixing recommendations -
16 Low buildingsagainsthigher cavitywalls 72 Verge drip details .98
Both levels built at same time 72
Low lvelflat roof abuts cavity wall;low levelpitched roof 21 Parapetsin masonry construction 99
abutshigh cavity wall Criteria 99
New extension to existing higherbuilding 74 Copings 99
a
Low levelflat roof; lowlevel pitched roof; furthersolutionfor Copingmaterial; waterentrythrough copings; dpc beneath
bothflatandpitched roofs copings
Dampin parapet masonry 101
17Winddamage to roofs 76 Waterentry to roofstructure or rooms below 102
Introduction 76 Waterproofing ofroofto wail junction 102
Thesizeofthe problem 76
•
Living with the Regulations 22 Pitchedroofs:eaves 105 -
Application ofthecode 76 Keepingout the rain 105
Evaluation ofwindspeed 76 Faults 105
Determinebasic windspeedfor thegeographicallocation;adjust Main water run-off 105
• basicwindspeedfor topography(Sifacror);adjustfor local Water from top ofsarking 106
conditions(S factor);possibly adjustfor buildinglife and Effect on condensation 107
acceptablerisk (S3factor); determinedesign wind speed (Vj) The problem 107
Dynamic windpressure 77 Examples ofpublished information 107
Assessment ofwindloads onparts ofbuildings 77 Tiledorslatedroof over 20°pitch; tiled orslated roof over 20°
The implications ofthe calculations 78 pitch: recommendationsfor Scotland; tiled or slated roof below
Security of outer roof coverings; preventingdamageto main 20°piich; lowpitched tile roof; steeppitchtile roof; open and
roofstructure; the effect ofroof uplift onwallstabiljty closed cavities; roof ventilation
Summary 109
18 Flat roofs:falls 80
Arefalls necessary?snitnmum falls
Rooffall arrangements 81
One-way fall to external gutter 81
Structure; gutters and rwps; drains; appearame
Two-way falls toexternal gutters 82
Structure; gutters andrwps; drains; appearance
1our-way falls toexternal gutters 82
Structure; gutterand rwps anddrains; appearana
Four-way falls to singleintei.nal outlet 83
Structure; rn-ps; drains; appearance
Foreword

In 1923: The Architectural Press published a delightful aiid the comments. Despite extensive discussion ofdrafts by the
useful littlebook,written byanarchitect namedEdwin Gunn, original team, followedbysubmission oftheir work toat least
called Little ThingsTIvu MatterFor Those Who Build.'It did twoother experts for further checking and comm4t prior to.
not claim, in its 82 pages, to do more than give a practical a
priblication, readers were able to pointout few errorsaswell
man'sview ontherealproblemsofputtingasimple, traditional as adding usefulsuggestions for alternative details. This em-
It
building together. was neverintended to be—and this was phasises how essential itis forworking details to becirefully
itsgreatstrength—an exhaustivetreatiseonbuilding construc- prepared andchecked. Every part ofajob must beconsidered
tion. Its stylewas informal andchattyandTheauthorwas never toensure that,as far as possible, all necessarysite information
one to shrink from giving a 'fra±ik opinion—'that execrable is included, that details arepracticable for the operatives,that
material, black mortar. . .'—oi from beingwhimsical,1. But they are suitable for their particular circumstances, andthat
his intentions were serious and his advice sound, 2 the'will betechnicallyandvisually satisfactoryinperformance.
The preface to the first edition of Gunn's book is equally
applicable to this: 'The authormakes no claimto anything
sensational inthematterof.these notes. Some oftheexpedients
are veryold ones,someare-posibly. new, and these latter are
notall ofhis ownorigination Hebelievesthat everyarchitect
a
*ho strikes or avoids "snag"ought to openthemattertohis
fellows. Quacks secret; scientists pithlish.'

However,theopinions inthesestudies,unlike Gunn'sbook,are

not thoseofone persononly'. They are the results ofa treat
deal ofdiscussion (andnot a littleargument) among ateamof
iii. Thisteam is headed by CecilHandisyde, an architect in
private practice with experience ofresearch at BRS and of
teaching; afrequent contributorto The Architects'Journaland
author ofvarious books-related to building science and con-
C IVENT—' struction.
I Gunn's whimsical dovecou. 2 Gunn'srecommended eaves. The otherteam members are:
AllanHodgkinson, consulting engineer and member of the
Fifty years later, in 1973, The Architects' Journal started a KennethSevern Group; also afrequentcontributor to The
series ofstudies alongsimilar lines, anditisfrbmthesestudies
andfromthedialogue theyprovokedthat thisbookiscompi1ed Architects'Journal andaconsultasit editorfortheAJHand-
bookofBuilding Structure.
Some traditional building techniques have not changed radi-
Douglas Robertson, quantitysurveyor, principal ofSurveyors'
csllysinceGunn set down his experience for his colleaguestQ Collaborativeand director oftheBuilding Cost Information
share. But,afterhalfacentury, therearemanyinstances where
changes anddevelopments inbasicmaterials and standards of - Service (BCIS)and the Building Maintenance Cost Infor-
mation Service (BMCIS).
design have progressed beyond the boundaries of his book.
Everyday Derails setsout totackk problems indetailing, from Philip Berry, chiefsupervisor, Yorke Rosenberg Mardall.
foundations to roof, andgives informationandadviceongood, F. R. Leeman, senior siteagent,JohnLaingConstruction Ltd.
Leslie Fairweather, editorof The Architects'Journal.
sound current practice applicable to small two- and three-
storeystructures: the sort of work which forms the bulk of When giving costs we have retained thedatacurrentwhenthe
manypractices. details were originally published in The Architects'Journal.
Good and sometimes bad) ways of detailing each building
elementjiredescribed inbriefexplanatorynotes, illustrated by These data cover such things as comparative costs of damp-
sketches isolating particular trouble spots. The details arenot proof membranes (detail 1, page 1), and oftile hanging and
intendedas 'standard details', to betracedoffanduseddjrectly timber cladding (detail 9, page 45). The.principles of such
on a set ofworking drawings. They are intended topinpoint comparisons will not have changed, but we advise readers to
thosepartsofabuilding which, small inthemselves,are never- bear inmind increases caused byinflation since 1973-74.
theless frequentsources of failure. The book shouldprove
especially useful to young architects with limited site ex-
perience, and to students with little training in practical
building.
Inthe introduction to the Everyday Details published in The
Architects'Journal, the editorsaid: 'Many experienced archi-
tects will perhaps despair that the series is necessary at all.
Othersmay disagree with particular details shown—wehope
they will writeandtell usso.'
Theseries did produce aconsiderable amount ofcommxitand
manyconstructive suggestions.These have been incorporated
into thisbook, together with, ir somecases, editorial replies to
'No1oneran print
 Grornid floor corstriction
Genera
Therehas been a gradual change from suspended tosolid
ground floor construction. Loading conditions, floor finish
requirements, thermal insulation and otherfactors may all
be significant,but cost is freqiiently animportant reasonfor
using solidconstruction.
• For houses, sthools and other buildings where floor loads
are light,the maininfluenceoncomparative costs of -
'suspended or solid ground floors is the depthofhardcore
• fill. This depends on howmuchtopsoil is removed and,
whena floor without changes in level is needed, on site
levels. 1 shows that, for the specified examplesof
construction, a solid floor is likely to bç cheaper in first cost
than traditionally constructed timber floors, unless hardcore
fill exceeds an averagethickness ofabout500 mm.'Forms of
suspended timberconstruction omittingsite concreting
would becheaper than traditional suspended floors, and are
claimed by TRADA* to be cheaper than solid floor
construction.

While1 indicates whereitismore economicalto choose solid

or traditional suspended floors, the break-even point varies
depending upon when all details are known; For example
thespecificationmayrequire timber to be treated with
preservative orthesuspended floor tohave added thermal
insulatiorn These arefairlyobvious examples which may
directlyaffect the.costcomparison butother design
decisions (eg position ofconcrete slaband height ofsleeper
walls) makethisa edmplex problem. Five variables ofsome de of ha-d coy fU
significancearecovered underthe followingheadings: Ground 1
floor levels, Oversite excavation, Hardcore, Qvertite damp-
prtof membranes, Oversite concrete. .
Growid floorlevels
Suspendedfloors

-I
In suspended ground floor construction, 2, 3, the floor level
in elation tofoundations and site concrete affects ovrall
job cost throughits effect on wall height. The costs
l°'
excavation and hardcore arenot directly influeticedby floor
level,but decisions on the level ofoversite concrete will x&5s OpaoE oaoS44
affect hardcore cost. heh of
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On sloping sites, steppingthe oversite concrete, 4, ismore

'economical in hardcore than 5, which keeps concrete at one
level; note, however, that 5 may resultin the top ofsite
concrete falling below ground level which, without tanking
precautions, would contravene Building Regulations.
___ _i_- TET

Solidfloors
Withsolidgroundfloors, dedsions aboutfloor level not only
•
gI
affect wall heights but also directly influence thickness,and
therefore cost, ofhardcore (see 1).

The level ofoversite concrete damp-proof membrane

(dpm)inrelationto wall damp-proof cours (dpc)affects
dath exclusion details and costs (see 'Ovel-sitedamp-proof
memba-anes').

On level sites the oversireconcrete is usually positioned to

provide a floor finish above ground level, 6. The bottom of
concrete is therefore ator above ground level. All topsoil
excavationhas to bereplaced by hardcore and any raising of
ground floor level means extrahardcore.
 On sloping sites where the floor is maintained level
throughout, depth ofhardcore may become considerable, 7.
Excessivethickness makes proper compaction difficultto
ensure. Hardcore should be laid and compacted in layers of
about150 mm. Ifaveragethickness ofhardcore is likely to
be more than about500 mm it is worthconsidering
suspended floor construction or lowering the finishedfloor
level and usingvertical damp-course tanking, either of
which may be cheaper than increased hardcore thickness

Withsolid floors itmay prove convenient if by minor

adjustment oflevels, the oversite dpm lines throughwith
wall dp(see 'Oversite damp-proof membranes'). 7
((aavd co'Mpedai(ai prs ,tcoceaIOwa)

Oversite excavation
The depth ofoversite excavationaffects hardcore cost and
excavation cost but theimplications ofhastyoffice
decisionsto 'remove topsoil to a depth ofx inns' are not
alwaysappreciated. Opinions about what constitutes
'fopsoil' vary and neither textbooks nor the Building
Regulations are veryhelpful. The Regulations require the
site to be 'effectively cleared ofturfand othervegetable
matter'. Topsoil may vary from almost nil toa metre or
more and itmay have been cultivated to a considerable
depth and contain deep rooted vegetation or have been
undisturbed for centuries and have only turf growing on its
top layer.
The architect may reconsider his decision after seeing the
ground duringexcavation. This may mean an unwelcome
increase in cost bothin more excavation and in the resulting
extrahardcore—one ofthe hard facts oflife is that an over
estimate ofexcavation seldom seems to occur! Sitesurvey or
trial hole information should therefore be sufficient for
correct decisionstobe made before completing design stage.

The amount oftopsoil removal should be decided by:

:' 1 Determining the mimmwndepthofexcavationneeded to
remove grtiwingvegetation, specialallowance beingmade for
isolated trees or other local conditions.
2 Checking whether this minimum requirement satisfies
requirements ofthe proposed'floor construction. This may
involve deciding whether any hardcore is necessary,8. The -
minimum removaldepthmay reachsoilconsidered
unsatisfactory for heavily loaded solidfloors and further
excavation may be required for that reason.
3 Considering whether additional excavation mightbe
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I
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sk4 f1o CV45 1
a 50fupa
5
worthwhile to provide extratopsoil for site landscaping. fa ha,'v oss5 Eao0, sos-I
ros'sd
8
Ifthere is surplus topsoil on the site and it is scarce locally,
the contractorshould be invited to give a credit for its sale.
- Withmachine excatation, muchofthe total cost onsmall jobs
is gettingthe machine to site,so additional excavation may
showa cost benefit iftopsoilis needed on the job or can be
sold locally.

Wherethereis a considerable depth ofpoor strength

material, soil consolidationmightbe a possible alternative.
This is unlikely to be satisfactoryonsmall sites, and should
only be doneelsewherewider expert control.
Hardcore
Is the functionofhardcore always fully considered? Inthe
past,especiallywhli laid beneath solid floors, broken brick
was universally used and was assumed to reduce riing damp
from the soil penetrating into the site concrete. Now that
Building Regulations 'deemed to satisfy' method (which
uses a continuous dpm tosolid floors)is widely used,
hardcore as a means ofdampprevention seems unnecessary

Given good ground and dry weather, site concrete could be

placed withoutany hardcore. Insuch conditions additional
excavation to make roomfor hardcore is a waste ofmoney.
In wet weather, hardcore provides a working surface and
where there is poor soil it can be rolledin,,whereas soil alone
would not accept a roller. An excessofhardcore is ofno
value and may well be a disadvantageas it is difficult to
ensure good material and good compaction.

Hardcore has traditionally been specifiedas 'good clean Isp of liostinto iso rouli Is recscse c000an'e cvdpm
brick brokento pass a 4in ring, or other approved
material'. Nowadaysthis often produces a load ofmixed
rubbish containing anything from old plaster-and bits of
timber to largelumpsofbrick walling.This gets tipped into
position whenthe architect is not on siteand it becomes
difficultto enforce a satisfactoryresult. The thicker the
hardcore the more difficult itis to avOid cavities into which
upper layer material may later subside, 9.
A moderate thickness, 100 to 150mm after consolidation,of
well graded stones, or the use ofhoggin° as a fill material, is-
preferable to a thickpoorfill. Hoggin is usually S
considerably dearer than hardcore. In Scotland, an
alternative material is blaes (oilshale), but this mustbe well
burnt, and should have less than 02 per cent concentration
ofsuiphates. -

The topfinish to hardcore is important. Ifconcrete is

placed directly on it the top surface should be blinded
with sand unless thereis sufficient fine material to roll out
to asurface into which cement groutfrom the concrete will
not belost. Whentheoversite dpmis designed to go
beneath the concrete a fair'y smooth base is required and
nearly alwaysa layerofrolledsand is necessary.
The Building Regulations require hardcore to be free from
water-soluble sulphates or otherdeleterious matterin such
quantities as tobe liable to cause dafnage to any pait ofthe
floor. Top blinding material shpuld also meet this
requirement and for this reasoqit is seldom safe to use
- -
ashes.

Oversite dampproof
-
membranes
On almost all buildings with solid ground floors the
Building Regulations 'deemed to satisfy' clauses require a
continuous dpm. This issometimes placed beneath the
oversite concrete,somelimes as a sandwich between slab and
screed and sometimes on top ofthe concrete when it is used
as a combined dpmand floor finish adhesive, eg with timber
finish on asphalt or pitchmastic or hot bitumçn.

'Hogan:a naturally occurring sandgravel,nixtur,with vyrysmall claycontent;

u,tsucienttobind thematerial underthe action of theroller
The floor dpmmust be joined to wall dpcs. The would be about20 pe cent dearer than a 35 mm scrl.
implications ofthis andother factors upon the choice of Chasing for pipes letinto screed may damagethe dprn
position for the dpm are considered below. although a thickscreed encourages accommodationofsmall
pipes. Pipes or ductsshould be fixed before any screed is
A smooth base is needed to prevent damage to a thin sheet poured, ratherthan chasing out later.
membrane, 10. Rolled sand, at least 25 mm, is suitable but
by no means always specified.A.iiy jomti in a sheet JohnWeller ofBildeston, Ipswich wrote: 'I have specified
membrane needto be sealed, either by double folding or by for a smatdomestic extension a polyth'enemembrane laid
lapping 150 rum and sealing with suitable ad.hesive. bloW'the sue coiicrete and over 25 mm rolled sand over
hardcore. This is in accordancewith your figure 10 and I
believe to be satisfactoryconstruction. The Suffolk Coastal
DistrictCouncil be'ieves that thisdetail specificationdoes
not conform to the Building Regulations. I should appreciate
your comment whether the detail as published has led to any
dp adverse commeiteither in use or from other applicationsfor
—— —
rai4& m Building Regulations.'
2t"i
" bL.ith.'c,ce4t Phifip Berry replied: 'We have had no experience of
_____________________________ 1aGCV€ rejection ofuse ofpolythene under the site slab, though,
except in one ease, polythene has been laid on top of
10 concrete blinding. Polythene alone is not acceptable under
finishes, such as wood block flooring or vinyl which are
Considerable care is needed to avoid membrane damage susceptible to water vapour (Regulation C5), but is
while concrete is beingplaced. Damage may not be visible satisfactoryunder vinyl asbestos or thermoplastic floonng.
and is almost impossible to find or repairat a later date, so Regulation C3 (1) requires that a floor next to the ground
it is essential touse a tough impact-resisting material. shall prevent passage ofmoisture. Polythene would seem to
Concrete cannotdry downwardso time for adequate drying comply. Regulation C3 (2) requires that a floor be so
upward is essential before applying manyfloor finishes. constructed as to prevent any part ofthe floor being
adversely affected by moisture or vapour from the ground.
Where ground contains harmful sulphates a dpm beneath So acceptabilityofpolythene depends on the'floor finish.'
the concrete may give adequate protection and obviate the
need to use sulphate-resisting cement for the concrete. The GLC commented: 'Evenon rolled sanda sheet dpm
Check that dpm will protect concrete from harmful should not be less than 1000gauge. Double folding or
suiphates. (It will only beeffective if continuous, and will welting ofsheet dpms is d.ifficut to execute—Itjumpsapart.
not protectagainst sulphate heave.) The additional cost of Adhesive tapejointing is better.
sulphate-resisting cement ina 100mm slab of 1:2:4 mix 'Ifthere are suiphates in sufficient quantity in the soil,
would be about 6p/m2 or 6 per cent ofthe cost oftheslab. sulphate-resisting cement must always be used. The dpm
mightbe punctured.
Ifa lightweight concrete slab is used protection from 'While some brush-applied dpm materials do comply with
if
ground moisture is essential thermalinsulation value is to the'Bililding Regulations,they must always besubject to
be maintained. In such casesdpm must go beneath concrete. faultyworkmanship.
'Pipes and ductsshould always be fixed before screed is
A smooth base is needed to prevent damage ifa thin sheet poured—chasing is not on.'
membrane is used. Even with in situ brushedmaterial, a
reasonably smooth concrete surface is advisable. Smooth
surfaces are likely to increase the concrete cost by about
12 per cent above spade finishing, 11.

On p.vf. 65w

.::..•'o floorft4hasidicreet

I5 fth
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cayc,als

11

An advantage ofbrush-applied dpm materials is that they

can be continued more easily as a vertical membrane up
walls to link with the wail dpc (see 19 on page 23).

Care is needed to prevent dpm beingdamaged before or

while laying floor screeding.
A sandwich membrane prevents satisfactory bonding
between screedand slab and a thickscreed becomes
necessary. A 50 mm thickness should be considered
absolute minimum (63mm preferable), even though this
 ,,od finishes
dl°.The methodillustrated itt 12 is deemed to satisfy uilding — w
Regulations ifthe damp-proofing layeris asphalt orpitch-
mastic not less than 12 torn thick or ifit is hot softbitumen
or coal-tar pitchforming a continuous layeras adhesive to
•
... damp itf3o 003cr

wood block fiboriug ofnot less than 16 mm thickness.

Ifasphalt or pitchmasticis used immediately beneath the

floor finish it can be applied late in the job and be less 12
liable to sitework damage. Also it is visible until the floor
finish is'laid.
Provided its thickness is not reduced beltiw the minimum TsbleI Co,nparatFoe costof damp-proofmembranesS
Danip-5sroofmembrane Costindex
requirements a mastic dpm ofnominal 12 mm can fillin 013mitt polythene sheet . 25
roughness or make good minor variations oflevel in the site Twocoats cold binmten emulsion
Three coats cold b:run,esiemultion
85
100
concrete. Normal screeding niay then be unnecessary. Floor Twocoats bituminous latex emulsion 135
service pipesare completed before the dpmis laid so 33mm hotsoftbitumen
mm hotcool tarpuch
150
160
damage from themis less likely. 12mmmastic a,i,haltBS 1097 400'
16 mm pitchmastictoBS 1450 430'
12mm mastic asphalt BS 1418 530'
When usingthe thin, wood blockadhesive method, it is 29mm mastic asphalt BS 1097 640'
29otto mastic asphalt BS l48 895'
virtually impossible to check that a 'continuous layer' has re
'Ifby useof these thickmaterialsthe teedfor a 35 ron, floaesceeld is
been achieved. Thereis therefore a,nelementofrisk, - eliminused,thc saviowould offset thetabulated comparauce figures byit
especially on dampsites. As this form ofdpm is thin it reducts of200 poicts
usat Octobrc 1973
must go on a smooth surface, so floor screeding is usually
needed, with attendant risk ofcracking. Mastic asphalt
screeds re.free oftheserisks.

Comparative costsofdpms are shown n table I.

For a great manybuildings actual loads on oversite concrete

Oversite concrete are small, frequently averaging less than 0-47 kN/m2 and
Design and specificationofoversite concrete-is not always probably not exceeding 14-6kN/m2 over small areas where
based upon logicalconsideration ofrequirements: load is concentrated. In most cases ofthis kind site concrete
is not calculated but is decided using 'balanced judgment'.
English Building Regulations 'deemed to satisfy' Beforemaking decisions thefollowing questions nught be
description is for a minimum of 100 mm ofoversite considered:
concrete ofa mix not weaker than 50kg cement/0 .1 m3
fine aggregate/0-2 m3 coarse aggregate. In practice concrete 1 Is averagesoil bearing capacity less than 244 kN/m2?
seems to vary from 100 to 150 mm or more in thickness, iTso, consider a designed raft or 'suspended' floor
sometimes plainbut sometimes (usually inthe better transmitting load to walls or frame. -
quality concrete) reinforced by varying amounts ofsteel and
with a mix specificationofanything from the Regulation 2 Is averageload likely to approach a'erage soil caidty?
minimum (equivalent to 1:3:6) up to 1:2:4 or better. The This can occur withheavyloads and poorsoil. Special
quality ofany particular mixvaries widely according to type measuresmay have to be taken (eg piling or soil
ofaggregate, waterjcement ratio and general sorkmanship stabilisation). Inextreme casesthe site may be unsuitable.

3 Will local loads over small areas approach averagesoil

-
The priceirhplications ofvariations in oversite concrete are capacity?
shown in table II. Ifso, slabmust badequate to spread the local load.
4 Is site on made-up ground?
TablellComparstiveeo stofoversi teconcrete(lOOmmthl
ckplalnroncrete
li36 isbase Indexof 100) - u Consider-reinforced slab, and measures necessary to isolate
Concrete 1:3:6 mix 1:2:4 mix edges from mainstncture to allowfor differential sertlement.
thickness Plain Plain 2-22kgm'mesh 5=55 kg/rn' mesh Consider how muchsettlement is acceptable
100mm 100 105 160 215
125mm 120 125 - 185 240
145 150 210 265
150mm 5-is hardcore more than about 150 mmthick?
NB: Quality, other than mix,assumed similar thrbughoeeinforcement Consider reinforced slab or take special precautions to
assumed as single layerstel mesh
Cost,asat October1973 ensure proper quality and compaction ofhardcore. The
extracost ofa reinfbtced slab (see table II) is considerable
On very poor sqils site concrete shoWd be designed either as andmay seem too heavy an 'insurance'.
s
a raft, taking wall or column as well floor loads, or as a
suspended slab carried on walls which transmittheload to 6 Is bearing capacity ofsoil liable to be affected by high
foundations. Individually calculated slabs are also necessary watertable?Watertable may often vary in different
for heavily loaded floors such as somefactories, seasons and, with fissured clay, in different parts ofthe same
warehouses floors carrying considerable wheeled loads or site.)Use stronger slab than for similar soil in drier
where other special considerntions apply. situation. -
7 Is it worthwhilètrengtheningthe oversite concrete to The requirements for quality offinish to the top ofthe
take some or all internalpartitions orwailloads, thereby ovex'site concrete, iehowleveland how smooth, may be
avoiding wall foundations? affectedby:
See detail 4, page 16, 'Foundations to internal walls'. 1 Type ofdpm, ifon top ofthe concrete (see 'Oversite
damp-proof membranes', page 4).
Having assesse4 thegeneral situation alternative solutions 2 Type offloor finish ifthere is no intervening screed.
maybeconsi4ered. Table III indicates typesofslablikely
to bereasonable for a varietyofconditions.
A 1:2:4 jxiixis likely to have abOut twice the strength ofa
1:3:6 mix, and as seen fromtable IIthe pricedifference is
not great. The weaker nii is not advised except for
loads on stablesoils (case (a) in table III).
lit
Any slab which is reinforced shouldbe 1:2:4qualityin TibiaUI Oversiteconcretesfor domesticand otherlight-loadconditions
ordertoprovidereasonable protection to thesteel. Design Soiltype Hardcore Concretethickness,mm
conditions thickness, Unreinforced Reinforced
Theuse oflight reinforcement inthin slabs isprimarily to mm with mesh
(kg/rn')
tietheslab together and reduce risk ofshrinkage cracks. In Natural ground Stable (well graded 0-100 100(a) 100/22
sandor gravel)
such casesthe meshshouldlieapproximately inthe centre Normal (poorly 0-100 125 100/22
ofthe slab. Tobe fixed easily, the lower halfofthe graded sand,
average cisyt)
concrete would be placed, themeshlaid, followed Un,table (organic 100-150 Unsuitable 125/SIc
immediately byupper concrete (ieprior to any initial set).

Designed reinforcement needs careful positioning. A single ground ' soil, softclay, peat)
Fill ormade-up Compacted sandor Not needed Unsuitable
gravel
Oltactedaverage 0-100 Unsuitable
125/22'
150/55'
layerneeds blocking upandwhen two layers are usedthe soils
top one should be supported onreinforcement chairs. Watertable Stable 150 125 100/22
within 600mm Normal 150 150 125/22
ofsurface Unstable 150 125/55
Ingeneralit is probably better tohave a poor slab on a
150
NB: Withsoftunderlyingstrata andinmining subsidence area,areinforced raft
good baseratherthan a goodslab on a poorbase. For this
reason attentionshouldbe givenespeciallyto quality and c
andstructural separation willbe necessary
these cases itmay be necessaryto treatthe slab as .uopcnded, withbearings
onwalls; hardcore thicknessmay be reduced or, ifconvenient,hardcore maybe
compaction ofhardcore(see 'Hardcore', page 4). omitted andthe soil covered withblinding concrete priortolaying the alab

2
I
2
Strip foundations to external walls

General
For small,single-storeybuildingswith spansup to about
10 m or buildings with domestictype spansandheights up
to threestoreys, the choiceofstriptype'footings is less
obvious than it used to be. Onclay soils, shortboredpiles
may be preferable, while for,light loading on bad ground,
raft foundations are becoming more frequent(see detail 3,
page 11). In spite ofthis, strip footings remain themostusual.
Old text books putgreatemphasis uponfoundationwidth
but said little aboutdepthbelow ground. The 1972Building
Regulations allow quitenarrow foundations for small
building loads on moderate ground such as sandyclay
(Class IV, table'to Regulation D7), while recognition'ofthe
dangers ofclay soil shrinkagehas resultedin more emphasis
on the needfor depth. Simultaneouslythere has been the
change from hand to machine excavation, withits speed,
ease ofdigging deep and narrow trenches andpreference for
digging in uninterrupted straight lines. At the same time
the balance ofcosts has changed to make economy in labour
relatively moreattractive than economy insomematerials.
In spite ofthese changes, designs for strip fqundations and
walls up to ground level, even ifmodified to some extent,
still seem to clingtothe traditional form. Inthe following
examples theimplications uponcostandother aspects are
examined for two designs ofstrip foundation.

Examples
A small building is assumed to have external wall loiding of
approximately 33 kN/mrun ofwall.

Some old books would have suggested a foundation width

ofas much as twice the wall pin 61noneither side,ieabout
2ft lOin (865mm)for an lliziwall.

Building Regulations 'deeniedto satisfy' requirements would

bemet by a foundation widthof 400 man on stiffclay or
450 man width onfirm clay. Onpoorer soil, 'deemedto
satisfy' requirements do not allow for loadings ofmore than
30kN/m run and even for that loading require foundation
widths from 600 mm to 850 mm, according to soil
conditions. For verypoor soil, raft type foundations have
alwaysbeen regarded as necessary

Onclay soils the depthfrom ground level to bottom of

foundation sl1ould beabout 1 m but ereater depthmay be
needed insomecases,*egwherenearby trees may cause
excessive drying oftheclay insummer (seeBRS Digest 67,
HMSO).
In the examples whichfollow, a depthofTl mand width of
450 mmhas beenassumed to satisfy the requirements.

Theexceptional drought during1976cauzed considezxbl damage buildingi

on1iyioi1a.
Concretestrip footing withbrickwall Trench concrete filled up to oversite excavation level

1 2

Process1 involves: Process 2involves:

Excavation. Excavation.
Some cartingaway—rather less than in2. Cartingaway—almostall material removed, leaving site
Concrete. clear.
Brickwrk—atlow level and ininconvenient trench. Concrete.
Cavity grouting. Brickwork—but only at relatively easy working position.
Some backfill—whichhas been retained on site, causing Small topsoil backfill.
obstruction.
Some hardcore fill.

Comparison of1 and 2 Comparative costs

In 1 the process will be slower and the open trench more Atrue cost comparison offoundation 1 with foundation 2
vulnerable to badweatherfor longer than in2. It is easier is basednot only on the substitutioiofconcrete for brick
torun pipesthrough walling with 1 thasi with 2. In both but also on economies in labourcontent ofthe building
1 and 2, placiig thedpm below the concrete would prevent procedures andprocesses employed. Benefits from speed or
groutseeping intothe hardcore, butin this position the dpc easC ofconstruction orless riskofdamage are not always
itselfmight bedamaged beforeor whileplacing the clearly shown bymeasurements in bills ofquantities; nor
concrete. Blinding is essential ifdpc is below concrete. may the contractors' estimatesmakea sufficient study ofthe
drawings to understand any economies ofproduction
incorporated in the design.

I
10

Table I, presented as indexranges, shows probable cost dpm is correctly joined to the wall dpc.
relationships for cases 1 and 2. These are based upon 4 It is doubtful whether cavity grouting is necessary for the
prices ofitems wit/tourmaking allowancesfor small depthifhardcore consolidationisdone carefully to
non-measurable production savingsonsite. Even on this avoiddamage to the walling. The position ofthe dpm is
basis, although the cost ranges offoundations 1 and 2 debatable: ifplace4 beneath the concrete it is moreliableto
overlap, foundation 2 should be generally cheaper. flamageduring construction, and a muchlonger time must
be allowed forthe drying out ofthickconcrete beforelaying
The GLC made these points: most types offloor finish.'
'1 Figures indicate about80mm backfill externally. This is
a difficultwidthto backfill. Tabie I Costrelationship.forfound.tlzn types A and B'
2 The trench excavation wdul&need to be widerto build Foundationtype Concretemix
i-3-6
Concretemix
i-2—4
brickwork below ground level. 100-122 101-124
3 The cavity grouting drainage fillet should preferably be 90-110 93-li4
above the ground line todrain the cavity. Figures give index
designs Aand B.
ran calculated onprices at tint quarter1971 based on
4 Process 2 is preferred to process 1 andis cheaper. The * Co,taas at October 1973
cavity groutingand drainage fillet have been omitted. There
are advantages inhaving the dpm below the concrete. With
Materials
dpmbeneath the screed, cracking Qfthe screed atits Brickworkhas been taken as local common bricks in
junction with the wall is known to occur.' 1:3 cement/sand mortar.
Cecil Randisyde replied:
'1 Agreed this would be significantfor the depth in 1 but not Table I shows values for twO concrete mixes. Strength of
in 2. concrete may vary very considerably.depending uponwater
2 1 indicates the probable need to widen the trench (shown content and grading ofaggregate.In tnanycases a 1:3:6 mix
on the inside). Ifmore width is considered necessary the should be adequate.
costwill increase, and this should be considered in
comparison with process 2. Wallingmight, in some cases, be ofsuitable quality
3 Agreed this is desirable. The question mightthen arise as concrete blocks ratherthan brick.
to whether the floor structure must beraised in orderto
maintain the floor dpm 150 mm above the bottom ofthe In clay soils, sulphates may bepresentin sufficient
quantity to require higher quality concrete and brickwork.
cavity. This is not statedas a requirement under Building
Regulation C5(c) and shouldnot be necessary ifthe floor

Check list
Design Supervision
Assumingit has been decided to use strip footings: Check settingout. Check excavation dimensions.

From loading calculations and site survey information on Check suil is all as expected, or when necessary agree
soil, determine minimum overall depthand width of action for weak spots etc.
foundation (Building Regulations, Regulation D7).
Immediately before concreting, check trench soil conditions.
Consider cost and otherfactors and decide between concrete Also confirm service entry provisions.
footing with masonry walling and deep concrete trench.
Check qualityofmaterials, and for thin concrete footings,
Check service entry requirements compatible with check thicknàs as laid.
foundation.
Check overlaps at changesin levels (Regulation D7 (e)).
Decide positions for any erfical stepping offoundationson
sloping sites. Check materials and adequacy ofcompaction ofbackfill.

Specification
Describe materials. Consider need to specify special
precautions in high sulphate soils. Describe disposal of
surplus excavation.

Make clear contractor responsibility for weather damage,

waterlevel conditions or other hazards.
 'p

3
Raft foundations fOr small buildings

When to use raft foundations

To engineers, the term raft implies a stiffened slab
foundation, usedinstead ofheavily loaded pador strip
foundations which would, in any case, covera considerable
part of the site.For small buildings, a stiffened slab would
be uneconomical, and the type ofhigh-level foundation used
for themmay be better described as a flexible strip footing
at ground level. Itis this typeoffoundation which is
considered here.

Traditionally, rafts for small buildings were used only where

poor soil conditions made themthe onlyfeasible type of
foundation. An extension oftheirusehas been in mining
areas. More recently they have been usedfor small
buildings on normal soils. There maybe a case for more
general use ofthis type offoundation.

Advantagesand disadvantages
These,consideredat earlydesign stage, should help to
decidewhether detailed investigation is worthwhile. Cost
comparisons between raft andother typesoffoundation are
only feasible when related to specificcasesbut some
influencing factors are mentioned. The edge treatment ofa
raft provides the mainproblems ofstructuraldesign,
building details andvisual effect, 1 to 4.

Advantages
1 Simple machine excavationwithouttrenching.
2Absence offoundation trenches facilitates movement of
men and materials.
3 Excavationlessliablethan trenches to become
waterloggedordamaged in badweather.
4 Less intefference with sub-soil watermovements.
5 May eliminate need for awkward below-groundwalling by
bricklayers.
6 Probably quicker than alternativesofstrip or shortpile
foundations.
7 In poor sites, they avoid penetrating poor bearing
materials jusi below the surface.

Disadvantages
1 May not be adequate for someloading and soil
conditions.
2 Ductsor pipe chases inthe floor present problems.
3 Precautions usually need to be takenagainst drying
shrinkage or frost heaving ofground beneath the raft
perimeter.
4 Unequalloaddistribution,egpiers,may cause problems.
5 Raftsareseldom worthconsidering unless thesite is
substantially level.
12

6 Manysripfoundations forsmall buildings are decided by

reference to Building Regulationswith aminimum of
calculation.Raftfoundation designislessgenerallyunderstood.
Inthe absence ofexperience some officesmay need the help
ofa consultant.
7 Thequalityofmaterial beneath the raft,of the raft
concrete, andthe correct positioning ofits reinforcement,
are more important than in stripfoundations.
Adequate supervision on small jobs at a distance may be
difficultto ensure.
8 Greaterneed to avoid excessivecold bridging owing to
concrete slakcontinuing to outside.

Edgeof raftdetail
In determining the typeofedge treatment forrafts the
following pointsshould be considered:
1 Provision ofreasonable support for perimeter wall loads.
2 Prevention ofweather effect causing either frostheave or
drying shrinkage ofground beneath the edge oftheraft.
3 Simple and efficient damp-proofing.
4 Accommodationofminor variations in ground levels.
5 Appearance.
6 Permanence ofsatisfactory support conditions.
7 Protection ofsteel and durability ofreinforced concrete.

Reasonable supportofperimeterwall loads

1 is suitable only for light loads. Load is eccentric, and heavy
loads produce deflection andrequire a thicker slab and
heavier reinforcement.

2is different from 1 in that isolated pierloadscan be

spread alongthe edge ofthe slab. Loses advantage of
single thickness slab and is unsuitable for mining areas,
.which require single thickness slablaid on level bed ofsand 2
and polythene sheet.

Compared to 1 and2,3 provides better spread ofloadand

allows a uniform thinnerslab to beused.
:
.
::.•
•. :j... .•.'.•.
•:
.::.:
,

4loses the advantage ofuniform slab thickness but

facilitates placing ofmeshreinforcement and spreading of
isolatedpierloadsalong edge ofslab. Not suitable for
mmmg areas.
L1iIiI
.3
 13

Protection against weather

causing frost heave or
drying shrinkage beneath
the edge of the raft
Protectionfrom frost or drying must be in width outside of
wallprovided by paving, 5a, or in combination ofwidth and

9IL .
depthunder the wall, 5b.
In6, protection, asin 5, Is required. Withoutthe paved area,
the projecting raft slab could be damaged by lifting under
frost action,orits toe maylose support by drying shrinkage.
Paving shouldbe minimum 600mm wide slabs.
6a

6b
L
7 is satisfactory for weathering ifdepthoftoe is 500 mmin
well draiied cohesionlesssoil, or 1000mm inother soils.
This method loses some ofthe advantages ofaraft and
almost becomes astrip footing. Is unsatisfactoryin mining
areas.

Simple and efficient damp- t

dpcJpcs&d
proofing
Projectingslabor paving collects rain. Cavity stops attop of
raft. Damp-proofing depeinls uponfully efficient inside
vertical membrane whichisverydifficult toachieve. 8a
'!
Sloping the top ofthe outside concrete away from the wall
givesonlyslightimprovement. A better detail a
than and b
is shown in c, but unless top ofraft is kept 150 mmabove
it
ground or paving requires the extradpc. Also dpc in c
would be vulnerable todamage during cleaning out ofthe
cavity, and is betterresting against asolid backing. **
8b

dx Yeqtuv&4
'
fpofrafrs —
aboy rai level
dpw 5&Lhd
dpc

Q1j
a

Sc
14

9 is satisfactoryfor damp-proofing, and for loading and

weather protection. Placing ofmeshreinforcement is easy. pIM seiA& to äpc
Loses advantage ofsimple, single-thicknessslab.

This detail, 10,is sóznetimesshown as an alternative to 9 but

is less satisfactoryfor damp-proofing.

Sb

Accommodationof variations in

-
groundlevels
Raft constructionofthe type being considered here is
normally considered only for 'level' sites. Minor variations hqi grw oci.skz cwn
inground level are probably best dealt withbylocal
adjustment ofground atthe edge ofthe projecting
paving, 11 (dpm to floor in 11, 12, 13, 14 as 9).
-
iot grau1 adL6ttd u.p

11

A deep downturn edge totheraft can accommodate

ground-level variations and meets weather protection and
dpc requirements, but itreally reverts to beingadeep strip
footing and loses the advantages ofa true raft, 12.

12

Appearance

.4[ t—---
Edgeprotectionand the projection ofthe raft itselfprevent prtsctwc.M
normal cultivation immediately adjacertto a building, ac€ aoh4,St
a4%1p
thoughsomeformofraised growing trough can be provided dpc
ifcareis taken topreventdamp penetration above the main
wall dpc, 13.
 15

In 9 and 11, an exposed strip ofraft concrete meets the outer

paving. Ifthis is visuallyunacceptable, the concrete can be
covered with paving, 14, but this will lower the top
ofinternalslab level in relation to outside ground. This
maybe acceptable but needs consideration, especiallyin
relation to its effect on dpclevels and uponthe effective
depth ofwall cavity below inner wall dpc level both of
which must be at least 150 mm (Building Regulations C7
and C8). 14

Maintenance
Protection against the effect ofweather uponsoil beneath Protectionofsteel and durabilityofconcrete
the edge ofthe concrete raft must be preserved. Where Where exposed aroundthe perimeter, the concrete must be
paving forms a useful path system, the risk ofalteration is ofgoodquality and provide top pr side cover to steelofat
probably small. Where the paving is not serving auseful least50 mm. Bottom cover tosteel should not be lss than
purpose, its permanence is less certain. Ardent gardening 40 mm.
house-owners probably provide the greatest risk. To ensure
against removal, consider using in situ concrete paving.

l
Cost aspects of rafts
Although detailed costcomparisons can be made only in
1 As an alternative to deep footings.
2 When high water table would complicate trench
excavations.
specificcases, raft foundations may provide economical 3 Where perimeter wall loads are very light, eg timber
solutions, especially when moderately deepsubstructures
would otherwise berequired. An economiccase can be made,
particularly for designs which do not use a projecting slab,
r
framewalls, a simple raft maycost less.
5 Unlikely to be satisfactory economic on sloping sites.
6 Unlikely to be satisfactoty or economic when loading is
and, where structurally acceptable,it is likely to be more veryuneven, egheavy pier loads.
economic to thicken the slab than to projectit beyoid the 7 Unlikely to be economic when ground conditions and
external faceofthe walling. The followingnotesgive some wall loads permit shallowstrip footings.
indication ofwhen rafts may be used .

conditions, and BuildingRegulations, by their very nature,

Structural design can deal only with the general ratherthan with the
Simpledesignofsmall raft foundations, including ground particular. The problem is discussed fairly fully in(1'2004:
slabs, is givenin 47Handbook o/BuildingStructure 1972,pages 31 and32, but the final decision mUst depend
Information sheet Foundations 5, page 146 (The onlocal experience and knowledge.Everyday Details can deal
Architectural Press, 1974). only with acceptableforms ofcotistruction for most
situations, but particular local conditions may call for the use
DavidWhite commented: 'Itis rather difficultto persuade ofone ratherthan another ofthe details.'
local authorities ondetails such as thoseillustrated in 1 and
5a(Regulation D3(b)). They insistthattheedge ofthe beam Cecil Ilandisyde replied: 'The detailsinclude several
is thickened downbelow theground even on subsidence referencesto the need to ensure that edge treatment is
sites. Can you help in supplying references?' suitable, egpage 13. It is likely that the treatment in 1
would be acceptable only forverylight edge loading andon
AllanHodgklnsonreplied: 'There are noformal references favourable soils. Protection by external paving, 5a, should
as such because so muchdepends uponlocal site conditions considerablyextendthe acceptabilityof the simple method
and on the judgnentofthe local inspectors responsible for i
shown in at least on soils where seasonal drying is a main
enforcing the Regulations. There are manyvariations in site consideration.'

2
Availabletrot,,BritishStandard, Institution, ParkStreet,London W,1
16

Foundationsto internal walls

Choice of foundation
Foundations for internal loadbearing walls above two-storey 4 Designs which are apparently logicaldonot always
height are usually calculated. Wherethere are suspended satisfylocal Building Inspectors whoare apt tohave strong
floors, lightweight partitions may be carriedoffthe floor. views aboutfoundation requirements. it can bevery
Non-loadbearing partitions are normally carried on oversite inconvenient ifthis becomesapparent only when work is in
concrete in solid floor construction. Besides such cases, progress. Prioragreement should bereached ifpossible.
thereare manyinternal walls carrying light ormedium
4oads, for which foundations are determined by judgment 5 When indoubt choose a 'poor' (small spread) foundation
ratherthan calculation. oil good ground ratherthan a 'good' (wide spread)
foundation on poor ground, 1.
Before considering possible alternatives, th following
general points shouldbenoted:
1 Except for some typesofnon-loadbearing partitions,
internalwalls are usually bonded to external walls. The
possibility ofdifferential settlement ofinternaland external
walling may bemore important than minormovement of
theinternalwalls above. Movement which would not be
structurally serious, nor visually significanton exposed
brickwork, couldcause unacceptable cracking ofplaster
finishesnear external wall junctions.
if ClbSlLVdk4
2 Wails, although themselves supported adequately on deep, f'd
llier
concrete sub-floors, may cause th?t concrete to crack and of
affect floor finishes.

3 Seasonal effects, such as frost or drying-out, which may

determine the depth ofexternal wall foundations are less
important to internal foundations. gr,ukld

Types of foundation
Wall directon unreinforced oversite concreteon
hardcore
2 eliminatescoat offoundation and site nuisance of
excavatedtrenches.

Ifwall is to carry any superstructure, this means ground

slab,onwhichit rests,may have to be placed earlier than
would otherwise be desirable. But 2 is usually suitable only
for non-loadbearing partitions.

However, ifhardcore is not thickor is well compacted, and

soil is as goodas well compacted sand or gravel, 2may be /45
satisfactoryfor light loads—upto abotit 15 kN/m run
depending upontype ofwalling, finish, and acceptabilityof
somerisk ofcracks near junctions to external wails. 2

If,as is common practice, an internal wall dpcis at oversite

it
concrete level, may nor beatthesame level as the external
It
walldpc. this isso,the wall junction detailshouldinclude
a vertical dpc to ensure continpity ofprotection.
 17

Wall on unreiiforced
- concrete, thickened to depth -
ofhardcore
3ab is similar to 2 but prevents settlement due to poor
hardcore. Where thickened base isin excavated soil, the
extrathickness ofconcrete givesadditional strength and
allows more spreading ofthe load.

3 is better than 2 for light-load wailsbutstill has

differential movement risk.

Depending on typeofhardcore, concrete may be t

thickened in a more convenientshape, as 3b, avoidingthe
need to use vertical forinwork.

2and 3ab show maximum spread for unreinforced concrete

+
where w 2t equals spread, providing loadisnot greater * 2 t
than soil-bearing capacity.
3a

Opc

3b

Brickor block strip footing foundatiOn

In 4abcstrip footings arecarried,downtogoodbearing
soil butnot to depthnecessaryfor external walls exposed to
frost or drying conditions. Near theperimeter, where the
internalwall maybe exposed, itshouldbedroppedto full
external wall depth, 4a.

Excavated site trendies cause obstruction.

The fotinduu is fotmed at same time as external wall

foundations. Hardcore and oversite concrete may be placed
at any convenient time.
4is suitable for Ioadbearing wails.Base size to follow
tables in Building Regulation D7.
 18

4b 4c

Concretestripfooting foundation
5abc is similar to 4 but hasnarrow concrete-filled trench
• instead ofwalling do*nto concrete base. Trench can be
elcavated by machIne, avoiding awkward low-levelbrick or
block laying. (See also detail2, page 8, 'Strip foundations to
external walls'.)
•
In 5, unlike4 it is essential toprovideinadvance forany
below-groundservices. -

5a Sc
 19

Reinforced concrete as raft to internal walls

This is used, flab, where thereis a-raft or high-level strip
footing to external walls.

A similar support forinternalwalls may be usedwith strip

footing foundnnn external walls ifsoil conditions are
goodand ifinternal wall loads are not very heavy. Tables I
and II gve examples ofrequired concrete thickness and
reinforcement for two types ofsoil conditions and various exttca4wU rim'eaA ()J0J4

6a 6b
loadings.

flab avoids thenuisance ofinternal trenches.

Site concrete must beplaced to suit wall building
programme.

The bottom steel is assumed to be carrying the load but

concretemaycrack alongtheouterlimits ofthatreinforcement.
For this reason, alight reinforcement at high level over the
whole floor is advised (22 g/m2). ____
1' ; u-;-m---i—
_____
Cover to steel should not be less than 40nun, so oversite
-
concrete cannotbe less than 125 mm, as shown in 6.

As an alteglative to thickeningthe whole slab,concrete

may be thickened locally under the slab, 7, to width of
w + 2i (see 3).
I
Table Concretethicknessandreinforcementrequired for oversltr slab Table U Concretethicknessandreinforcementrequiredforoveraiteslab
tocarrylilternalwallson55kN/m soil-bearingcapacity
tocarryInternal wallson215kN/m soil-bearingcapacity
Wallload Soil-bearingcapacity27-5kN/m Wall load Soil-bearingcapacity 55kN/s&
Miss width of Concrete Mesh Mm widthof Concrete Mesh
steel mesh' thickness weight steelmesh' thickness weight
kN/m run mm mm kg/m kN/mrun mm mm kg/mj
15 800 125 222 16 800 12 222
20 800 125 2-22 20 800 125 222
25 900 125 3-02or 25 800 125 222
150 222 b
30 800 125 2-22
30. 1100 125 3-95or -
150 302 35 800 125 302 or
150 222
35 1300 125 616or
150 3-95 40 800 125 3-95or
. 150 302
40 1450 150 616
45 820 150 3-95
45 1600 175 616 1 Mesbisinbottom ofslab with40mon cover. Sheetsizes4-Sm < 2-4mcan
1Meshis inbottom ofslabwith40mmcover, sheet sizes 48 x 24rn can be be tuteconomically towidths of500,1200or 1600mm
cut economicallyto widths of800, 1200or 1600tom .

'COst comparisons
. aWIndesooundasioncoscs
carried down togood bearing 100-120
Stripfoundations
Table III, expressed as anindex, compares the costranges soil withadditional concrete at abutments with
for strip and concrete-filled narrow trench foundations to of wall 190-230
inteinajwalls. foundations carried 85-195 -
down togoodbearing soil withadditional concrete
The cost comatison is basedupon an8m run ofone Concrete-fillednarrow trenchfoundationat the 120-110
brick thickinternalwalling measured tip to dpc level where level ofexternal wall,foundations forfull length
the bottom ofthe external wall fbundation is 1000mm 'Costsan at January 1974
below gràuid level. Table IV Costrelationshipbetweenstripandraftfoundationa
Description Indexrange.
Table IVindicates cost relationshipsbetween strip or raft
foundations forinternalwalls,
fjnItIOnOcrIed
with
abutments external wall foundations
down 100-120

- ..
Concrete Iloor andconcrete-fillednarrow trcnch 95—120
Inundations carried downtogoodbearing soilwith -
The cost comparison is based upon an8m run- ofone additional concrete atabutments with externalwall -
brick thickinternalwalling withsolid concrete floor 6 m p,aft 125 thickover full floor area, forwall 110-160
either side (but ignoring external walls). -

t
?0
reinforcement below internalwalls, loadingas above
125-150

Costs as atJanuary 1974

20

5 4
,
'
Masonry walls: dpc at base of external walls
A

External wall dpc.

Although the change from solid to cavity walling, and from '
suspended tosolid ground floors, is not recent,the
implications ofthe change on dpc detailing are not always
fully considered, as damp—proofing failures occur even on -
new buildings. Appearance alsoneeds more attention.

Levelofdpc at the externalface ofwall -

A drawing showing a wall section at one position or a general
instruction tokeep the dpc 150 mm above adjacent ground .
-
is not really adeqiiate. Whenworkifig at dpc level, the
workman doesnot always know where the final ground or
paving levels will be—even the architect is not always sure. ,

Building Regulations require the dpc to be a minimum of

150 mm above ground level in the immediate vicinity. This
may not be sufficient,since the wall immediately above the
S
.
dpcmay be damaged by splashing, and it is seldom a safe
height above flower bedi where earth often piles up.

Paving levels quiteoften seem to risetoo close to the dpc, -

-

perhaps owing tolate adjustments. The expected clearance

of 150mm,ormore,disappearsall too easily on slopmg S

sites unless consideralle care is taken with stepping the dpc. A

Appearance ofdpc at external wall face

/
Even the thinnestdpc material, ifproperly laid with mortar
below andabove,,results in.a thicker than normal joint. This
cannot be avoided but,where theeffect is considered
important, theuse of athin damp-proofing material helps.
On sloping sites, the dpc is usually steppedat intervals with
avertical link. This thickvertical joint can bevery
_
V/
unsightly. Travelling horizontally, thethickened dpc joint
will change to a normal thinjoint at the point where the
OLthidk
dpcbendsveitically down. So normal course lines are
intemIpted. Big vertical stepsbecome particularly obtrusive.
it
Subject tosite level requirements, is worthtryingto
position the vertical steps wherethey will be least
noticeable, eg behind planting or at internalcorners, 1,
behind rainwaterpipes(ifthepositions ofthese can be
accurately located in time and ifpipeftxings will not be
driven into thedpc) 2.

// 7/ lii 7/ // /7 /7 -

e*t'ged ho{ ftA

2 alias fcrfoLg
'es'e'-
 21

For the sake ofappearance, the wall dpc is sometimes kept

back from thewall-face andthe joint pointed in mortar. .
Whether the damp'bridge'whichresults is important
depends upon whether the wall is ofsolidor cavity
construction and,ifcavity, whether the external material
will be damaged ifdamprises to it. A thickpointed jointis
ratherliableto deteriorate, especiallyifany wallmovement I
occurs along theplaneofthe dpc, 3.

—
3

'External dpc withrenderedwalls ' . '

Rendqjshouldstop
a
above the dpc level. Some published
4. Theturn down
details4W&nrend projectixg dpc,
optiniistkally assumed on drawings is unlikely to be
achieved wth mostmaterials. Ifit projects flat, 5, it forms a
ledgeforwaterjust where that is most harmful.
The dpc shouldalwayscome totheedge ofarenderedwall,
but npt 'beyond.

Opinions differaboutthefinish at the botfom ofthe

rendering. Witha fairly abso4enttype ofmaterial, water
run-offis usually minimal. With dense rendering and an
exposed position, a 'throw-clear' detail may be advisable,6.
For this, abellmouthshape is commonly used but is rather
easily damaged, especiallyifformçd solely during the
finish-coat ofrendering. Where this detailis chosen, the
. .
shaping should be partially formed in the scratch coat of
the rendering, or shapedwithexpanded metallathing. '
downfromthe bottom two courses ofbrickwork.

Dpc level at insideofexternal wall

With solid walls, it is inconvenient tohave differing inside
andoutside levels. Bonding isinterruptedand some dpc
materials are difficultto bend satisfactorily.Theproblem
can become verycomplicated wherethe line ofthedpc rust
also vary to suit ground levels, 7.

With cavity construction, inside and outside dpc levels can

readily be different hj,th top ofthedpc joint forboth
leaves should'relatef5Ifthe requirements ofwalling above,
Ic avoidance ofcut courses atwindow openings and
suitable coursing forfloor support,8.

ii:
 22

Suspendedfloors, minimumair space

With suspended ground floors, the wall dpc usually comes
safelybeneath thefloor timbers, although therecan be
problems ifunderfloor ventilated space is reduced to the
minimum permittedbytheBuilding Regulations (ie 125 mm)
for reasons ofeconomy. With minimum 125 mm between
oversite concrete and underside ofjoists, aildwith top of
concrete almost at ground level, the wall dpc (150 mm
above ground)maybe at or above bottom ofjoists. So joists a
must be kept clear ofwall, 9a (or 9b where joists run
parallel to wall). Satisfactorypositioning ofairbricks is also
difficult. In9c, airbricks are likely to beblocked by earth
(unless paving surfaces arespecified,and actually laidas
- shownonthe architect's drawing). The airbrick in c could
be raised above the dpc, but this is less satisfactory with
joists parallel to the wall, 9d.
Withsolid ground floors, wall dpc and floor dpmmust be
linked to p?ovide an unbroken moisture barrier.Avertical
'link is oftenneeded forthis (see 12, 14). c d
9

Dpc relatedto cavity

Wherecavities are unfilled andextenddownto foundation
level, mortardroppings are no problem.

it
Where cavitygroutingisrequired, shouldfinish at least
150 mmbelow both dpcs. Ifthereis any doubt about
properclearance ofmortardroppings from the bottom of
the cavity, the 150 mm may not be sufficient, 10.

10

Highlevel groundoutside
Where a site slopes but ground floor level is constant, itis
very easy tofail tonoticethat theinner wall dpc, although dpc
above thebouonofthe cavity, is not above a level to
which the cavity mayfill with water, 11.

Jo
grevaA 9!

A somewhat-similarnsk arises e oversite dpm is at or

near ground level, even thoughthe wall dpcs ake high
11
enough. The yertical.dpm on the inside ofthe wallingis
then subject to a more serious watercondition than normal
andneeds to betreatedas tanking rather than as a barrier
to relatively-minorrising dampness, 12
c4pc - L
r'
I
/ Veyhcii4 dpw

8o
do
/
12
/;
 23

linking wall dpcto floor dpm

It
fr.
Satisfactorycontinuity depends agreatdealupon careful I
workmanship. The method to use deendson:
I relative levelsofwall andfloor dpcs
2 relativetimes at which they canbe laid N?T
3 nature ofdamp-proofing material. c
UM&.
',
A common weakness is for the wall dpc to stop shortofthe
inner wall face, 13. This shouldbe avoided in all cases
except where the floor membrane can berun in to lap the
wall dpc duringwallbuilding. 13
ri
Floor dpm
Floor membranebeneath oversite concrete Iop(d 7
Floor membrane,usuallyofthin sheet material, is usually
at a lower level than wall ape.A vertical linkis essential. -.

if oversite concrete is laidwhenwalls reach dpc level, the

////-
I
floor membranecan be turnedupand into the wall, lapping — r rer
withthewalldpc, 14. Care is needed topreventdamage II cto
while concretingaid during subsequent site works. Damage OAYt
may not be visible once floor concrete is placed. . 14

ifeaent
site concrete is not laid at walldpc stage, a similar budk-Ac
CLM
/
with the floor membrane tucked into an open
joint is possible butless easy to achieve satisfactorily. /1 S
An alternative, 15, is to stopihe turnedup dpm at top of
site concrete andform the vertical linkas a separate - . CP.U

operarion—as late as possible to avoid site work damage. In

this case, the vertical link would be afluid dpm. It should 15

pass above the wall dpc level and return on to thetop ofthe
oversite concrete with a generous application ofmaterial at
the wall/floorjoint.

Floor membraneas sandwich betweenoversite

concrete and screed
In this case,.the floor membrane may be either a sheet
material, or a fluid type, buthelaying ofeither is not done dp
until just before screeding ofthe floor.
Any vertical link dpm is easily seen and isnotexposed to
risk ofsite damage for long.
Ifthefloor membrane is a flexiblesheetmaterial, it may be
continued up the wall to pass beyond the dpc course, 16.

Ora fluid type wall dpmmay beapplied to the wall and

turnedround on tothe concrete slab to lap under the floor
sheetmembrane, 17. 16 17
Anadditional precaution is to turn the floor dpm up the
wall to top ofscreed level.

Ifthe floor membrane is a sheet material andis at the same

level asthe wall dpc, the wall dpc may be spedfied wide
enough to have about75 mm projecting. This projecting
material couldthen be stuckto the concrete andthefloor
membrane lapped and stuckon top. For this method tobe
successful, the dpc material mustbe thin and flexible, 18.

Ifthe floor dpm isafluid type itwill simply becontinued dpc,

up the wall to pass beyond the wall dpc, 19.
7 oovpc
18 19
24

Floor dpm as mastic immediately beneathfloor finish

The Building Regulations permit 125 mm asphaltor
pitchmasticasa dpm, for wood block flooring.
The mastic couldbe turnedup the wall to pass beyond the
wall dpc, but the thickmastic may resultin a thickness
problem with the skirtingifwall is fair-faced orhas a thin
finish (see 21).

// dpM
Floor level above wall dpc
In all the above examples,ithas been assumed that the 77- —
inner wall dpc is above or at floor dpm level. Withcavity 7/
wall construction this is normally so but with sloping sites 7' c

/
l
andsolidwalls there may be situations where the wall dpc
is below the floor dpm level. Ifthis doesoccur,it is dpr 71vi-ieoj •
important to note that the vertical link must be formed 7' J
before the oversite concretciis laid,20. /7] corr ioi
20

Vertical dpm problems

Damage Sheet material is liable to sitework damage which
is unlikely to be madegoodunless supervision is strict.
Skirtingfixing Wood skirtinsoften involve nailing through
thevertical dpm. Penetration ofdpm is usually accepted
butdamage may be less *ibid dpms than thin sheets.
Inside wallfinish Ifthe wall dpc is above skirting level, the
vertical dpm may cause problems. Withfair faced walling,
this must be avoided. 21
With plastered walls, a sheet-type vertical dpmprevents
adhesion ofplaster.A bitumen solution type may be
sanded immediately after application to assist adhesion.
Alternatively, wire meshcan be used to providea key.
A thickfloor mastic continued up the wall as vertical dpm
may force the skirting too far out from the wall, 21.

T.bleI Coatcompanion of
Cost considerations
The need for full protection against penetration ofdampness
is overriding. Consequentialdamage and repairs caused by
dpc failure aremanytimes more costly than ifdetailing and
construction supervision had been correct iiithefirst place.
n:
tnen:hezoanbur
heuianbase + lead
Twocourses slates
ecot5egineeruig brici
100
204

615
forbrtckworkrr1laced)
(ailowsna,sction
Cost is not usually a determining fatorin the choice ofdpc Leadas no5 1400
levels.and details. Itis only considered wherethefunctional 515
requirements can bemet by a variety ofmaterials, whose Ahisninium20 awg 585

cost differentials, including labour, are shown intable I.

Costs asat February 1974

Check list •
Specification
Type and quality ofmaterial. (Note that Building
••
Design
Dpc levels related to aLlground andpaving levels
••
Regulations allow liquid dpms ofeither 3 mm hot
bitumenorcoal tar pitch, or three coat solutions)
•Fix any change inlevel ofdpc, considering appearance
Internaldpc levels related to floor dpm and how Bedding, laps, forming steps, etc
Method ofjoint to vertical or floor membrane
••
•• continuity will be obtained
Check all dpc'-ievelswithbottom ofcavity level
Check top ofwall dpc joint tosuit couresin wall for
Width related to wall width
Draw, or cover by descriptions, all levels and details.

•• window openings and floors

Considerexternal finish ofdpc joint ••
Supervision
Check quality and width ofmaterials
Determinetype ofdpcmaterial considering:
loading conditions, flexibility needs, possible wall
•
Levels, related to ground, pavings, cavities and dpms
Check cavity mortardroppings. The cavity must be
inspected and cleaned out ifnecessary.
movemnt, durability, effect onappearance, cost. ••
Check joints andchanges in levels
Check exposed vertical dpcs fordamage.
 25

6
Timber framed walls: dpc at ground level
Generalconsiderations 3 Illustrations 1 to 7 do nor show wall structure,thermal
insulation or vapour barriers.* Some form ofinsulation is
Dpá design at the base oftimber-framed walls must be
carefully considered for the particular type ofstructure, almost alwaysrequired. Internalvapour barriersareoften
Detailing will vary according totype ofexternal cladding necessaryespecially ifthe external wall covering is ofatype
and type offloor construction, solid or suspended. Some through whichwatervapour cannot readily escape.
constructions resultin ground floors having to be raised 4 All vulnerable timbers suchas wall plates, sill plates and
considerably above ground level, soleplates should bepressure treated with a preservative
1 On tlopmg sites, positions where the dpc maybe stepped even though they are partlyprotected by a dpc. Treatment
are likelyto be more restrictive than-with masonry wall ofother timberssuch asfloor joists or wailframingmay be
construction. worthwhile, depending on particular circumstances.
2 Thesequence ofbuilding operations has important ,

implications for detailing dpcs. MPBW Adviiory Leaflet79 Vapoer barne,:,HMSO

Timber frame/cavity/brick outer wall

Solidfloor
Normalsequence ofoperations would be:
1 Lay foundation and oversite concrete.
-tiA ttuAai t
,t
2 Lay dpc beneath timber wall. . &LLA sh€oAfo.ig

3 Erecttimber wall. o braced cet,tyoc*'.ao

4Laydpcbeneathbrickwall. 4oit*bw dpc 1L0tt€d t4 200c,w
aadat40ead 404t.b- wah4m
5 Buildbrickwall.
6 Lay floor dpm, followed by screed. f4atrft.'sii
occa,ionaA

In 1, iftimber frames come prefabricated with breather CiP uçto po+oo*tiA

paperfixed, the brickwalldpc cannotbe correctly
turnedup behind it.
The horizontal brick wall dpc at bottom ofcavity is a g/ \ appe od
setiet
$t cen$t
possible weakness. (See alternativein 2.) I
Mortardroppings must be completely andcarefully
removed from the bottom ofthe cavity
'°"°
00 40t
/ /
/I\
Waterproofingofthe site concrete by a dpm placed below
the concrete would
' complicate the detail and seems 1 ta.4'.b40
540 CL*
abit
apt,aio 40e)
unsuitable.
Care is needed to ensure proper continuity ofexternal wall beeaM0 ptna$0o
dpc andits upstandat corners. 1 .,-

Solid floor and stepped concrete

Cavity and dpc relationship in 2is better than method 1. waAA s4teot4flag LWAetS waJA is
of bracedcisfn.dtets
Waterproofingofthe site concrete by dpm placed below the
concrete would again complicate the detailandseems
unsuitable. apçe a.,d oetAe4 s
dpoaad
dp 4(&M0* 1-p ti4:i

It may be difficultto place tile fixing bolt near the edge of e4p404t —

the concrete. One altefnative may be some form ofcranked

strap.
c1pc
thr cDnire+t
On sloping sites, stepping would need careful consideration. 80
in 2, breather papercan be fixed before arrival on site.
Kenneth Stevens, astudentat Brighton Polytechnic,offered >
uA —s
(siiA £ouid
4o ceir.cwt40
a
txick
/
a solution inwhichasteel strapis cast into the concrete if
sk ONa4b0b.E Iczboua'
a* a4sp5pttdA0 1t)
wood aid that4jd
(next page). pkz*e
b& pretetie i7rrna.ftd
wa41 pr'sadws
CecilH.andisydecommented: 'Ifcorrectly positioned this 2
would be satisfactory,butsetting thestrap in the concrete
26

b cofiventionalrag-bolt through dpc and plate, it is quiteeasy

and accurate either to placethe bolts into the concrete slab
while it is stiffening, or to cut snortices andgroutin while
the concrete is stiffbut stillsoft. Locating the bolts 75 mm
from theouter face is satisfactoryandadequate forfixing
into the 100 mm wide plate. A bituminous dpc gently
pressed over each bolt tendsto reseal around the bolt shank;
pitch polymer or polythene probably would not.
'The bolt holes in the sole plate may be pre-drilled oversize
to facilitate placing the plate on wall, and the nut tightened
Stevens' stedstrap solutwn. I downover a largewasher onto the sidesofthehole.
'The full text ofthe Swedish booklet should be consultecffor
details.'
RichardRonald, an architect in practice in London, sent

.-
Ronald'ssolutions.
I
sketches for alightweight timber-frame structure withhigh
insulation. There ii a continuous dprn between blinding and
floor slab. The slab is stepped back from the edge ofthe
foundation: this allows the door threshold to be flush with
the flooring,and continuous insulation between wallcavity
to the exactlevel would need very goodsupervision, unless and battened floor.
the material were thin enough to be bent to shape easily on Cecil Handisyde commented: 'Thepublished details did
site'. not include an example showing a timber floor on battens.
R. E. Owen, senior lecturerin construction at Oxford The suggested detail exposes the full thicknessofoversite
Polytechnic,pointedout that theproblem is dealt with on concrete above the dpm. Unless the concrete is very well
pages 18 and 19 of Timber stud walls ofSwedishredwood and dried out before the flooring is laid moisture would be
whitewood issued free by The SwedishTimber Council, trappedin a stagnant air space.The Outer cladding is
Sweden House, 14 TrinitySquare, LondonEC3N 4BN. broughtto 150 mm above ground level. Withvulnerable
He continued: 'In every case shown except one the fixing cladding the 200 mm dimension is preferable, but it was
penetrates the horizontal dpc. Inthis exception a fiat notedthat one resultofthat dimension was to raise the level
vertical strap isfixed, one assumes with a heavy screw or ofthe oversite concrçte and therefore toincrease the
coach screw, tothe back ofthe sole plate,whereitwould thickness and cost ofhardcore. The detailproposed by Mr
appear to interfere with the fixing ofthe inner wall lining. Ronald has a similar effect. As drawn the step detail could
Moreover the strap is shown cast into the concrete slab, allowwaterpenetration; a vertical dpc infront ofthe timber
posing problems ofvertical alignment, accuracy and location. plates could usefully beincluded.'
My preferred solution would be a flat galvanised steel strap, The GLCcommented: 'The details are sound. Bolting
about250 x 30 x 3 mm twice screwed to the underside of would be better than cranking for fixing plates to timber. Do
theplate and twice screwed to waterproof plugs in the not like the detail where thedrainage fillet runs along the
concrete (or bythe use ofa pair ofexpanding bolfs of firstbrick jointing at ground level. Groundlevels are rarely
appropriate size). This would give adequate locationand straight, even allowingfor settlement ofground. The
restraint,unless the studwallis subject to substantial lifting drainage fillet should always drainout anymoisture at least
force. The tendency ofthe strap beneath the sole plate to one course above ground level, preferably two courses.'
overload the dpcmaterial couldbe prevented by housing it Cecil Handisydereplied: 'Certainly care is needed to
in flush, or by using a thinstrap packing between plate and ensure that the levels shown are maintained. 2makes this
dpc. However, theprojection ofthestrap would have to be point with its 150 mm minimum for dpc level above ground.
covered byscreedand dpm. This detail would beunsuitable To implement the GLC suggestion would necessitate raising
for power-floatedconcrete or an asphalt "screed"ofonly thelevelofthe site slabrelative to the ground, which would
12-15 mm. In my direct experience offixing theplate by the increase the cost.'

Suspended timber floor jaAAesu4aAsvi ,,o1 5h'wn

Even with minimum underiloor spacethe finished floor
level is raised appreciably above ground level which may be
inconvenient.
In3, the cavity is sealed from the airbrick by aslate box
with sidestopreventdampcavity airfrom entering joist
'space. Alternatively, the cavity could be sealed horizontally
by placing adjoining bricks end-on, and vertically by
bedding slates inthe cavity across the bricks.
Theair brick is dangerously close togroundlevel. Itcould
if
be raised to above dpc the timber plate offilling piece
were cut.
In Scotland, solum and oversite concrete should be treated
according to Building Standards (Scotland) Regulation G6.
The GLC commented: 'Slateis detailed but probably is
rarelyused these days. Polythene dpcs in the2000gauge
rangearesuitable, having a roughened or textured surface.'
CecilHandisyde replied:'The text refers to slate only for
forming the airbrick "duct".'
 27

bre,mThev p€ aioJA i,suAaih,a acthtn

Timber frame/battens/tile M,ShJXbaxv-r

hanging
Solidfloor amAt she,dksj m%4&SraLA
In 4, iftimber wall frames come prfabricated andwith sofbaamd,m4ti
moisture barrieralready fixed, the bottom ofwall flashing
cannot becorrectly positioned (unless the bottom 150 mm
are left loose, and therefore vulnerable todamage).
o1pIM dpc Ic'-ppaa
QMG S€OAa'4

Waterproofingofsite concrete by a dpm placed below the

concrete would complicatethe detail and is not advised.

Theprojectionoftilingbeyond concrete base is useful in

shadowing the edge ofthe concrete. Compare with 1.
Tile hanging downtonear ground level is subject to impact
damage andwould be unsuitable forsomesituations.
As in 2, it may be difficult to place the fixing bolt near the
edge ofthe concrete.
4

Suspended timber floor U c.bA1 msuia*icai nat ah,uci

Breather typemoisture barrieris carried downin front of
the flexible flashingin5. This makes on-site fixingofthe theakk
brrr faucea
moisture barrieressential.

Tile hanging downnear ground level is subject to impact

damageand would be unsuitable forsomeconditions.
The airbrick in 5 is dangerously close to ground level and pwkL.
Ive1
if noi o
J15t tO5
may become blocked.
citx
This can only beimproved byraising the whole structure by S i54Q41
nt 5rn
an extrabrick course.
o
Upa*,d
prsu,
-,A4ef
am bark

In Scotland, solum and oversite concrete should be treated

according to Building Standards (Scotland) Regulation G6.

b€hafnck
*rck bcimgs
faa 5moL4
5

Timberframe/timbercladding
Solidfloor
In6,itis,aumed that timbercladding provides bracing, so bn,aJkey L)lI
- ixLU (.4L,kW \JI hcim
timber shtathing shown next to framing on 1 to 5 is MmShi4'a barrea'
omitted. Ifcladding isinadequate, bracing by sheathing or -1
in the frameconstruction must be included. Battens are not
shown. They would be needed for vertical board cladding cpc hi prcjed cm%i ba
aa seaiaa todpw
a&
and have the advantages offorming an additional cavity
— aa
which would improve insulation.

ifcladding is ofanalmost impervious type,condensation on 25

its inner face mayoccurunless there is eithera ventilated —kt
_L
0
airspace behind the cladding or an effectivemoisture
barrieron the inside ofthe walling.
5W
abr* 5 dpc 00

Toreducerisk ofdamage bysplashing, timber cladding is

kept 200 mm above ground level. The top ofsite concrete,
and floor level, are therefore higherthan inother examples.
This probanly means extrahardcore thickness at increased
cost.

As with earlier examples the placing ofsite dpm below the Raising the cladding to 200 mmminimum above ground
concrete would cause problems. level reduces the risk ofdamage,butthe exposed bottom
it
As in 2 and 4, may be difficulttu place the fixing bolt edge ofthe cladding is still vulnerable and must be
near the edge ofthe concrete. protected (ie cut ends oftreated timber shouldbe retreated).
28

Suspended timberfloor
In 7, it is assumed that timber cladding provides bracing so
timber sheathing shoyn next to framingon 1 to5 is
omitted. Ifcladding is inadequate bracing by sheathing or
in the frameconstruction must be included.
Battens are not shown. They would be needed for vertical
board cladding andhave theadvantage offorming..an
additional cavity which would improve insulation.
In this detailfloor level inevitably becomes high above
ground level.
 29

7
Masonry walls: jarnbs with timberwindowframes

Old and newconstruction

In traditional construction
most window and manydoor
frames werefixed into a reveal formedin the stoneor brick
ofa solid wall, 1. The mason forthia may have beenpartly
aesthetic, a desire tohide the considerable width ofa boxed
sash window, butthe effect was to protect thewall/frame
jointfrom theworstofdirect driving rain. On theother
hand,the solid masonry provided no dpm between the P"Efl
exterior wet wall and the timber. In manyareas windows doakp
are now built in asmasonry rises, but the old system of
fixing laterprevails insomeregions, eg Scotland.
In traditional construction softwoodwas often ofhigh
quality, woodsills were frequently ofdurable oak andquite
often a stonesub-sill was used
//// / / Tl z of fn
-- Wk#11
brick

Modernconstruction is very different, and experience has , ,/ -

shown that waterpenetration often causes untreated

woodwork torot also ifwater reaches the interior ofwalls
it damages structureor decoration,2.
:

' ' '

Although this detail deals specificallywith jambs, tLie 2

- rof PV,A9V be1wr
.icAowfranc
designer must also consider their relationto head and sill
details. For example, sill and head detailing will be affected wall (see detail 11, page 52, 'Window sills', anddetail 12,
ifthe frameis positioned to suit amasonry jambreveal or page 58, 'External doorways', for effect on door opening of
placed wholly behind the line ofa vertical dpm in a cavity door frameposition).

Workmanship
The jamb Some details depend forsuccess upon careful workmanship.
For thejambdetailalone the followingpointsshould be The building type may decide what quality oflabourand
considered; supervision can be expected, and details should be chosen
accordingly.
Degree of site exposure
Order offixing
Types ofprepo,sedmaterials Details suited to frames 'built-in' as the masonry goes up do
Water penetration through masonry can vary considerably. not alwaysworkforframes which are tobe 'fixed' afterthe
Adense 'impermeable' brick may leak through joint masonry opening is complete.
shrinkage and fail to dry out,-whereas an apparently
permeable material may prove less troublesome because, Positionofframe in wall
although itgets very wet, it also dries quickly. Whether ina reveal.
Where in relation towall vertical dpm.
Tmber couldbe durable hardwood or preservative treated
softwood, but not unprotected softwood ofpoor quality. Prevention ofwaterreaching to insideofstructure
All lugs and fixings must be galvanised. Protectionofbackofframe from dampness
either.entering directly into frame/wall joint
Mastic must be backed with plastic foam except on very or penetrating front face masonry and reaching the frame.
small windows where mastic is forming a sal only and is

'/oc I Ii'
not likely to be'stressed bymovement offrame 3. Appàarance and convenience
Appearance is affectedby width ofvisible frame and
distance offrame'fromwallfaces.

Convenient position ofwindows, size ofinside window

board and fixing curtains relative to opening lights, possible
angle ofdoor opening are all affectedbyposition offrame
in wall.

3
Positionofdpe
///
Whatever detailofwindow opening, dpc mustbe brought

j/ P"
through to end ofwall as otherwise watercan pass toinner •-
skin causing deterioration ofplaster, 4. - N.

This is a common fault on sites although dpc has been

/ - -_---
detailed to come up to face ofbrickwork.

Wherejoints in vertical dpc occur, the dpc material on the

upper pkece must lap to the external face oflower piece
ofdpc, 5. .
4 5

Wall to frame joint

Straight joint: no fill
In 6 brkkwork is built up tight to frame as work proceeds.
Dpc is broughtup tight to back offrame (continual care is
required).
Softwood sill isstoppedat face ofbrickopening and joint
filled with mastic. Sill should only be built in ifmade of
oak or other water-resistant hardwood (shown dotted). be
,
b# w
- 6
Softwood framemust4ipressure treated against rot with a 6 shouldonly be employed onvery sheltered sites. It mu.sr
preservative which can be painted. Back face offrameand not beused withhard service engineering,orsimilar hard,
end ofsill shouldbe given full painttreatment. non-porous bricks,orrecessed joints.

Straight joint:.dpc wraps round

brickwork
A more positive waterbarrier maybe obtained by use ofa
flexible dpc such as 2000gauge polythene extended along
back face offrame,7, but barrierwill be broken where
fixings occurIfhowever dpc is first fixed to frame, lugs ,4jjl10,4,.,
maybe screw-fixedto framethrough dpcand theresulting '4 artt
puncture will not matter. (It maybe difficult to avoid
damage to a flexible dpcpre-fixed to the frame.)
Framemust be kept away fromface oibrickwork to allow

//
proper mastic joint including foam plastic backing, 3.

/ /i/i/
Dpc mustbe fixed tight to frameface as otherwise this may
be damaged when mastic backing pieceis applied. A
flexible type ofdpc is required.
.
.
//i
/ //—/// /
c4?c
.

7 and8 cannot be used when frame is fixed after opening

is formed.
/7 ,7—" -
--- '-
/7
/ °
,

If .
windows are specials, a detail similar to 7 may be // /7
[- -
.
altered to assist in building brickwork to frame, by rebating
cornerto receive mastic, 8. 8

Straight joint:
dpc projects into frame
It iould seem possible to achieve positive seal by
projecting a fairly stiffdpc into recess inback offrame,9.
But it is difficult tofix the frame in this position. The dpc
material must be wider than the normal halfbrick wall type
it
if is to give full protection to walling andprojectinto
frame.
TT qO.A4(44464d
b4>

-'
/-'

'9
Window can be moved further back, and iffront offrame is
rebated, dpc can project into recess, and the face can be
 31

sealed with mastic backed with foam strip, lOa, or cover

strip, lOb,(costing 25 per cent less than lOa).
framecan be fixed with lug as brickwork proceeds, or
tS
galvamced

/7
be inserted later andscrew-fixed. S pc
Goodfixing to dry brickwork canbe achieved.
/ frtp
7/ ac
14l5t41d of

The whole ofthe back face offrameis dry and not in

contactwith wet brickwork. lOa lOb

//
A wide external sill will result(see detail11, page 52) a'
The previous detail,10, can be modified for fixing frame into
peparedopening but junction with dpcisnot so ppsitive, lj.
(Could be.adapted as 8 to allow mastic to project into groove
in frame.)

pc should be leftprojecting from wall only a small

amount, as otherwise itis likely to be damaged before or
during window fixing. 11

Frame set.in wall rebate

Forming awall rebate, 12, gives the best weatherproof joint,
but the inner leaf opening mustbe dimensioned forframe
space requirement. Ifthat was modular then external wall
opening would not be.
Ifusingr*astic, the difficultyis to make a satisfactoryjoint
between bpc and mastic pointing.

Ifdpc is brought through to face ofbrickworkopening no

satisfactory joint can be obtained. 12

Ifframeis rebated on front face or pieceofply fixed to face,

framecan be pressed against dpc and positive gap formed
for filling withmastic.

Plasterfinish to frame
Whetherdetails13a or b are used, plaster will not be
finished true to frameand will crack when frame shrinks.

The simple butt joint to frame is noworse.

Onlya cover strip will prevent one seeing theinevitable

crack, 13c.., 13a

Withgoodworkmanship, a plaster bead provides a

satisfactoryfinish inthe form ofa controlled crack, 13d.
It can also be used with a rebated frame,13e.

Plymouth architect, Michael Boulesteix, objected to

stopping the vertical dpc flush with thebrickwork and
insistedthat it shotild be taken into the cavity:
'It is standard practice in this officeto project vertical

/// /TIl
7/ 141

////
///
 32

damp-proof courses at least 4in into the cavity beyond the

closing walls, as shown on the attached sketches(right).
'We have learned from bitterexperience that the usual
method ofstopping thedpc at the same width as the closing
inner leafis totally inadequate in the conditions ofsevere
exposure we have to design for in the West Country. vrtlcp,f
Wind-driveti rain can by-pass the dpc across a perfect -a'--- /
bridge.
'We know because wehave hadto pay for rectifyingdamage zpc na-Oct
caused in this wy in adopting the typical and usual detail Boulesteix'sdetail.
repeated in,yi s1tehs.
'Wspy a "Hyload7 or LD.20E dpc which is suitable
for these purposes, and check very carefully during site CecilIlandisydecommented: 'This is a goodpoint and orui'
_-stipervisionthat the deif1arcarried outasdrawings, as madealsi in the next letter by London architect, Tom Kay
the bricklayers do not usually understand the reason until it ofTom Kay Associates,although I question the
is explained to them.' practicabilityofKay'ssecond point.

TomKay wrote: 'Vertical dpcshave ahabit ofslipping

sidewayswhilst beingbuiltinto windowjambs ofcavity
I
walls causing bridging ofthe cavity. For this reason have
—
zL kA
alwaysspecified dpcs to be 2in wider than the cavity closer
(plus any return behind theframe,required bythe design). neccoirt-
I alsothink that youwere wrong to showthe dpc stopping
r.
shortofthe pointing mastic in 7and 8, since water can get
to the back oftheframeandbe trapped behind the foam Kay'sjambdetails.
and mastic pointing.'

Another WestCountryarchitect, SamWeb, ofTa'unton 1 a positive lappedseal not a buttjoint;

thinks that only 12 is to be recommended. He wrote: 2 the mastic is protected against theweather;
'Oneofthe failures ofmuchmodembuilding is due to the 3 itcouldbe pointed with cement mortar;'
details used in your examples 7, 8, 9, lOa, lOb and 11. 4 all other details are vulnerableto waterpenetration ifthe
'Whereas watermay be stopped entering atthejambit will joint shrinks. Ifthis frameshnnks thereis ample protection.
still nevertheless run down the edges ofthe sill and rot the 5 the dpcis straight, thereis little danger ofdamageand it
timber. A'window ofcourse has threeseparate details,head, is not penetrated byfixings;
sill andjamb,and in justshowing the jambdetail it could 6 the edge ofthe sill is protected;
tlit
seta dangerous precedent in theother two cOnditions 7 thereis a sliding tolerance which provides ample play for
are not considered. 12 is aboutthe only waterproof detail taking up tolerances inmanufacture;
shown. It gives: 8 the outside brickwallcan be dimensionedto brick sizes.
This should be the modular size. The disadvantageof the
detailas drawn is the deep wooden sill.
'This is easily overcomebyusingeither an.undersill oftwo
courses oftiles or a precast concrete sill (left). This will
avoidwarping or cracking ofa wide sill. Ofcourse both
these examplesare more expensivethan a plainwide timber
-sill but I feel that the subsequent savings in repairs will
more than offset this extraifs thelife ofthe building.'
Cecil Handisyde commented: 'The need to consider head
andsill in relation to jamb is referred to but, for
pn .
Ole vii convenience,the treatments are dealt with separately in
Webb's head andsill details, details 10 and 11 (pages 47 and 52).'

Hugo Mason commented: 'I am surprised bysomeofthe 'I am sorryto be so critical, but I have seen most ofthese
window reveal details youhave shown. Although youmake I
details fail in practice. enclosea sketch (below)ofa window
I
reference to workmanship and site exposure, must say from reveal detailwhich wefind satisfactoryin all conditions.'
I
my ownexperience find many'd(your details

//
unsatisfactory.
'Wemust consider that abuilding is to be permanent and
themastic shown on your details invariably fails aftera few
years. This would almost.crtainlyleadto a failure in 7, 8,
iOn and 11. Ajoint mustbeconsidered waterproof before
the *pplicationofmastic.
'9 does nottakeaccount ofpoorworkmanship or a flexible
dpc. Invariably therewill begaps between the clpc and the
framebecause a.dpcis rarely truly vertical.
'lOb can also be considered as temporary. On exposed sites
slender coverfillets donot standup to waterpenetration and 'AgrémentCertiScate75/291 for theHyload dpcsystem replaces 73/173 and
relates toit, useinbothsolidandcavity con,truction in horizontal,verticalor
acrack between the frame and the fillet inthis instance stepped positions, including cavity trays. Theccrtificatr now covers the complete
system including Hyload pee-formed cloak, forcornerdetails and changesoflevel,
would certainly allow waterpenetration. andHyload Contact Adhesive forsealing alllapjoints.
 33

8
Masonrywalls: metal windowsfixed direct

Fixing
Jamb, head and sill details depend bpon whether windows
are fixed as brickwork is beingbuilt, or fixed subsequently
to prepared window openings. In the latter,accurate
masonry dimensions must beobtained andverycareful site
supervision is needed to ensure this.
In domestic work frames are often fixed by the general
contractor as the work proceeds. On largerbuildings,
windowsareusually fixed inpreparedbpenings, sometimes
by the general contractor but often bya window specialist.
BS 990 (Part 11967, Part 2 1972)* givesstandard sizes and
fixing positions for domestic windows. Where non-standard
e
windows are to builtinto prepared openings, it is
essential that full window details (architects' or
manufacturers' drawings) are issued to the contractor so
that openings can beaccurately formed, and, when
appropriate, fixing blocks can be cast into the structure.
it
Where special windows are to be fixed is usually
preferable for themanufacturer to fix as, ifany defect
appears later, there is no risk ofa demarcation dispute
between manufacturer and contractor.

Themainconsiderations are:
1 strengthoffixing
2 efficient weatherprooflngaround theframeperimeter.
Details whichmay have proved successfulin low buildings
onrelatively sheltered sites may be inadequate in a higher
building, or on severely exposed orseaside areas (See Elder,
A. J., and Vandenberg, M., AHandbookofBuilding
Enclosure,page 168ff, IS 'External Walls 9'. The
Archithctural PressLtd. 1974.)
Because ofthe difficultyin thakiga satisfatorymetal,
frame tomasonry joint, steel windows are often fixed ij
timber sub-frames. Fixing ofsUb-framethen followswood
windowsdetailing (detail 7, page 29).

Jamb details
Window manufacturers oftenprovide verygooddetails of
the way inwhichwindowscan be fixed to thestructurebut
they do not alwaysindicatetherelationship oftheframeto
dpm systems.
1 ix atypical example. The fixing is adequate, but ifthe
internalplaster werein contact with external brickwork
disaster wouldresult.
-•;-_- of

The architect must carefully appraise any details he takes

from a catalogue to ensure the detaiI applysatisfactorilyto
his situimon.

'Stitith Standard, Inatitution, 2ParkStreet,London WI

34

Fixing methods
When frame is built in, itis difficulttomaintain a constant
3 mm (theold jin) gap. Invariably brickworkis built
tight toframe.Mastic then becomesonly an applied fillet.
Even with a 3 mmgap the mastic joint is ofdoubtful
efficiency.Betterprotection can be obtained ifthevertical
dpc is extended into theframe,as in 2.
This limits the position oftheframein thethickness of
thewall.
Built-in lugfixing
In 2 thelug is bolted tothe frame and built inas work IL, uc,& ii
b1wei
proceds. Security offixing depends upon careful r.M(diff1al2t adfiaw.',
workmanship when bedding thelugs,as they are at the ckL*aLdo
edge ofa brick joint. A cranked lug would overcomethis 2
difficulty.Not suitable when interior walling is fair faced
(see 3). Lugs should preferably beat centres which are a
multiple ofthe brickcourse dimension.
Built-in lug fixing for fair-facedInsidewail
A rebateis needed, 3. Where space between windows is big /// /
- /// //
enough, the differingplan dimensions ofinnerandouter
leaves ofa cavity wall may be obtained byeasing vertical
joint widths. Where piers between windows are small, the
outerleaf dimension should suitbrick size andtheinner / ,,/
leafmay need cutbricks or blocks'.

Screw fixing
Frames canbe screw-fixeddirect to structure.It isnot
possible todo this withcavitywall constructionas.the
screw fixing would coincide or bevery close tothevertical
dpc. Infixing toconcrete, the framecan be'screw-flxed
////
d
-
:
p(L59
p(uq&
,/// Ii

•.:I.!td
5C4W
rf
1Th4M

' Otdside

using cast-inplugs or drilled holesand plugs. Ifface of

concrete is rebated as 4a andframeis fully bedded in q
Q&-
mastic, agoodwaterproof barrierbetween frame and structure
isprovided. This also applies to 4b'where frameisfixed to
timber.

r1a5c
4a

4b
 35

4c appears in BS 990.Tobe successful,the cement filling

and pointing must becarriedout perfectly. Thereis a
risk ofdifferential movement between window and
structurewhich may cause breakageofcement andmastic
joints. This detaildepends on narrow mastic pointing
ratherthan a 'designed' mastic jointandcouldbreakdown
very quickly. The detailbecomes worse ifthefaceis only as
muchas 5 or 6mm out ofposition. Protection then depends
onwidermastic joint,which may,unless carefully
supervised, belittle morethan a mastic coating on the
cement backing.

4c

Lug fixing screwed to structure

Lugsbolted tothe metal frameare used to obtain a fixing
awayfrom the line ofwindow,and are covered by the
internalwall finish, 5. The lug is screwed tothe structure or
shot-fixed. The cavity walldpc maybe broughtinto the
frame but is liableto damage when the frameis placed in
position, particularly as the lugs will already be fixed to
frame. A thin, flexible dpc such aspolythene is preferable.
Screws shouldbe non-rusting. (5b shows rebated cavity
wall.)

5'

5b
36

Sill details
Bricksill - Metalsill
Lugs may be built intobrick ortile sills, 6. It is difficult to Pressedmetalsills may be used,bolted tothe frame using
hold the dpc inposition while frame is beddedandto fill lug fixing bolts, 7. As the upstanding dpcmay be damaged
the bottom section withmortar.Dpcs across bottom of while the windowis fixed, a flexible type such as polythene
window opening must lap behind vertical dpcs at jambs. is preferable.
Quck

7,
6

Concretesill
In cavity wall construction, the position offrame relative
to sill is contiolledbythejamb detail. The cavity must be
continuous immediately,underthe sill, 8.
 37

t
Thesedetails were criticised by P. Ashworth,of
Stocksileld, Northumberland, for being 'ulnerable to water
and damppenetration'. He made followingpoints:
'1 Ifjambdetail, 1, is described alnsatisfactory from a
waterpenetration point ofview, sirfely the same comment
shouldapplyto details 4a, 4c and 9 because the concrete has
not been described as beingwaterproof.
2 In concrete sill detail, 8, the dpc is shown protecting the
inner leafofbrickworkfrom contact wth the 'wet' concrete
sill, but no attempt is made to protect the more vulnerable
timberwindow board from the same source ofdampness.
3 In metalsill detail, 7, theproblem oftheupstanding dpc
is referredto. Surely inview ofthe position ofthe pressed
I
metalsill the dpc only needs to cotne up to the top ofthe
concrete sub-sill anyway?
4 None ofthedetails take account ofthe effect ofcold
bridging, inner leafs are shown as concrete or brick, never
Water OL1O4

insulating blocks, and the details showing plastered reveals

to concrete surrounds should surely be amended toshow an
Co'd
insulated lining toavoidcondensation.' Original4a with Ashworrh'samendment.
lrkk
PhilipBerryand Cecil Handisyde commented: -cus w€.jd
'1 True, the concrete is not described aswaterproof, but blocks io,Av

goodquality concrete hassufficient resistance to water to cWciOO,J bcmo(

preventpenetration toplaster.
2 Fair comment—the dpc couldbe brought ontothetop face
ofthe sill to protect thetimber.
3 The vertical dpc should project above the bottom edge of
thewindow, particularly ifthere arejointsinthelength of
thesill.
4 This sheet aimed to showthe relationship between dpc,
frameand wallsetc. Insulating materials forlinings and inner
leafs may be desirable,butwould not affect these
relationships.'

Original8 with Ashwarth'samendment.

38

Window heads
Concrete lintels
The lintel must be positivelythroatedtoensure that water
does not run back to the vulnerable jointbetween window
andstructure,9.
c' 8°.
No fixings shouldbe made to prestressed lintels without
firstreaching agreement with the lintelmanufacturer. / • . ..
.
-

Metallintels
With steel or pressed metallintels 10 11 itis not usually
possible to screw through the window framedirect to
structure;plugs or fixing blocks are required to allow screw
fixing ata suitable position.

bkx.k5
Ca5
ps1-

10

.// //
/

v4side
11
 39

9.
Tile hangingad timber cladding •

Construction
Traditional details which atone time appeared to give
acceptableresults maynot satisf modernconditions. As a
resultconstruction changesmay have been introduced
withoutall implications beingfully appreciated. For example
9in solid walling was commonly used for small buildings,
but as rooms were ventilated by chimneys andill-fitting
windows this not entirely damp-proof construction was
fairly acceptable.Now a cavity wall construction is
regarded as essential for most exposed masonry walls.
Returning to solid wall construction, with cladding on the
outside, mayseemto offer reasonable economy butnow the
a
solid wall mightbe both thinnerand of different material
from the traditional type. The resultmay be entirely
satisfactory for general walling areas but the change may
make traditional detailing arôunctopenings unsuitable.
Careful judgment ofconditions ofsite exposure is required
when considering the details shown below.

Tile hngingon masonrywalls

Inold workvertical tilingwas sometimes nailed directto
brick joints. Rat-trapbrick bondwas sometimes used to
form jointsat a convenient 4in (114 mm) vertical spacing.
Direct nailing oftiles to some types oflightweight concrete
wallingis possible, but theusualmethod is to nail to wood
battens andonlythis system is dealt withhere.

Battens are usually 40mm x 20mm and should always be

pressure impregnated with preservative. Horizontal battens
are generallyfixed eithertobrick or block vertical 1oints or
b' direct nailing to blocks, when these are ofsuitable
material tohold nails. Vertical counterbattens increase cost
and are nowseldom used. Check that thereis noreaction
between the preservativeand aluminium alloy nails.

Windowand door openings

The position ofthe framein relation to the wall face
considerablyaffects'appearance, costand detailing necessary
toensure a weatherproof result.
In Ia the frame projects and tiles butt against it. Unless the
H /J
frame is ofdeep section, it is difficultto fix.

In ib, theframeis set back. Tilesreturn intothejamb. Ia lb

This detailis occasionallyseen with thickwalling inold .

buildings; it is scarcelyever usednowbecause thereis /

insufficient return wall to make it worthwhile, and a thick
frameis needed to receive tiling.
Framneisfluih with wall face inic-Framefixingis no
problem but weatherproofingis less satisfactorythan in Id
(see 7 and8for enlarged details).
In id the frameprojects toline with front oftiling
eofid L fbot
battens. Weatherproofing is easier than in ic but the frame
mayneed to bethicker(see also9). ic id
40

Tile cladding withframes projecting

Details as 2a and 2bhave been used but: V
1 A very deep frame is necessary.
2 It is feasible to form the flashing into such a shape only
iflead is used.
3 It is pnportanttoachieve an absolutely tight lead-to-frame : ./
joint. A near-tight jointlets waterin but prevents it drying
out again.
4 Vertical stop battens should be positioned to suit holesin -Jpc 1

tiles, otherwise fixing with one nail only results inend tiles 2a fYs4e
drooping.
5 Ifframehead and side mcmbers are ofsimilar section the
tilingover the head projects beyond the normal tilingline
and an awkward junction occurs,3. (A skilful tiler can
effect the change by sweepingthe tiles from oneplane to
the other.) opa-ro.l ass
Preferred alternative to 2a(jamb) is 4. This overcomesmost
expos4 SS 0-ti
-
oftle drawbacks ofmethod 2 and the flashing can be made 4ik3 fswut dsp
with anysheet dpcmaterial, buta standard-depth frame
maystill not be adequate for easy and secure fixing. Ends
cq fa
b
lxd tisss-f
of
oftilingshould be pointed in amixnot stronger than 1:1:6.
Pointingmayrequire renewal at intervals but this will not d&x4'ass' I&(Wth4
1opofsb.shas.d
be critical ordifficult. The wall side ofthe frame cannot be boftas edge of
repainted. 2b -ltAw

Ifthe plan ofthe jambusedis as shown in 2a an alternative

head detailis as shown in5. This keeps tilingover the head
inthe same plane as general wall tiling, but a lead flashing
would be expensive and any alternative would possibly not
look very attractive. In5the head oftheframecan either
project beyond the jambs or be stopped on the same line.
3
R. E. Owen wrote:'Figures 2a and 4 are not satisfactory.
Bothshowa deep andwasteful woodwindow framesection.
In 2a a sealed lead to back offrame junction is not possible,
even ifthe vertical lead dpc is closely nailedto frame. The
vertical dpc must befixed before the windowframeis built
in, sothatit prOjectsunsupported andis vulnerable to
damage until battening and tilingare done. Inthe attached
sketch right) a normal profile window frameis used
with a çt/wuzrz
prepainted tongued-in liningfixed later. The no 3
lead secretgutterisfoldedinto thegroove. The back ofthe
lining is protectedand a margin is accessible forrepainting. /
A single copper cloutnail to the top ofthe vertical batten,
holds theleadwork. Note that thenibs projecting from the
backs ofthetiles may foulthevertical batten.'
V
Cecil Handisyde replied: 'Mr Ow&i's alternative to 2a
seems agoodidea, but howis the added member fixed ?—
it appears to be shown free tomove.' c/I
Sill detail cth,u
Itis questionable whether lead apron flashingis always 0w, dk
b9 bn,w w
really necessary, as a wood sill, 6ab,projecting beyond the Owen's solutionto2a.
line oftilingand incorporating a good throat,provides fairly
goodsheltertothe bedjoint ofsill to wall,provided that it
has a reasonable slopeandthe paintfilm is maintained
intact(but top tile facing nails will be exposed). Clearly
protection by aflashing is morenecessary ifthe wall is of
solid construction and ofporous material than ifit is of
cavity construction. Ifa flashingis useait is easier to fix if
carried back and turnedup behind the sill as in 6a, rather
than turnedup intoa groove in the sill, 6b: 6ab assume that
window height coincides with tile coursing.

Themethodin6ab is commonly used but can look crude

unless well done. The bottom edge ofthe lead is often 6a
 4i

scallopedto improve appearance. It is possible to hide a

lead apron by drawing it down the wall.face and then over
the second tile. This is a good solution, but it involves
fixing the lead first, then fixing the top battenbetween
laying the second and top tile courses (a less expensive
material than lead could be used).
R. E. Owen commented: 'In 6a the reason for the deep lead
flashing as shown is that it must cover the openvertical butt
jointsbetween tiles in thetop course, as thereis no layer of
tiles with staggered jointsbehind themto prevent water
penetration. To avoid using a deep lead flashing a strip of
bituminous felt is cloutnailed to thetop battenbefore the
tiles are hung, thus backing up the dry vertical joints. A
small width ofleadflashing fixed latermasks the tilini, nails.'
(See Owen's solution right.)
Cecil Handisyde replied:'The alteinative to 6a is a good
Owen'ssolution to 6a.
ne and is probably cheaper, as less lead is used.'
Tile cladding withframe flush
Withthe frameflush or almost flush, with the mainwall
face a standard size framecan be easily fixed to the wall.
Withthe frameflush with the wall face a detailas in 7 is
possible but theexposed vertical battenis unsatisfactory.
An alternative to 7is to stop horizontal battens just shortof
the end ofthe tiles and point up the gap, 8.
Ifend tiles are to b properly nailed the battens cannot
stop muchmore than 15 mm short ofthe tiles, so the space
for pointing is small and, the material may fall out. Success
ofthis method depends on the mix used and on
workmanship; instead filling with a non-hardening
mastic should be considered.
Inboth7and8the joint between frameandwallisexposedand,
-
ifthe walling is solid, risk ofrainpenetration at such joints is 7 S

greater than in a cavity wail inwhicha detailwith vertical

dpccan be included.
Frame slightly projecting
Methocf9 may involve usinga somewhat thicker framewith
some increase in cost, but itovercomes theproblems
shown in 7 and 8.
Headdetail
Witha flushframe thereisno prop to hold out the bottom
ofthe tiling so something must be provided. A detail such
a&lOa has oftenbeen used.
v/i
The projecting tiles can be fixed in only after the fram is
in position, therefore a goodjointand fixing are difficultto
obtain.
A projecting head of the type shown in 2b and 5 couldbe
used, or afillet as in lob.
B.. E. Owen said: 'Detail lOb will be unsightly. Theview
from beneath reveals a'vertical concrete lintel face and the
underside ofa sawn tilting fillet. The tilting fillet'should be
lowered to maskthe concrete to frame joint andhave its
underside planed and painted or stained.'
Cecil Handisyde replied:'It wouldimprove the appearance
ofthe tilting fillet in lOb ifthe underside were planed and 1t
painted, but it need.not necessarilybe lowered, as the heavy lOa lOb
shadow would obscure concrete framejoint anyway.'
Silldetail
A projecting sill as in 6is.the best treatment even ifthe
frameotherwise is flushor nearly flushwith the wall.
(Alternativelya sub-sill canbe used.)
42

Eaves finish
A top flashing over the tilingis sometimes recommended.
This seems unnecessary iftiles are carried above aneaves
soffit, 11.
/
The eaves soffit is unlikely to finish flushto the tiling. The
ipaceleft may provideuseful ventilation for the eaves but
the gap should not be wide enough for birdsor vermin to
enter: ie not more than 12 mm.
Witha flat roofthe top ofthe tilingmay not be protected
unless some form ofcover flashingis provided.

Externalangles
Mitred plaintiles with soakers and tilingfinishing ona - 11
timber cornerpostare seldom used now. The usualmethod
is to use special corner tiles which bond with ordinary
tilingand present no difficulties.
Abutments
When tilingfinishesagainst a projecting pier or a return
wall a flashing, 12, is usually thebest methodbut a cheap 7
job can be made by pointing only (resulting in higher
maintenance costs).
Properly done, such a flashingwould be in conjunction with
soakers.Traditionally 12a has been used at all intersections
oftilingand masonry. It costs more but is time-tested and
secure.
12
/' a
Theremay be a case for the treatment in 12ifthe
nGke-vs
zia,-i ai.t
s0-tte betwes-4.Ls
waLl

projecting masonry is considered to give adequate resistance

to rain penetration, and when the tiled back-up wallis much
less resistant (eg 1-50mmofporous brick walling as in 13).

Settingout
Although horizontal spacing oftiles can be slightly
adjusted byincreasingwidthofjoints between tiles, this
increase cannotreasonably amount to more than about
20 mm in a metre length. Tile cuttingis expensiveand often
ugly and should be avoided by carefully calculating all
horizontal dimensions to suittile sizes, withsomeadditional
tolerances for openings..

Cost comparisons
Comparisons between tile hanging and other finishes
depend upon various details in addition to the direct
/
relation ofcostoftilingto other basic wall finishes.For
example: 12a
A cheaper solid wall may be substituted for a cavity wall or,
as in manyold buildings, a frame structuremay be used.
Some dpcs may be eliminated eg over lintels and in jambs,
but in some cases expensivedpcs may be required because
il__-7
ofthe tiling.
Frames may need to be thicker or deeperthan usual and
may beappreciably more expensivebecause they are
V
non-standard, and usemore material.
Horizontal dimensions to suit tilingmay diffcr from
requirements elsewhere: additional expense couldbe caused
bythe need for cuttingbricks orblocks, or for varying sizes
offrames.
13
 43

Tile hangingon timber

framewalls buLl
(bpow$ey
Ifwaterpenetrates to atimber frame it may be more pe)
serious than in a masonry wall, but because ofthe baa'rtw
wood-to-woodjointssome details become rathereasier to baAdg
form. ofIod
shedli tjp)
Projecting frame
The rebated frame is fixed to covermoisture barrier, 14.
T--Ly
bov
If tilingabove the opening is to line through with general
wall tiling, the problem is similar to that inmasonry walls
and 5 might be used. Note however that the lead should be '4 15
fixed behindthe moisture barrieras in 18.

A head detail, 18, would be simple for a frame keptback to

line with the sheathing but at jainbs the battenends would
be exposed anda vertical battenwould be necessary, 7.
ak \ bLILIL

h7ft1H
External corners ofbuildings will normally be made with Ill!. I/I iatslt
cornertiles, as in masonry backing. Abutments to projecting
masonry walls produce the usual timber frame/maonry wall
/Illl
(J/f//Uj__
joint problem but, ifanything, the tilinghelps to shield that
II/IL___
jomt and certainly does not add difficulties.
'i
Timber cladding on
masonrywalls -
There is a choice ofjoint shapes for board-to-board
junctions, whichmay affect the rain-proofqualities ofthe
cladding, but there areimportant differences between
vertical and horizontal boarding. Vertical boarding provides
aodra I
a flat back and flat front surface, an end finish unbroken by
jointsand no exposed end grain. Horizontal boarding can
provide flat frontandback surfaces butas it has horizontal
joints, it mayhave gaps and will then have exposed end Hoy
grain,17.

Jambs
The frame must be wide enough to allow the end board to
/ /
be nailedto it, 18. Thismethodis not suitable for
horizonthl boards because ofend grain exposure.

The method shown in 19 givesrather better protection to

the frame/wall joint than 18. It can be usedfor horizontal
siLl aw La wL1i
boarding, but atight fix atx should be avoided as it might fa44s if pnjed.i
holdwateragainst the end grain ofthe board. A paintable LI
a cLlaWcIip
lo Su45
width gap would be advantageous but could be is 19
obtained only ifa very wideframemember were used. With
a narrow gap, mastic pointing mightbe the answer but it
would have to be well done.

In 20, atight fit at x is unlikely as theend boardis very

difficult to position.
A coverstrip, 21, is unfashion4lebut effective.
All these details would causedifficultiesifused with lapped
boarding but 19 is the most adaptable.

20 21
Read
Where the framelines withfront ofbattens, 18, cladding
can finish on the front ofthe frame, 22.
Thebottomedge should be chamfered. Anywaterthat
penetrates the cladding maybe trappedand run back
across theframehead. Full protection would mean using a
flashing.A slightimprovement to 22 would be to chamfer
the edge oftheframe,23, ifitithicknessallows andstill
leaves roomfor nailing.
22

23

When the frameprojects beyond the cladding, 20,a

flBshed detailsimilar to 15 (with a flashing and breather
membrane) for tilingcan be used, but a cheaper
alternative, 24, maybe suitable except on exposed sites.

In 24, gap x should be wide enough toallowthorough

\
painting ofbttom edge ofcI4dág (especiallyif boarding
isvertical).

24

Whetheran apronflashing is necessary depends upon: _______

1 exposure ofsite;2 whether walling is orabsorbent

slope and drip.

it
it
material; 3 how far the sill projects and whether has good
Ifsflashing seems necessary isbetter carriedthroughand ///
turnedupthe back ofthe sill,as shown in 6 fortile
hngmg.
Aclipped-over sill, 25,may be a reasonable compromise
detail iftheboardscan befixed.

For eavesand stop ends,conditions are similar to thosefor

tile cladding butexternal corners needconsideration. For
vertical 'flat faced'boarding, method26ais sometimesused.
The exposed end must be square edged. A tongued and
grooved joint isunlikely tobe possible onboardsofnormal
thickness, so thejoint will leak: this maybeacceptable,
depending,upon the type ofconstruction behind. A much
better treatment is tofinish on to.a rebated corner member,
26b.
2k 28b
ThnbercIdIdjngon timberframe
Details can be similar to thosefortimberonmasonry but,
as in tile dadding somemodificationsmay bepossible
because wood/woodjointsare easier than wood/masonry.
 45

TibiaICoat comparison,of dl.hanging andtimbercladdingonwalling'

Cost comparisons Innerwall Outer ekli, Coalparen' Index
Tile hanging or timber cladding allows a cheaper form of 100mm aeratedconcrete Brick facings
block, + cavity (pc £20per 1000)
,C7 5O—10 100

construction than cavity wall to be used, ie solidwall or

100mmconcrete
timber'frame. The cost ofcheaper walling is therefore block, + cavity
Brick fadngi
(pc £50pm 1000)
£lG—l3 125

included intable I. costs are for plainareas oftiling, not Oin(225mm) brick
'all in' costs, ie costsofcuttingaroundopenings, angle common,
Machine-made
sand-facedtiles
152

detils, eaves details, etc. Cost offinishes alone (plus battens) onbatten,
is shown in table II. The indices areindependent oftable I, 225mmbrick Itand-mad.esand-faced £13 25—l6 50 166
comm001 tiles onbattena
with machine-made sand-faced tiles taken as 100.
225mmbrick Plain concrete tiles £11 5O—1475 151
Tile hanging commons onbatten,
The labour/material ratio ofthecost oftile hanging 140mmlightweight Machine-made £10—1l 106
concrete block, sand-facedtileson
(using average tiles) is approximately 50:50, so that batters,
the tile cost (which may range from £30 to £67 per 1000) Insulated timberstud Machine-made 50—12'50
£11'
canhave a marked effect on the total. wall with plywood sand-facedtileson -
118

sheathing batten,
Slatehanging In,ulatedtimberstud 25mmsoftwood £10-35--L1250 115
The cost ofslate hanging (unless compared with wall withplywood macchboardlngor
sheathing shiplap boarding.
besthand-madetiles)may be 10to 15 per cent more than tile painted
hanging. A wide variety ofslate sizes is available. With inaulated timberstud 25mmwestern red £1250—l4-25 140
reduction in size, the labour costofslate hanging increases wall withplywood cedar matchbo.rding
while material costdecreases. sheathing or shiplap boarding
* Costs aa,t July 1974

Asbestos cementslates Table 11Coatof tilesandtimber cladding0

'
Thesecan be hung vertically20 to 25 per centmore Finlab Co.tper m' Index
Machine-made sand-faced tiles (aroseley or 00
£5 -50--C6
cheaply than naturalWelsh slates. 100
Staffordshire)onbattens

Shingles too can be hungvertically butata cost far in- Besthand-made sand-faced tileronbattens £7-00--Cl-SO 124

excess oftile or slate banging. Plainconcrete tilesonbattens £5-25—5-75 98

25mmsoftwood mstchboarding orahiplap £4-5O--5-50 84
Timber cladding boarding fixed vertically onbattens
Most timber cladding boards have a maximum width of 25mmwestern redcedirboarding fied £6-50--Li-25 140
about 150 to 175 mm,whichis related to the economicsof vertically onbacteria
Coat,a,at July 1974
converting logs into boards.
Verticalweatherboarding tendstocost more than horizontal
boarding, owing tothe costofbattening;eg 25mm
horizontal boardsrequirefixing to battens at 1200mm
centres but25 mm vertical boards must be fixed at600 mm
centres. Thickerboards require largeror more closely
spaced battens. Although not shown intable I,tongued,
grooved and v-jointed boarding will be slightly more
expensiveper mtofcladding than shiplap boarding because
ofthe extralabour involved informing the joints.
European redwood or western red cedar are probably the
timbersmosscommonly usedfor external cladding. The
2
latter costs about times as muchas European redwood.
The difference in cost between ordinary redwood cladding
and western red cedarboarding will be affected by
maintenance cost. Cedar may be leftuntreatedor be
treated at intervals. Redwood mightbe painted, requiring
fairly costly maintenance, or be treated with a coloured
preservative whichwould involve lower maintenance
expenditure.
The cost ofboth timbercladding and tile hanging may be
affectedby plugging battens to walls. Ifplugging can be"
avoided a saving can be madç. Greatercost will be incurred
ifcbreather*type building paperisspecified as a 'second
line ofdefence'.
46

Cost comparisons of flashing TebleHiCoat corn perleoneof flaahIçig material.'

Flashing Ba.ic price Netprice Index
per rn
materials Milledicad(1SOmm) £l68pectonnc
(150mm wide)
£118 100 •

Aftercostthemainfactors which determine the choice ofa Zinc(081 mm) £33 per50 kg £059 50
goodflashingmaterial are durability and flexibility. In spite £124iOperlOOkg £095 81
of its high cost lead remains the material most widely used Coppm(OS6mm)
forflashing, in both roofing work and external walling. Aluminium (091 mm) £45 SO per100 kg
commercialquality
£017 14
Cheaper alternatives exist but none has superseded lead in
termsofdurability, reliability and ease ofuse. Nuralite £394per240 x
090m eheet £027 53

£616peri0mcoil
Todaythe prices ofmetals, particularly lead and zinc, tend £061
Zincon 52
150mm wide
to fluctuate almost daily, so it would bewise always to Coats,, at July 1974
check prices orobtain quotations for specificjobs.
Aluminium
Table III gives basic prices ofmetals and materials suitable The relative pricestability ofaluminium compared with
for flashing,with lead as 100 in theindex. othermetals has recently made itmore economic.
Aluminium is malleable, ductile and durablein normal
Lead conthtions. Ease ofworking depends on composition.
Leadis the)nstsuitable flashingmaterial because it is the Commercialquality aluminium (99 per centpure (IC))is
softest ofthe thjnmon metals and has very high ductility, susceptible to work hardening. Superpurityaluminium
malleability andcörrosion resistance. Its low melting point (99 .99 per cent pure (I)) has greater ductility and is not
makes it capable ofbeingshaped with greatease with susceptible to work hardening, but it costs over twice as
simple tools and it can easily be manipulated into muchas normal quality (though less than the othermetals
complicated forms.The extreme durability oflead confirms considered). Intermediate grades are available—lB (99.5
its use as a flashing material. Its use entails no riskof per cent)and IA (998 per cent). The labouritem involved
stainingto stthounding surfaces, and isvulnerable only to in fixing aluminium flashingstendsto be higher, so that
dampcement, oak and cedarr It is ideal for complicated site the fixed cost ofa superpurity aluminium flashing comes
working, whereas copper andzinc canaotbe pre-formed. close to that ofanequivalent zinc flashing. The economics
ofthis choice may then dependon the fluctuations in the
Copper price ofzinc on the metal markets.
Copper is ductile and malleable and can bepressed or
beaten into any shape without difficulty.It is widelyused Aluminium sheet is liableto become corroded ifin contact
inspite ofbeingsecond,in costonly to lead. Like lead.it with wetwestern red cedar or Douglas fir. In polluted
can beformedto anyreuired shape and will not become atmospheres it forms an oxide film whichis not easy to
It
displaced. niay not alwaysbe suitable for flashingsto clean offand which in timewill turn into amattblack
external wall tilingbecause its greenoxidation can cause finish. In arural atniospkere thesurface will eventually
greenstaining ofthe wall with which themetalis in contact. acquire asmooth lightgrey tarnish.
Zinc Proprietaryflashing materials
Zinc is cheaper than both lead and copper but is less Nuralite is anasbestos/bitumen felt material which costs
durable and not soeasily worked. Although zinc forms a aboutthe same as metals to fix. Ifacceptable it provides an
protective film whenexposed, atmospheric pollution causes economic alternative to metalflashings.
itto weather awayrapidly. Nevertheless in urban areas a
lifeof40 years can still be expected. Zinc possesses good The price ofZincon strip (introduced in March 1972) is
working resistance to fatigue which enables it tobe used for abouthalfthat oflead and, beingsoft,ductile, easy tocut
most flashingdetai1s Zincshouldflot be fixed in direct and work, it costs thesame to fix. Zincon has an Agrément
contact with estern umbercladdings Where it is used certificatestating that the maintenance-free life will be at
with wallingmaterials containing soluble salts (notably least 25 years, longer in non-industrial areas. Its scrap
chlorides andsulphates) the embedded portions need to be value is nominal and losses from site by theft are less likely
coated with bitumen. than with lead

Maintenance
With the exception ofrepointingevery20 to25y,
brick-finishedwalls will be unlikely to incur any
maintenance coststhroughout their life. Most timber-clad
wallsrequire more periodic maintenance in theform of
painting, varnishing or staining iftheir life is to be
prolonged an4their appearance retained (see AJ Handbook
on the dsign andcleaning ofwindowsand façades:
Information sheet 2, tableI, The Architects' Journal, 7 March
1973,pages 583-85) Tiledwalls maybe more susceptible to
damage, egthroughimpact, than other finished walls and so
may incur maintenance costs at sometime. Replacing broken
tiles and matching new with old causesproblems.
 47

10
Cavity wall lintels
Although thegeneral requirements for cavity wall lintels 4cishi aawy
i
are well known, faulty detailing or workmanship still 4vi44t-
5O YW$Wo4d€d
occurs, iffaUlts at this position cause rain penetration
the trouble is usually very difficult to cUre.
In additionto ensuring protection against rain penetration
c
omit
I&2AAL
aJtott t4d7t1
4%,cz*dciwa
/ 9
va'cA
Qok5
behi4 fashj
Ma-e'aA ,yM The
general pointsto be kept in mind include: vuJ.rkq,,-tt -iv da4,a
dva
Appearance (especially'ears' at each side ofopening).
Effect oflintels uponthermalinsulation (ie 'cold bridges'). _r'.
Provision ofadequate fixings for frames, blinds and curtains.
The need to consider suitable frame positions at lintels in
relation to requirements at jambs (see detail7, page 29)
and sills (see detail 11,page 52).

Avoidanceof rain penetration

2isbetter than 1 because:
Top offlashing carried 50mm intointernalwalls is secure.
Cement and sandfillet behind flashingreduces chance of
damage during cavity cleaning.

Weepholes help to drain or dry the cavity.

but the acuteangle at bottom ofcavity makes cleaning
difficult.

In theory, 3 has the advantages of2 and simplifies cleaning

withoutdamage but the flashingis unlikely to finish in the
position shown unless it is both flexible and stuck down.

3
With blockworlc inner walls the normal (150 mm) rise of
flashing will not reachthefirst blockwork joint, 4*.
Eitherincrease the depthofflashing,4b or start inner wall
in brickwork or 150mm course ofblocks (usually
available), 5.

4* 4b
48

In 1 to5 the flashing should project sligcitly beyopd the

lintel face butnot beyondthe brick face. Setting the lintel
face back enables this to be done and provides a shadow
which makes the flashingless noticeable. (The setback
shouldbe 15 to 25 mm, and not over a third ofbrick width
as this is structurally risky.) Even with the projecting flashing
thereissomerisk ofwaterpenetration across the Lop ofthe
lintel. On exposed sites a boot linte1 9,would be better.

The single lintelright through the 'vall in 1 to 5 has a

lower thermalinsulation value than thecavity wall. The
resulting 'cold bridge' maycauseinternal surface
condensation. Suchdampness may easily be confused with
damp.from a faulty flashing.Using a double lintel helpsto 5
reducethe cold bridge effect, especiallyifthe inner lintel
is oflightweight aggregateconcrete.
BS 1239: 1956° describes the useoftwo lintels. Theinner
walllintel hasa chamfered nib to close the cavity, 6. The
problem ofensuring that the flashingfinishes in the
position shown is similar to 3 (ieit shouldbe stuckdown to
rear lintel).
The flashingmust project downin front ofthe window
frame. Ifit does not, water mayrun back over thetop of
theframe.

ifa double lintel system is usedwithwindow frane set

forward and windows fixed afterwalling is complete, 7, an
appreciable length offlashingis left flapping until windows
are positioned. Damage to this loose material,is likely to.
t(
occurand)difficuk remedy. This methodshould be
used ott1 when frath are 'built in' as the work proceeds.
Thereis arisk ofwater penetration between flashingand
windowhead unless the flashingis turneddownand secured
tothe head.

7
With the introduction ofthin presiressed concrete lintels
there is somedanger ofthe flashingbeingfinished at the
top ofthe inner lintel, Sa. It must rise up the cavity the
normal 150mm,8b. Check specificationsfor this and
check again duringsite supervision. 8a also shows the outer
lintel withoutany throating. This oftenhappens when
extralintelsneed tobe supplied quickly; they are made up
onsite, and the throating is omitted. Opinions differabout
thevalueoflintelthroatings. They are shown in BS 1239,
and are essential on exposed sites or when the wallfaciflg
above is ofanimpervious type whichresultsin Sa Sb
considerable run-off ofrain, butare advisable in all
situathyns, Sb.

Whereaboot lintel isused the shape isfrequently as9.

This provides a goodsupportfortheflashing but,as in2,
theacuteangle atthe bottom ofthe cavty makes cleaning
out difficult.

'BritiihStandarda Inititnuon,2ParkStreet,LondonW.i
 49

Itisimportant that the end ofthe lintel flashingshould

throwwaterwell clear ofthevertical wall flashing, lOab, OE44 waM-cpc
prevent watercrossing thecavity end. Onsite theneed
for this is not always realised.

ELEYATIOJ
10$

lOb

Lintel appearance
As flashingsmust beextended at the ends oflintels,and as
they should always bebeddedwith mortarabove and
below, a thickjoint mayresultwhich does not matchwith
the normal jointing, 11. A thickflashing material increases
this effect. This occurs with all 'through-the-wall' lintels.
Withthin flashings and careful workmanship, a joint of
normal width ispossible. Alllintels should have heights
which are not a multiple ofbrick courseseg a 'two-course' 12
lintel shouldbe twbrickheights plus onlyonejoint.

The 'ears' effect ofexposedbearing ends is sometimes

.consideredobjectionable, 12. Withsingle 'through-the-wall'
lintels and bootlintels, the ends can be cutback toallow
cut bricks to go in front,or the nib ofboot lintels can be
cutback to allow whole bricks to be used,13.
Withdouble hrnels a cu back epd fe fi'nt lintel is not
normally feasible asend bearing would redttce too much..

Thinbrick slips arésometImes usediinfillin frontof

cut-back lintel endsbut arenot asy to fix securely. A cut
13b
brickofat least 50 mm thickness is advised. Brick slips
have occasionallybeen used as afacing across the full
window width ofconcrete lintels. The risk oftheir coming
- loose and causing injury is considerable and this treatment
isnot advised withnormal mortarfixing.
4.

,13c 13d
50

Ifanall-brickeffect iswanted, withoutusing abrick

arch,either a metalsupport,14aand14b, should be used
oi some formofreinforcedbricklintel should be adopted, 15.
Reinforcing rods threaded xhraugh perforated bricks are
probably themost satisfactorytype (but this means using
brick on nd [soldier course] or brick on edge). Local
authority acceptance ofsuch methods should be
confirmed before use.
Withmethod14b'there is considerable risk Qfwater
penetration between steel angle and window frame,unless
the flashing is carried downandsecured. 'CU IO,4 D -Vof
oitv5t oid,'ttof
h,tc4
Architect D. Rhodes wrote:'I was disappointed to notice 14a 14b

k
that inPart 10 you perpetuate the detail ofa steel angle
supporting the external brick skin across an opening ina
cavity wall. Suchangles are structural steel members, and,
since they lack any protection from weather and fire,they IL,:.,
clearly do not comply with good practice or with by-laws, in
the majority ofbuildings.
'District surveyors intheinner Londonboroughs have
refused to accept this detail for many years, hence,no doubt,
your caution'regarding acceptance by local authorities. But
surelyacceptanceby a building inspector is no automatic of bka
guarantee ofsafety, as recentevents have broughthome.' li'&id€ii "\*0 OSftS( 'oo(
15
Cecil Handisyde replied:'Eventhough,as we said,local
authority acceptance ofsuchmethods should be confirmed
before use, these angles are made andused as lintels, and so
mustbefoundacceptableby thany authorities.'
For long spanwindows, an alternative tothesteel angle
spanning full width ofopening is tobolt it back at intervals ndt+0
to the inner rc lintel. Even ifgalvanised,as it should be,
the angle still needs painting and, when painted, may
appear muchmoreintrusive on thejob than it appeared on
I/sw ser
aiok kIs(

.loLv4• Iat
drawings. Some flashingmaterials would make satisfactory r1ttie
bedding ofbricks difficult. A,thin andvery flexible btd
flashingisneeded.

Ifbrickwork supported by the angle is to alignwith general

walling, thebottom ofthe angle will bebelow normal
'mortar joint line and, at end bearings, will require bedding 16
below, whichfurther lowers theybottom ofthe bedding
joint. The jambbrickwork cannormally becutto
accommodatethis,16, buttheangle must be fixed below a
course line and notbeddedon a normal course. Failure to
appreciate this results either ina botchedappearanceor
omissionofmortarbedding for bricksimmediately above
the angle (a most dangerous expedient).

Galvanised sheet steel lintels provide both supportand

protection against damppenetration.and are an excellent Zw3
alternative to the steel angle, 17. They can be usedwith an
rc or steel inner lintel. Also, being relatively thin, they 1w{
ciaAd
cause fewer problems ofthickjointsor notched bricks. 17
 51

Sometimes lintels are set withtheir front face slightly back

from the general wall face. At end bearings, a small
horizontal ledge ofbrick is exposed, 18. Atthis point there
b
is risk ofdamage frost and sulphates, andtheledge
shouldalways be made up with cut brickfacings.

18

Fixings.
BS 1239includesprovisionfor inserts in concrete lintels
toprovide fixings forwindow frames, curtaintracks,
It
blinds,etc. is not easy topredetermine all requirements
precisely or toensurethat inserts areputin accurately. For
this reason some people prefer to drill for fixings when
positions can be accurately determined. Iflintelinserts
are tobe used,lintel schedules should contain complete
information. Timber inserts should not be placed close to 19
corners or too close to reinforcement, 19. Preferably they
shouldnot be used at all; thereare manyalternatives now
availablewhichdonotshrinkorrot.
Withthin prestressed concrete lintels, fixing inserts are not
practicable. Drilledfixings are also unlikely to be suitable
and should not be made withoutchecking that theywill
not weaken the lintel.
Steellintels whichsupportboth outer and inner leaves of
cavity wallsmay produce fixing problems in soffit
positions, thoughshot-fixed or drilled and threaded fixings
maybe possible.

N
52

ii,
Window sills
Damp on inside of wall
beneath window
Although detailingmust preventrain penetration, dampness
is also caused by condensationrunningoffglazing.With
double glazing the risk is very small, butwith single
glazing trouble ofthis kindhas increased, sometimes
because ofoccupancy conditions but also because ofthe
increasing use ofdraught-proof windows and the use of / 5Jpt4l9 S(m$
largeareas ofglazing. Where thereis fairly continuous pr5%4.s 'JO1cV
c&1a4i,,
heating from a heat source immediately below the window,
condensation maybe quickly dispersedandcause little
trouble, but inother cases single-glazed windowsshould
have drainedcondensation channels.

1 has fixed glazing which is mostvulnerable to condensation

but a similar situation will occuron weatherproofed
opening lights.
2 is better than 1 butwaterstill lies in the drainage
channel to some extentand damagespainted wood before
general repainting is needed.
A plastic or non-ferrous metalchannel prevents damage.
is better than 1 or2,but as shown the section is
difficultto clean.

A shallowand fairly wide channel iseasierto clean, 4.

Ifused as shown the drainage tubesshouldrun to lowest
part ofchannel.
Condensation may accumulate onanyhorizontal members,
such as transoms. Although notleading to wall dampness it
will accelerate deterioration ofmaterials. Condensation
channels may not beneeded but a sloping surface and,
a
particularly, sloping fillet to theglazing joint is
advantageous.

Dampness and rain penetrating

wall beneath sill
Assumingthatthebasicmaterial ofthe sillis impervious
damppenetration mayoccur:
Throughsill to wall bed joint,5.
Through end ofsill to wall jambjoint, 6.

6
 53

Throughjointsin length ofsill, egbrick,7,

orjointsin sills to longranges ofwindows, 8.

Sillto wall bed joint

Where sill projects far enough£i 35-41) mm)andhasgood
drip,9, 10, waterpenetration throughthe bed joint is
rather unlikely.
Very severe exposure, egcoasts or somehigh buildings,
may cause updraughts and morerisk.

9 10

Sill to sub-silljoint
Ifthewindow isin a forward position, as in 16, a sub-sill
is unnecessary, but awindow setback fromthe wallface
may need a sub-sill, 11. (In normal sections a woodsill
'shouldnotexceed 175 mmwidth.)
Some movement between thewoodsill and the sub-sill is
likely, and the top surface ofthe sub-sill is very exposed

/ // 7/
both to direct rain and snow and to concentrated water
run-offfrom glazing. So'water penetration between sill and
sub-sill is morelikely than at bed joint between a
projecting sill and wall below.

11

Traditional treatment is either a waterbar, 12, or a

weather groove, 13.

12 is feasible for built-inwindows butmay bedifficultfor

windows fittedafter walls are complete (unless there is
etsough tolerance to fitthe window and its waterbar into
position).

12
54

Ifthe cavity wallis continued unbroken up to the

underside ofthe sill, 13,a weather groove on theunderside
ofthe sill may be adequate to check penetration ifitis
correctly positioned withinthe width ofthe cavity.
A sill as deep as 13 should have asecond check just back
from the face ofthe sash.

Jointed sills
With brick or other small unit sub-sill materials, joints form
a weakness even ifthe basic material is impermeable.
Water is prevented fromreaching the inner face either a i4
dpc, 14a, or by taking thecavity up to the underside ofthe
sill, l4bc. In l4ab thesub-sill, being flatand so exposed
to frost,must be ofspecial quality, whereas the sub-sill in
14c is less vulnerable.

Thereis thedisadvantagein 14a ofwaterlying on top ofthe

flatbrick sill, from where itmay penetrate to the underside
ofthe wood sill. Also the thin open joint between brick and
front end ofthe wood sill is useless for access for painting 14a
the wood. In 14c the mortar jointing should continue along
theline ofthe brickslopeand thus help to avoid water
ingress.
A dpc beneath woodsillsis stillsometimes recommended
even wherewater penetration is adequately prevented by
cavity construction. Presumablythe objectis to sfeguard
the sill material from damage by contact with wet
It
external walling. is dIfficulttosee why this sill condition
is anyworse than junctions between window frames and
brick jambs wheredpcprotection is often not given. With
hardwood orpressure-impregnated softwood sills the dpc
seems a counsel ofperfection except at thejoint, 15, 16.
14b

14c
Wherelong ranges ofwindowsresultin jointed sills, wood, e*vAs -tvrzzk4 a.&,

plastic, metalorconcrete, movement is boundto occur and jout c-fMd

adequate protection against damppenetration is essential,
but quiteoften overlooked.A full lengthunder-sill dpc is
ideal. Failing this a goodwidth ofprotection, say 200 mm
each side ofthe joint, shouldbe provided, 15, and this dpc
must beturned up behind the sill high enough to give full
protection (14ashows timber inner sill a.ndshows tile
sill). 15

Also the ends oftimber sills must be treated against rot as

end grain is vulnerable.The jointitselfis best filled with
non-hardening flexiblemastic.

Longlengths ofmetal sills, especially aluminium, need

expansion joints, otherwise they will buckle.

16

End ofsill towall joint

Old stonesills were usually builtintothe wailsand
uf wi)i
4{uCl54&A
c
bct. +tk
4M54' SP*
a
jointing problems did not occur. Manyhardwood sills also
had projecting ends built-in, ha: Although some - // to
differential movement took placeand damp walling was in
contact with thesill, well-seasodedoakwas very durable
and serious damage rarelyoccurred. Inthebest work,
projecting sills ofstoneor hardwood had stooled ends, 1Th.
17a

in

With softwood,damage often occurs ifthe sill end is

built—in and it is now fairly common to detailthe sill to
stop shortofthe walling. The resultis a joint between end
ofsillandwallinto which watercan easily penetrate,
possibly reaching the wallinterior and certainly reaching
end grain oftimber,17c. vu&bL
A
A goodmastic filling to the joint is the only feasible
protection but the importance ofthis is not always
appreciatcd. The requirement must be stressed anda
careflil site check is needed.
A softwoodsill should inall casesbe treated with I7c
preservative, under pressure or vacuum.
56

Extenial appearaice of waHiug

below sill
.

Disfigurement and sometimes damage, inwalling

immediately below sills, is common. Notallofthis can be -
entirely avoided but careful detailing will minimise the
trouble.

Sill projection
Sills collect a lot ofrun-offwaterfrom glazing and it is
seldom sensible to design withouta sill projection, 18.

A projecting sill, with,drip, throws mostwaterclear (and

helps to prevent waterentry at the bedjoint), but because
it shelters the wall additional dirtying occurs immtdiatly
below.

Projection should be minimum possible consistent with

providing a reasonable throw-off.

H.
//
,
Stone and concrete require 25-35 mmsill pmjection, 19b, -

/ /
butthisdependsuponaccuracyofwaiingandeui
.
placingthesill.
Timber requires about25 mm, 19a, but this also depends
upon wall and workmanship.
' 19*
// -

19b

Metalneedbeaslittieasl5mmifwallisstx.aightand
workmanship good 20a (steel or aluminium) 20b (zinc)

20*
6 20b

Endofsill waterrun-off
Serious disfigurement often occurs fromconcentrated water
run-off at the ends ofthe sills. Occasionallythis showsas
darkdirt streaking but more often as light colour streaking
due todirt beingwashed offthe wall. Soluble limestone
sills mayresultinconsiderable whitestreaking ifthe sill is
incorrectly detailed, 21.

21
 57

Traditional stonesillsusually had end stoolingwhich

prevented waterblowing along and over the endof
the sill, 22 and iTh.
Continental zincsill detailing provides a somewhat similar
it
protection, 23. If is not built-inas wailing proceeds,
theremay be a problem jnmatching the factory-niade or
pre-ordered sill with the actual structuresize.

22 .23
Aluminium andsteel sills do not normally have any
protection at the ends but a flashing maybe usedto
providea similar effect, 24.
On wood sills a groove aaoss the top ofthe sill may help
to prevent muchofthe run-off bydirecting waterto the
front edge, 25.

24 25
Withtile,and possibly also with brick,sills the end units
can be slightly tilted,26.
aI(&ct1 4ttls

.
26

Proprietarysills
Proprietary slatesills can beused, 27, but must have a
dpc beneath iftheyare jointedon long ranges ofwindows.

27
 58

12
External,doors: position of frame
Theposition ofwindow frames in thethickness ofwalls
usually depends ontheappearance required, the external sill
andinternalwindow board size, and(in cavity walls) the
need to relateframe position and vertical dpc. (See
details 7, 10, 11, pages 29, 47 and52 respectively.)
For external doors, threshold detailing may be a deciding
factor(see detail 13, page 60). The effect offrame
position uponthepossible opening angle ofthe door can
also be veiyimportant, especiallyfor some outward
opening doors.
For composite door/window units a compromise between
conflictingrequirements may be necessary; this means that
designsfor doors andwindows mustbe considered
together throughout the building.

Effectofframe pOsitIon upondoorswing

In 1,theopening angle Is limited by the wall,and in2 by
the architrave.

Architrave moved back and/ormoulded, as in 3, results in

less restriction on opening angle.

Projecting frpme as in4allows 180' opening butwitha small

frame securdflxing is not easy, and some form ofjoint,
suchas ametalplaster stop,is necessaryto maskmovement
between plaster and frame.'

Projecting butts, 5, allow 180'opening including clearance

ofarchitraves. Astop maybe needed to prevent the
projectIng handle fromdnmngrngthe wall.

Withinwardopening doorsthe opening angle is not always

critical butfor manyoutwardopening doors, egto
balconies or garden terraces, a 180'opening is very
desirable toavoidobstruction and accidental damage by
windifthe dooris leftunsecured.
-
Securing outwardopening doors'
Withframeset back; 6,windcan cause accidental damage at
pointofimpact and strong levering action strains thebutts,
sometim splittingwood atscrew positions. Withstout
Well-fixed butts theforcemay betransferred to the frame
and loosen itsfixing. The external doorframemustbewell
fixed with lugs at about450mm centres.
Overhead fixing devices areobttiinable. Some are ugly and
not allare robust enough for doors in windy positions.
Cabin hooks may not beideally convenient butthey are
relatively inexpensive andgivea secure fixing.
180° opening allowa small cabinhooknear outer end ofthe
door,7.
Restricted opening angle, as in 8, means a shortcabin hook
a must be towards hingeend ofdoor,which is inconvenient
andnot always efficientin strong winds. Alternatively a very
long hook, b, can beused.

8
''I hookt#-
Wheredoorscannotoen much beyond 90°, a post is often A better arrangementis to form eithera solid barrier, 10, or
added as an afterthought, 9, and canbea hazard whenthe atleastan easily seen check.
door is shut.
Itis betterthat cabin hooks shouldbe fixed to thewall
than to thedoor. Builders seem todo the opposite unless
specially instructed. Hooks swing in the windand usually
do less damage to thewallthan to door finishes.

9 10

Relation ofdoorframe positionto wall dpc In cavity

Door setbackin wall, 11, allowsreasonable opening angle,
butframedoes not coverinner wall material. Water may
enterand material may be unacceptablein appearance. In
12 thedpc is covered with an external lining. This must be
rot-protected or ofnon-corrodablwmetal.
Ifthedoor frameis fixed towards the outer face ofthe wall,
13, the dpc and innerwallmaterial are covered
satisfactorily. This restricts the opening angle ofthe door,
and ifan external step isrequired, thestep will project
morethan inposition hand12.
Effect ofthresholduponframe position
l'hresholddetailingis described in detail13(page60), but
notethata step atdoor position often determines
threshold position, which inturndecides thefranc position.

R.Hadapfroniyrshiredrewattention to figures 11, 12 12

and 13 showngrelation ofdoor frame position to wall
vertical dpcin the cavity. Toavoidan exposed dpc, 11,
and/oradditional liningtocove it, 12, withoutchanging the
position ofthedoor frame, 13, he suggested that the door
opening can beformedin the cavity wall usingcut bricks or
special bricks as shown inhis sketch (right).

Hadap'ssolution.
60

13
External doors: thresholds
Failures ofexternal door thresholds often occur because
traditional details are usedfot unusual or changing Design check list
conditions, such asthefollowing: In orderthat reasonabledetailing may later be possible
consider the factors below.
an increasingrequirement for unobstructed access (ie a
level platform outside the door and no upstandthreshold); Severity ofsite exposure
an increasing demand for effectivedraughtexclusion; Is porch or lobby protection
possible?
doorways to exposed upperfloor balconies where the essential?
threshold must prevent not only rainpenetration to the desirable?
floor at that level, butalso leakage beneath, affecting ràoms unimportant?
below;
Is unobstructed entry (ie no step,no threshold upseand)
increased use oftypes Qfinternal floor finish which are requiredby regulations?
particularly vulnerableto damage ifwater reaches the desirable?
fixing adhesive. unimportant?
Is door inwardor outward opening?

Ifthere is a step up to inside floor, whereshould the

riser be for
safety?
convenience?
assistingwaterexclusion?
Will cross falls on external paving causeproblems (eg as on
some access balconies)?

Where in the walling thickness can the door frame be (ie in

relation to vertical wall dpc)? Threshold related to a step
mayaffect this.
Is it anupper floor access with special need to guard
against damageto rooms below from water entry beneath
the threshold?
Is internalfloor finish, especiallythe vulnerable adhesive
fixed type, immediately inside thedoorway?

Is a matwell or matontop offloor required?

Does doorway interruptnormal horizontal wall dpc?Ifso,
whattreatmentis required?

Threshold details
Weatherboard

lb is more economicalin use oftimber.la,c,

Traditional weatherboardis shown in but alternative
 61

Inwardopening doors: total waterexclusion not

essential
For sometypes ofroom, eg stores or wall enclosedoutdoor
spaces, itmay bevery convenient to be able to brushor
wash out throughthedoorway. Any form ofupstand
obstruction must then be avoided.

Rain exclusion is obviouslyassisted in such casesif

roomuse permits a step at the entrance, 1, 3a.
For similar conditions but where astep cannot be used
some rain entry, in driving wind, will occur.

A shortsharp ramp from door outward, 2a,may keep out

waterin most weather, but in bad conditions penetration 4oaJat.
YVI dnrt-toc)uvf
uiaytake place and the flat inside floor will allow water to lie. Y1SUt fiooy

Ifthe floor is at alluneven the watermay spread inward.

Theramp couldbe continued inward, 2b, butan inward
opening closed door will have a gap atthe bottom to allow
clearance when it op.ens. Rising butts will reducethis gap. 2a 2b

Outwardopening doors
Itis possible to put the step in 1 behind the door, as in 3a.
Witharamp,as 2b, an outward opening door will need .
noclearance gap below, 3b.
In1-3, draughtexclusion is assumed to be unimportant.
Where it does marter,arisingdraughtexcluder fixed to the

j : •••••

Metalweatherbarthreshold
A detail ofthe type in4is sometimes usedin an effort to
provide an 'unobstructed' entry, but it forms a nastyhazard
ra
and is especiallydangerousfor usein positions when the
door maysometimes be fixed open.Itwill keep out rain in
moderate exposures but is not proof against driving,rain or
snow. It may alsobe unsatisfactorybecause rain driving
into thespacebetween door and frame runs down the
relateand reaches the floor insidethe end ofthe weather
bar. A vulnerable floor finish immediately inside the
door is inadable.

A better akerisative mightbe to use a compressibletype

draughtexcluder let into the floor, 5.
This is a less hazardous obstruction than theweatherbar
of4andifwellfittedcan prove reasonably watertight in
moderate exposure, buthas some ofthe same disadvantages
as 4.
62

Inward openingdoor:wood thresholdplustep

A detail such as 6 is commonly used. In exposed conditions rba*t of
some rain or snow may be blown in, and the addition ofa 06
JaLu5
clo(')'\ +0
drained internalchannel should be considered, 7. kep66d44 ,ì v.side
lsa6o,c ,?
Ifthedoor is thick, about40mm or more, an improvement
to 6 and 7is possible byrebating thebottomofthe door
enough to allow the weather mould to drip clear ofa small Q

threshold, 8, but ifthis threshold also has a drop, itmay

QP oh&d cM6we
w.od -kt up
dpM
-,.,jo.
be difficultto fix. An extended threshold, going beyond the rsho+o1
internalface ofthe door, maythen be needed.
Whenbottomofdoor is rebated itmay be impossible to fix
flushbolts.
In 6, 7, 8a,the threshold is rebated so that the door stops f4oo( ve'1
against it. This helpsto keep out draughtbut serves very
little purposeagainst rain penetration. A flat-topped
threshold with inset draughtexcluder may be equally or
more effective,8b.
R. F.. Owen, referring to methods 6 and 7suggested using
an upstanding galvanised wi. waterbar in the door sill,
covered by a throatedrebate in the bottom edge ofthe door
(see section andplan, right). With external inward opening
flush doors wind-blown rain spreads laterally into the rebate,
and a throatin the joint rebateis essential to carry this water
tothe outer face ofthe water bar at the bottom. The top
edge ofthe weatherboard should weather steeply and be
waterproof-glued and screwed tothe door face (tonguing in
allowswatertoenter the cut edges ofthe ply face in the Sa
corresponding groove inthe door). The upstaidingmetal
'blade'ofa waterbar or its equivalent is an almost invaluable
device for forming inwardasd outward facing rebates with aulw boixd bo41s4
negligiblehorizontal top surface. Suchbars and channels are —
widely usedin continental inward opening window and door
details. The external door detail described is based upon
experience ofsome1000 houses in all exposures.
iusd cwd u,d
icolv
< 1i CO61
fo dco,'
WcLW - of oJa*e

PM
Ow,..i;etuon a,,dpt,,.

Waterpenetrationbeneath threshold
Although not immediatelyobvious, water gettingin
beneath a threshold may reach the edge or underside of
vulnerable floor finishes. OY

Troubleofthiskind is unlikely when a wood threshold

occurs at a step, but details similar to 9 aresometimes seen
and would not besatisfactoiy—evenwith a mastic XWt3 .Q
bedding.
A waterbar, 10, isthe,traditional method ofprotection in 9
such casesandshouldbeadequate atgroundfloor doors
but is not acomplete answer to the upperfloorsituation aho NoAS,'iou'
where protection to a roombelow is needed.

o4
10
 63

Upperfloor problems
When anupper floor external doorway has to provide
against any risk ofwaterpenetration to rooms below, a
numberofproblems arise.

Expostire conditions are often moresevere than atground

'level.

Drainage failson the balcony may produce unforeseen

complications.
The waterproof finish tothe balcony is sometimes shown
extending to a position beneath the threshold where proper
workmanship becomes impossible.
Anadequate upstandto thebalcony waterproofingmay
resultin the needfor stepped floor construction which
produces structural problems, and which must therefore
be solved at earlydesign stage.

11 does not allow for probable variations in level ofbalcony

finish such as occuron long access balconies. Also the
asphalt-to-water bar joint is byno means certain to be
effective.

nflfl1T4
11

In 12,asphalt is shown with turn-up into grooved threshold,

but inpracticethematerial cannotbe properly worked into
position as groove is too farback and height insufficient.

Er
12

The asphalt in 13 couldbeworked into position, butin

practice the balcony falls may turn out toleavethe asphalt
skirting lower than expected. The architect should anticipate
falls andallowfor them.

Even as shown thereis astep in the concrete which must

have been accepted at design stage.

Exceptin very sheltered situations itis difficultto see how

to provide a satisfactorydetailwithoutsomeform of 13
structural upstandbeneaththe threshold. Ifa step in the
concrete slabis not acceptable structurally, then it may be
necessary toprovideaconcrete upstand, 14, in spite ofits
nuisance valuein making access less easy. The upstand
shouldbe high enough tobe noticeable, to preventpeople
trippingover it;

iYWtL1 6*M !cie of

Sh(u4a6A v.
14
 64

A possible methodwoaldbe to use lead flashing, 15.

The flashingmust befixed to the wood thresholds and
later dressed into asphalt. There is risk ofdamage to the
front lead in the interimperiod.
Ifthe balcony runs above a lower floor roomandrequires
thermal insulation on top ofthe structural material, the
problems ofbalcony finish level and internalfloor level are foskjc'f4u.6i U4a*
further increased. Structure and detail are interdependent. ''t46Skb4Q(

It is not safe to 'leave the details till lateron'. 2 aeys

faptt ___________kk,14

4Lck

fak
00
e4 ai
fYWA of ilsp
L4M
p0

15
Whereupper floor construction is oftimber theproblems
are basically the same but with theadditional hazard of
morestructural movement. A substantial step-up inthe
structurebecomes moreimperative. A coverflashing
coming overanddownthe outside oftheasphalt shoulcibe
provided, 16. This is the most sensible type ofdetail for
balconies.

16

Outward opening doors

The door/threshold detailis clearly easier but prevention .
ofwaterleakage between threshold and structureremains
similar tothe examples illustrated.

Relationship ofwall/floor dpc

Depending uponrelanonsbip,of wall dpc axcd und floor
dampproof'membrane prblsof contliiuity oftotcction
will occur On sloping site conditions mayvaryat '°

F differeitdoorways id a standazd detail majnot

all requirements Eachcase needs special'consideration
but apoint easily overlookedis that it is usually ne
to extend the floor dpm into the doorframe 17

17
 65

14
Masonrywalls: junctionoftimber Upper floors
Plaster faults Traditional construction New construction
Two faultswhich frequently occur inpresent-day building Heavy cornice prevents No cornice causes weak
are: cracking atjunctionand junction;unevenceiling line
disguises unevenceiling. shows up; no decoration
Good'break-line' for 'break-line',lb.
1 cracking ofplaster; decorations, la.
2 uneven line atjunctionofwall and ceilingplaster. This is
not alwayseasily seen at construction stage butmay
CE
become painfully obvious after decoration, especiallywhen
wall and ceiling decorationsare not similar in material
and/orcolour.
At the end ofthe contract 'defects' periodclients wantthe
faults corrected. Is itfair to blame the contractor? Poor Nati
workmanship or materials may be partially the cause, but lb
architects too have, over aperiodoftime, accepted a Floor joistsgenerous insize Economy intimber; small
number ofchanges indesign and construction that, in and closely ipaced. joists,widerspaced;
combination, cannotbe expected to be trouble free, 1, 2. deflection and movement more
likely.
Timber well seasoned. Poorly seasoned timber;more
movement resulting from
central heating.

2a 2b

Joistssecurely fixed to wall Joists loosely fixed to wall,

plates,2a. often unsecured and quite
frequently 'levelled' by wedging
up with any odd bits of
material that happento be
nearby, 2b.
Thick lath and plasterceiling Thin plasterboard has to
is relatively strongand can follow ceiling joist levels. Thin
readily be used totake upany plasterskim coatinsucint
differences inlevels of toallow making up uneven
underside ofjoistssnd'thus levels. Insufficient Btrength at
make alevel ceiling/wan plasterboard joints to prevent
junction possible. cracking caused bymovement
intimber.
There does not appear tobe anycheaporsimple means of
overcomingthese problems. Noggings between joists around
the perimeter oftheroomadd some stiffness and can be
set out to provide a level starting line for ceiling boards, 3
(view ofunderside ofceiling).
Some irregularity ofthe ceiling awayfrom the wall would
still exist butwould be less noticeable than atthewall
position.

3
 66

A method sometimes tried is toform atrowelcut to prevent

any bondbetween ceiling andwail plaster. Ifcarried out
properly this mayrestrictthe cracking tothatline. It does
nothing to help on levelling.

Adding asmall woodmoulding or preformed cornice has

been tried, 4. Thismay hide plaster cracks butwill usually
resultin a crack between plaster and wood because of
shrinkage. It does provide ausefuledge on whichto change
decoration butis likely to emphasise anyunevenness in the
ceiling. 4

'
Joist deterioration .

Although it is now acceptd that woodwail plates should

nor be built into wails, joist ends are normally carried into • .
the inner leaf ofcavity walling andexposed to cavity
conditions. All too oftenthis method seems to be used
withoit taking any precaution against timber decay. Ideally -
joists should be pressure treated with preservative but,
failing this, atleast joist endsshouldbe protected, either
by wrapping in a waterproof material or byliberal .,
treatment ofbrush-applied preservative.

A possible alternative to building-in is to carryjoistson

joist hangers (see5).

Eftect of floor upon wall stability

Withlow rise buildings and small floor spans, wall
often maynotbe a critical factor butitshould
- stability
not be ignored. A combination ofdesign changes may lead
to conditions which would seldom have occurred inthepast.

The use ofjoist hanges which mayleadto moreeccentric

loading, the use ofthinconcrete blockwails, larger windows
andthetrend towards eliminating 'structural'internal
partitions may add up to produce construction of
questionable safety or even positive overloading. The
followingpointsshould beconsidered.

Floors supported on hangers

On somesmall jobs wherecontinuity ofworkfor
bricklayers maynotbe availableelsewhere on thesite,
hangers avoidahold up for bricklayerswhilejoists are
fixed, butthey may have aneffect onwall stability, and
theremust be somemeans ofpreventing hangers from 4
pulling outofthe-wall ifshrinkage occurs.
Ifthe joistis not wellsecured, ie withatleast twonails,
the floor load shouldbe considered as acting attheinner
face ofthe wall, 5ab.
a&o
5a withone-naifflxing has a.fullyeccentric load.In 5b,with

:r-a6- f
two-nail fixing, the eccentricity istakenas d/2 (usually
-
?5 mm).

fwo-naU fu
5a
l&
5b
 67

Hangers can be inserted as thewalling proceeds but is it

important, because ofthe added eccentricity, that joists
should riot be fixed andloadedbefore waffinghas had time
to gainreasonable strength. This ismost likely tobe
important in cold weather conditions when carpenters
mightcontinue to work but mortar would be slow to
acquire strength.
It may•be thoughtthat joist hangers have anadvantage in ro.is s* csks +0 a1A Is,sfa paLLe +o iaJA
that thewalling isnot interrupted, as it is 'whenjoistsare 6a 6b
builtin. This depends very muchuponhow the space
between joists is filled. Good infillingis more difficultwith

;_
blocksthan with smaller brick size units (unless joists are
spaced to accept one standard block between each). cuctuw s,up
Where walling is designed to CP 111, Part 2, 1970,*
brik
positive supportfrom intermediate floors is often required.
The code gives examplesofhow to achieve this, 6ab. For
cavity walls the illustrated methods seem to have possible \ k U4t6'/6
Ma4 reu.Lt'
csct
bteec ais4i'Y
waA4
04i51
snags,7ab. :3'oisis 0* YLf*OM +0 'J4JA paxo1L4 +0
7a 7b
In 7b,because strapsare 6 mm thickthey need pre-drilhing.
The resultmay be that the turndown ofstrap is loose in
thecavity.

Also,Sunless the joist is packed tothe wall, the wall is able 0x5o
to move inward. a*6t4u4
3aAv #*ttJJ QC45VS
!4CXS
Since under the code bracing is required 'only at 1 2m or 3o5 i'.r5tJc,1S17

18m intervals, a single bad fit would leave thewall

unsupported for 24
mor m. 36
Matthew A. Berwick ofLeslie, Fife,provided details, 8, 9,
ofaccepted Scottish practice, from the Explanatory
memorandum referring to thestructural strength requirements
ofthe Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations. He
pointed out that in each case theanchors extend through the
cavity to the outer leaf; thereby effectivelyipreading any
loadover both leaves ofthewallas well as improving.
stability ofthe outer leaf. The difficultiesreferredto above
couldtherebybe largely avoided.
A similar cOnstructionis used to anchor theroofstructure
togable walls.
A. Hickman wrote: 'Withreference to detail14, would I
suggest:
1 use thicknessed joists and supervise liningthrough (ifthis
fails, cross-batten undersides ofjoists, wedging as necessary
to give a true line,and fix plasterboard to battens);
2 ensure that the joists specifiedand used areofadequate
width toprovideasecurefixing forthe ends ofplasterboard;
3 ensure that solidblocking or herringbone strutting is fixed
not morethan 100mm from joist ends at the time the
joists are placed to prevent twisting;
4 usecorrectthickness ofplasterboard forjoist spacings;
5 stack plasterboard flatonsite in areasonably dry
atmosphere;
6 use plasterboard cove cornice.'

*rjj Stand&rdz Inzcitution, 2Park Steet,IndonW.1 9Joistsatrightanglesto wall.

68

15'
Masonrywalls: junctionwith concrete upperfloors
Based uponBS CP 3: Part 2: 1970, calculated loadbearing illustrates threepoints ofdetailing:
masonry walls ofnormal cavity typeoften provide an 1 preventing damppenetration;
economic structure,especiallyfor domestic or similar 2 the use ofbrick 'tiles';
buildings with shortfloor spans. Intermediate upper floors 3 the 'cold bridge' effect resulting from loss ofcavity
ofconcrete may be required, andsometimes these may insulation value.
extendthrough to the exterior face ofthe walling, or at least Very similar pointsofdetail,would applyifthe
part-way through to support upper walling, construction included a ring beairi, but as abeam is often
Thissection does not consider the structural aspects ut deeper than floor thickness the prcblem of safely securing
'Briti,hStandard, ln,titution,2'ParkStreet,London W.1 thinbricktiles mightbe greater.

Preventing damp penetration -f1aakmg we4 suved

The most obvious need is for an effectivecavity flashing

above theconcrete floor.
f1—,
6se#phaea
e&
at
The flashing material can project andbe folded down, 1.
This is poor in appearance and the fold-down is seldom
achieved in practice.
çk'pQ'd
__
C,aZt-V, t'ok' ckeok
Ifitis kept back from the wail face andthejoint pointed
up, settlement due tocompression ofthe flashingmay
concentrate the load andcausespalling, 2a.

The preferable method is to inserta preformed metaldrip

section, 2b.

Although structural design is not beingdiscussed here, the H baok

L1
type offlashingmaterial may have structural implications.
Ifcompressible'it will affect load transferdownthe walling ,procn$t 'wpr'
andmay cause most or all oftheload to be carried on the
It
inner leaf. will alsoaffect the bondoftheouter leaf to its
supportand so reduceability ofthe walling ttrresistwind
forces. This may be important onexpose4 sites and L trjolW c4tc'K
especiallyso inthe top storey ofa building wherewind
causes negative pressure and tendsto liftthe rOof
top ofthe wall (see detail 17, page 76);
- offthe
Za
Ir
RobertToy, ofFalmouth, Cornwall,suggested that the
'solid backing to supportflashing' in2b is impractical. 'If
the flashingis ofnon-rigidmaterial and does cross the cavity
atan angle (as 2b and 99 per cent ofsimilar details drawn
stt bockorcj fo o.ppos-t

in architects' offices indicate), then theflashing would indeed

need a backing to preventitbeing damaged when the cavity
iscleaned out, butsuch a backing would be difficult and
therefore expensiveto install. -f1sk f
L
'A morepractical detail is to carry theflashing vertically uck ctA
down theouter face ofthe innerleaf to slab level and then LSYtOd
across the width ofthe cavity and under theouter leafto the
outideface.

a.bi'f
FvicAt
kehwi co.vv&
de3n 2b c-:: :4=tSwt
5Owo.t tt6pti4 ftce- of ta6yItaf
daoup 'Saucd to 'Ifthebottom ofthe cavity is filled with dampsand to a
ndmi- tda at
turotaa .arotMa(vL4 depthofapproximately 50mm while the wall is beingbuilt,
YOhokS ua then theaccumulation ofmortardroppings whichinevitably
pro

r
oehu occurs can easily be broken up withthe end ofa lath in the
::..g.. traditionalmannerand cleared out withthe sand via
.".-.
core-holes,leaving the bottom ofthecavity perfectly clean

Toy's suggestion.
i/i andtheflashing undamaged.'
Cecil 1andisyde replied:'This proposal is a goodone, if
 69

thereis supervisioli which ensures that cavities are cleaned 'Mention shouldbe made that laps need to be s$Ied by a
out. All too often this process seems to be omitted; 50 mm. method suitable for thematerial used. (Thisisarticularly
ofsandwould thenaddtothe height ofthepile-up ofmortar difficultwith polythene.) /
droppings.' 'Consideration should be given to the formation ofcorners
and junctions which has been traditionally left to the
Comments from John Duell, of London: 'The "z" shape in bricklayer's expertise and few architects in my survey were
2b is difficult to achieve on site with the materials most used aware ofhow junctions were formed. With today's standard
today, pitchpolymer and polythene. Haunching is costly ofworkmanship andwith the increased exposure ofmedium
and rarely done today. The "z" shape makes the geometry of and high rise buildings this reliance may not be sufficient.
corners and jsnctions difficult.I would suggest an (Pre-formed corners are availablefrom somemanufacturers
"L"-shapeddp tray which requires no haunching and which or-may be made,up in a site hut.)
gives a simple geometry at corners. Italso allowsfor easier 'Theabove discussion outlines the fact that the detailing and
cleaning ofmortardroppings from the dpc. installation ofsteppeddpcs (cfhorizontal dpcs) is not
'The projection ofa dpc is indeed difficult to obtain on site. properly covered intextbooks, British Standards, BRS
I recently interviewed most ofthe architects ofrecentlarge documents, efc.'
loadbearingbrickwork projects and only in one or two cases
was an attempt made, to project the dpc. I would suggest the CecilHandisyde replied: 'Unless either stuckinto position
dpc is brought just to the face. (Incidentally, the metal drip with adhesiveor provided as pre-formed stiffmaterial, the
in figure 2b should be tucked under the dpc, not over it, and. "L"-shapeddpc is likely, in practice, to finish up more like
it would cost a fortune.) that of the original detair. Mr Duel's other comments aie a
very useful contribution.'

i1L
V.3J6Kt4P4&
ckJlTy
uigeoi,6t...
PbeR. P)cso*a4
pe. To Po ,cooJLt'

Duel!', alternative detail.

Waterpenetration below the floor slab is often not be,w

- 0510b
considered but thereis a possibility ofmovement causing ru',
cracking atthe junction ofwalland slab. Some form ofdrip rusi-presf& a-yslob rust.prfeO Ca

over the cavity is therefore advisableto prevent water csi

reaching the inner leaf. 2shows drip formed inconcrete,
which is feasible in aframed building with concrete cast
first andbrickwork built up to itlater. Ifhe concrete is
castin situ the top ofthe cavity must be closed in some way
in any case, and a T-section or channel in plastic or rust
resistant metalcan serveboth functions, 3ab.
3a 3b

AJternati'ely, ifvisually acceptable, the concrete may

project beyond the wall but shuttering then becomes mOre
complicated. The projection may also form a catchment for
water, which may penetrate beneath the cavity flashing. It
shouldeither be weathered, 4a, or, better,stepped,'4b. -

Flashing could have preformed drip as 2b.

-
RobertRogerson and PhilipSpenteof Glasgow
commented that damp-proofing procedures in theWest of
Scotland needto be quitedifferent to thosein any other paft
4a
ofthe country, They consider thatin those conditions a
concrete slab going throughto the exterior ofa wall, even //
j6s(es
with protection above, is not satisfactory. They advised that
the outerbrick leaf ofthe cavity wall should pass
uninterrupted past anylab, and that there should be a dpc OVt-V pp
between the external wall andthe slab. ep
Cecil Handisyde replied: 'This is a mostusefulreminder
that special local site conditions need to beconsidered. The 5sev6we'*
WestofScotland is, indeed, not the only area where
"normal" methods woufd be unsatisfactory.Troubleisknown
4b
70

to have occurred onexposed cbastal sites in Southand Spence's solution to dampness may have structural
South-West England. It should be noted that in any but implications in ternis ofwall design.'
small domestic buildings Robert Rogerson and Philip

Theuse of brick 'tiles'

Onefairly commonarrangementis to stop the concrete
behind the wall face to allowthe face brickwork to be
carried past as brick 'tiles'. Detailing becomes critical
because theconcrete must project to not less than two-thirds
ofthe outer wall thickness. Experience shows that in some
districts building surveyors will be very stricton this; for
example they will measure the width ofbricks as used. The
resultis to leavevery little space for brick 'tiles' and their
flxing—--itouldbe as little as 33 mm, 5.

Allowing8 or 9mm for bedding between tiles and concrete,

the tile thickness cannot be more thhii about24 mm. With
it
clay bricks is better to machine cutthe bricks for the
purpose than to tryto obtain 'specials' which,even if
available,mightwell vary in colour from thegeneral
brickwork.

jA
5
Safe fixing for the brick 'tiles' is not easy to achieve. If any
load is transferred to themfrom thewall above thereis a
riskof'bowing' undercompression, 6. In concrete frame
structures this problem requires special precautions, as
differential movement offrameandwall causes difficulties.
Insuch cases the outer brick wails arenot structural and an pritc1 C4tC4'FfI ppciffatw
expansion joint at the top ofthe wall maybe needed to take
up differential movement between wall and column. -
rleec.*
1
The risk of'bowing' will increase as the heightofbrick L

tiling increases.
Thereis somedoubtaboutwhat type ofmaterial should be
used forfixing thetiles. At the present time careful work
usingordinarymortarisprobably the bestchoice.
6

The 'cold bridge'effect

The risks ofcold bridges leading to internal condensation
are now fairly wellappreciated, but persapsare more often
thoughtofin termsofpanel wall typeconstruction than
wherefloors cause a bridgewhere they cross a cavity wall.
Whether athrough-the-wall fioowill be a serious risk can
be judged onlyfor particular situations and it will depend wa.U t av,.vcyhc-,v(
6OOisa,
uponhumidity, ventilation andheating conditions ofthe o.pe*.c f-a-v s4dL4lc-al
adjacent rooms. u7kit-E r
'Ifthe situation seems to call forprecautions the lostcavity
insulation value shouldbereplaced by adding insulation
inside. The risk ofcondensation canbe reducedby using a
'closed cell' plastic or polyurethane insulant, sealed with PVC
tape atjoints.

ejlinginsul?tion may be applied tothe underside ofthe

concrete, 7, but this may resultin a visually unsatisfactory
drop inceiling level for thewidth oftheinsulation. Ifa
ceilingfinish is fixed tobattens the extrainsulation -can-be
located within the battendepthairspace. ' u
0
o weds-v clsok K— oo—
Alterziativelyinsulation can be inset intothe slab thickness, Is
but this may-involve anadditiopal bendto reinforcement ——?1 _______________
evenwhere otherwise structurally acceptable.
__
*Fordiscussionandtreatment seeBrick Development AssociationTechnical
Note Someobservation,onthe—designofbrickworkcladdingtomulti-otorey rcframed
structure,,VolI,No 4,September1971
k5r 7/ CeA atcl
 71

3 Where brick tiles are introduced into this situation they

Theremay be a need for floor insulation. Ifso, the floor will require additional means ofsupportto,the conventional
finish must be able to accommodate the thickness. mortars. Figures 6 to 8 oftheBDATechnjcal Note* show
two alternativemethods ofsupporting the metal tiles using
In high risk situations, wall insulation above and below the metal straps,plates and anchors, or the tiles can be bedded
slab thickness may be needed. Again, accommodatingthe with adhesives.'
thickness can be awkward unless a wall finish on battens
is used. Cecil Handisyde replied:
'11 agree th'emovement joint needs tobe 12-15mm if the
J. H. Pickwick commented: 'The junction ofmasonry walls I
structureis a framed concrete one. very muchdoubt the
withupper concrete floors involves threeparticular need forthis in small buildings whereaconizete
precautions: intermediate floor bears on brick walls; and unless the
bearing is on to cross walls a separation would not be
1 Vertical shrinkage and creep dictates that the movement possible.
joint shown at the top ofthe masonry panels should be 2 In framed buildings where a.full movement joint is
12-15 mm and beofcompressiblefiller (pointed with a necessary it is not alwaysessential to have a top fixing with
compressible sealant) ratherthan a thin membrane. metal anchors. The need depends upon panel wall size and
2 The introduction ofamovement or pressure relieving shape. In some cases, end fixings to columns may be
joint necessitates that a metal anchor becast intothe slab adequate.
and built into the brickwork below to provide lateral 3 The fixing ofbrick slips is a difficult problem on which
resistance to windforces. Suchan anchor should not provide BDATechnical Note 4* is useful. Metalfixingsmay be the
a bridgefot wateracross the cavity and ideally should at the best method but improvementsin adhesives maybe
same time allowvertical movement ofthe masonry. sufficientto give satisfactoryperformance.'
See reference onpage 70
72

Low buildings against highercavitywalls

Althoughproperlybuilt cavity construction prevents rain
penetration reaching the inner wall, aconsiderable amount
ofwater may enterthe outer leafand somemay run down
its inside face. Thisis well understood, and usually no
trouble occurs ifa proper cavity cloak is provided at all
pointswhere the cavity is bridgedhorizontally, and ifat the
bottom ofthe wall thecavityextends well belowdpc (see
detail 5, page 20).

But thingsmaygo vrongwhena low building abutsa

//','
highercavity wall. Unlesspreventivemeasuresaretaken,
water penetrating the exposed high-level outer skin ofthe
cavity andrunningdownits inside face wets what at a
/7/
lower level is aninterior wall, 1.

Ifboth high and low building are designed at the same time
°
//
/
this possibility is likely to be foreseen and overcome by a
cavity cloak just above low rooflevel. When the low
building is added lateras an extension there is morechance
//
ofthe problem beingoverlooked.There is also much /1
greater difficulty in forming thenecessary protection to the
existingexternal wall, whichbecomes theinternalwall of
thenewextension.
//
Both levels built at sametime
Low level flat roofabuts cavitywall
to
t
u5u4Dpw15d
da tao
'ta'
bdOMAO
,
c'iaJ.
.3kjA€
OA12pM35
Whenlow andhigh levels are built at the same time,
methods are possible.

1 Thecavity continues above and below the cavity

* Cll
sm't b'rcks
fv
aLAuJ riMoA
MO( fr
ctui&,t

cloak, 2.
Ifthis methodis used,the.cavity cloak dpc material
should berobust and site supervisors must ensurecarein
cleaning out. Damage to the dpcmaterial may not be
it it
noticed and, even if is seen, willbe impossible to
repairwithouttaking out brickwork. A metaldpcis
probably best,butsomevery tough bituminous 2
compounds wOuld also be suitable. Laps in the dpc need to
be welted, welded or otherwise sealed together,as water
woOldrun along and drip throughanordinarylap joint.

2 It maybe considered preferable to buildthe lower wall as

solidratherthan cavity construction, 3. This is possibly
cheaper andgivesslightly more space tothe low building.
The cavity flashing can then be supported.
oAd M cwd
Peter Woodcockcommented: 'Method3is open to +o aL1au rvai
0U*
fo
cwLj
criticism for providing aperfectcold bridge.'

Cecil Randisyde replied 'Although the one-brick walling

and concrete corbel unit is infact noworse than in the
original building, thecriticism is quitefair.'

3
 73

Low level pitchedroofabuts highcavitywall

The principles are similar tothosewhere thelow building
is flat roofed, but the detailing ofa satisfactorycloak and
flashing becomes muchmore complicated andit is worth
considering the alternative ofweatherproofingthe upper
wall with anexternal treatment.

Ifthepitchedroofis tiled or slated thereshouldbe

soakers, covered by anapron flashingin shortlengths and
lapped, 4a. Alternatively,the apron flashing can be separate
from the cavity cloak, 4b.

The cavity.cloakmust be.stepped at frequent intervals, 45

with each step arranged sothat the waterfromthehigher
level is discharged onto and nor behind the next lower level.
Eachlength ofcavity doak should at least oversail the next
lower length by.about75 mm, 5.
côgt )c,4 ..
In steppedterrace housing pitched roofs, the exposed a.pp(
upper walling is not more than a fewhundredmm high,
and often protected bya verge overhang. There mustbe
enough working space below this to installthe flashing.

JamesGuestofBelfast commented: 'The flashingsdetail

in both 2 and4b is suspect. You indicate the tepped apron
flashing coming below the maincavity flashing; ifthis detail
is put into operation waterwill undotedly be drawn by
capillary actionto the inside oftheoui?rIeaf.'
'It
Cecil Handisyde replied: is considered that the methods 4b
shown in 2 and 4b would often be adequate, but I agree
that the 4a method is better and shouldbe preferred on
exposed sites.'
Bitterexperien5ce taught R.L. Haynes and S.J. Morris' of
Beckingsdale& Partners that 5 does notalways work. The
arrangement illustrated had several weaknesses,they claimed.
'1 Watercollectedby the stepped cavity tray may discharge
waterthe "wrong"way over theend wherethereis no
steppedcavity cloak beneath, so discharging water downthe
cavity.
2 There is an area ofexposed brickworkbelow thestepped
cavity cloak and above the stepped apron flashing where
watermay enter.
3 Part ofthe cavity cloak dischargesbelow the apron flashing
preventing waterbeingdischarged externally at all. There is
a proprietary type ofcavity tray anti gutterwhich overcomes
theseproblems. It consists ofa preformed metaltraywith
upstands attheback and one side and is built into the outer
skin. A lead apron flashing is fixed to the tray which is
dressed over the tiles or intoa secret gutter.'

Cecil Handisyde replied:

'11 agree that thçre could be the weakness described.
2 There is a verysmall area ofexposed brick. 5
I
3 cannot see where the outletwould get significantly stated as desirable in your text. However, ifweep aole?are
blocked.' positioned anywhere withinthe cavity wall, the detailwill
not workatall, because, in wipdy conditions, a negative
TomKaywrote: 'In 1965,I experienced a greatdeal of pressure is set up withinthe 4avity,whichdraws thewater
trouble with exactly thedetailyouhave suggested.in5. through any,faultyjoints (antithere always area few) and
I
Admittedly used a semi-engineeringbrick whose lack of pulls it alongthe cavity tray intil it dropsoffthe endand
porosity tendedto overload the brick jointswith water. A intothe building below.
part ofthe wall was'flnallytaken downand rebuilt, using a 'This latter trouble occurred on anotherbuilding in 1967,
complex andveryexpensive lead-formed
continuously-stepped cavity tray—much to my
embarrassment at the time(seedrawingand photograph,
next page).
/ 'where thelaps inthecavity trayswere 150mm and, that
time, it was muchto,my cosi. The building was finally
soaked in a silicone solution.'

'Assuming weillaidbricks ofaverage,or above, porosity and Cecil Handisyde replied:'This does seem tobe ratheran
a relatively softmortar,your detail mightwork, but withan expensivesolution but it doemphasise thar the costof
overlap between trays ofmore like 300mm than the 75 mm doing aproper job on this ofdetailwill always behigh.'
74

I
Kay's expensive
solution.

Position of Kay's cavity tray.

New extension to existing

higher buiIding
Low levelflatroof
The method shown in 2is possible but would have to be
done by removing shortlengths ofthe existing outer wall
thecavity whichwould be expensive. vev1
ku (ve( ifdde2ev nMe(

Two alternatives mightbeconsidered, raf

//, ,flet,J
1 Ifvisually acceptable, theupper exposed cavity wall could
be externally waterproofed, eg by rendering, tile hanging or
cladding withtimberor other material. Thecostwould
depend onthe extentofupper wall therewas to betreated.
/
<2/
ifa single-storey extensionis built next toa building of
several storeys, it may be flecessaryonly to protectone
//
storey above the extension. Rain entering above that leel
would be unlikely to soak throughand run downa whole
storey. Cavity shouldbe ventilatect
///7

'/7

2 The 'wet' leaf ofthe cavity walladjacntto the extension

mightbe waterproofed, 6.
The advisability ofthesecond method is questionable.
Severity ofexposure ofthe upper walling should be

/ L4 i,Uxr,,d
I (c'cc'
considered,.togetherwith thetype ofwalling material, eg a
dense impermeable brickin strong mortarmay be more
susceptible to water entry through jointsthan an absorbent
<2 oY
hxrdx-et)
thywM +0 at4x-v
of nes bui k
brick in a weak mortar. //
Ifmethod2is used,some outletatthebottomofthe wall
shouldbeformedas aprecaution against build-upofwater.
Goodventilation totheupper cavity walling,would help
to dry out water, butifadequate forthis purposeitwould
significantlyreducethe thermal insulation value ofthe
cavity and would notpermitcavity fillto be used.
 75

Low level pitchedroof

:l'he difficultiesreferredto in adding cavity gutter
protection above a flatroofbuilding extension are greater
ifthe complicated sytemof5is to be inserted.
A further solution for bothflat and pitchedroofs
One'solution, ifthe loss of'150 mm ofspaceisnot vital, is
to build a completely newleaf,7 (which mightbeuseful
It
structurally too). is also a practical solutiànto the
a
problem of new pitched roofabuttingan existing wall.
 76

,i7 Wind damage to roofs

Introduction
This detail is unlike any other in this book in that it does
not offer direct design and construction guidance.
The Everyday Details team hadgreatdifficultyin reaching
agreement on the best method of assessingpotential wind
damage to roofs and on the design implications ofwind
A Evaluation of wind speed
I Determine basic wind speed for the geographical
location .
Values are based on a 3 second gust speed estimated-to be
exceeded once in 50years.

Comments: Does this mean that one shoulddesign for an

loading. The team decided, therefore, merely to state the
recommendationsand procedures contained in the Code of averagebuilding to receive damage once in its lifetime?
(See 4 below.) -
Practice, commenting on the difficultiesthese raise, and
throwing the problem over to readers to help in As mightbe expected the windtpeeds show a general
formulating generalised design guidance. increase from low in the South-east to high in the West
and North and very high in the North-west, but it may
The size of the problem surprise some people nitfind equal values for Plymouth and
Estimates indicate that in the Ule annualcost of
Leicester. Designers working outside their familiar areas
need to be careful. Irmay also be notedthat apparently
repairs to building necessitated by winddamage amounts small differences in windspeed assume considerable
to LlO million. A largepart ofthis relates to structural
roofdamage and muchoccurs as damage to small buildings. importance when multiplied by all the factors, eg by
interpolation on the contour map Leeds has a windspeed
If, as is believed, the incidence of.damage is increasing,this of47 but in the list ofcities a speed of46. The resultant
probably results in part from the gradual introduction of pressures emerge as 4748 and4587—a difference of
a numberofchanges in design without a full recognition 4-5 per cei*.
ofTheircombined effect. Lighter weight structureis one
factor and the use.of low pitched foofs is anotfier. There 2 Adjust basic windspeed for topography (S1 factor)
are also less obvious changes such as the decreasing use of Basicwindspeed is adjusted by a factor,normally between
purliñ construction, and The increasing use ofsingle span 1 and 0-9. TheYhigh value applies to exposed hill slopes
structures withoutintermediatq#ipportand fixing, eg and crests and to 'alleys shaped to produce wind
trussed rafters. A general deterioration in the quality of
funnelling. The low factor is used for vallys sheltered to
workmanship may also be significant. all winds. -

Living withthe regulations Comments:The code makes no direct reference here to

The need for positive action to provide adequate coastal situations but covers ktsetfwith a reference to the
safeguardsis officially recognised by Building Regulations •'alue oflocal knowledgeand to the possible nted to obtain
referring to CP 3 Basic datafor the design ofbuildings, further advice from the meteorologicaloffice (see also 3
Chapter V Loading: Part 2 Windloads. BRE Digest 119
provides a useful aid to understanding the problem. A nsre \below). -

receqt and moreelabratepublication isWind loading 3 Adjus!for local Londitiotis(S factor)

handbook by C. W. Newberry and K. J. Eaton(HMSO). - The cQnditionsconsideredarc ground roughness and the
In reviewingthis handbook Allan Hodgkinson said ofthe size and height ofthe subject building. For each combination
code 'it is doubtful whether many architects understand it or oflocal ground condition andheight above ground of a
many engineers believe it but as a statutorydocument part ofthe building three factor valtes are given. These
blessed by the Building Regulationsit is necessary to live threevalues depend uponassumptions aboutwindgust
with it'. We suspect th iianylocal authorities do not insist durdtion. The highest factor values (far 3 second gust
-on evidenceofcalculations for small buildings and that enveloping unit of20 m horizontal or vertical dimension)
designers often opt out ofthe onerous calculation process. apply primarily to glazing, cladding and rooffinishes and
Meanwhile highrepaircosts continue and, fromtimeto their immediate fixings. Intermediate values (for 5 second
an
time, exceptional gale causes maffsive damage to gust enveloping a 50 m unit) applyto building structures
• property—and to the reputation ofarchitects. ofsmall to moderately largesize, whilelowest values
(for 15 second gust on buildings over 50 m height or
-width) apply to largestructures. The conversionfactor
range from 047 to -1 27 or, ifthe high viilues applicable
Application of the code only to 'cladding' are omitted, the range becomes047 to
Inwhat follows we are concerned only with the applicatfon 124 -

to roofs ofCF3: ChapterV: Part 2. The code

recommendations can be considered in tjiree main stages: Cmments: This local factor has a considerably wider range
AAssessing design windspeed ofinfluence than the S1 topography factor. The code does
B Converting design windspeed to dynamic pressure here refer to sites oa cliffs orescarpments and an appendix
C Determining correct pressure for particular parts ofa roof. provides a guideto calculationfor thosesituations.
f
The design construction details to providefor safe
resistance to the determined conditions is not within the
scopeofthis code. -
 77

,Table I Comparativewind speeds and pressuresfortwo contrastingareas inthe UK

ja(cwindspeedV
ihres/seond) .
Greater Londonarea.
38m/s
EastPennines
46rn,s
.i

.1. Worstcase Best case Worstcase Bstcsp

rvc
S Exposed 11 — 1'l —
factor Sheltered — 09 *
.— 09
5,
factor
Worst ground
approachaed
. . .
building shape
combination 1'24 - — 124 —
Bestcombisation — 0 47 — 047

S, looyearlife 122 — 12,2 —

factor 50year life . — 1 0 — 1'0

ii . 1 1122. 4609
038 xO-9 46
47 . 1 0 0= 47 . 1
Designwindspeed 38
=
V5 V S S ' 124 1-22
=
1 24
- 5 ms
0
S,m's 63-2rn/s 16 .0 m's 76 195 m

= 0-613basic
Equivalent
q
prrs,ure
V5 Nm' 2448 N/rn' 157 N m' 3587 Nm' 233Nm' .

4 Possibly adjustfor building life and acceptable risk C Assessment of wind loads on parts of
(S3factor)
This is a statistical exercise. The designer has to decide buildings
frQm the type ofbuilding andits probable life what degree The dynamicpressure(q) has to be multiplied by a
of risk to accept. The code suggests some cases whichmay coefficient that depends uponthe shape and sie of the
need consideration but broadly indicates that a value of building. The code employs two types ofcoefficient:
S3 = 1 is appropriate representing a probability of0 636 1 pressure coefficient(cp)
ina 50 year life, ie thereis a I in 1 6 chance ofthe design 2 force coefficient(cf)
windspeed beingexceededat least once in 50yearsbut The pressure coefficientsapplyto the particular surface of
withoutany assessment ofthe excess, ie the safety factor a building and can be combined to give the total pressure
may or may not prevent afailure. acting on the building as a whole. To avoidthis calculation
the code assesses (his directly and expresses it as a force
Comment:Will theincreasing tendency for clients to sue coefficient.
- architects on thisissuebe defensible onthe grounds of
reasonable professional judgment, or should a designer refer Table 8 ofthe code gives pressure coefficientvalues
the matterto his client—who probably would not be able (Cpe) for pitched roofs ofrectangular buildings.
to judge the situation? (See also oomment in 1 above.)
5 Determine design windspeed (V5) Consnwnts: Since the table covers pitches from 0 to 60
Design windspeed= basic windspeed (V) x S5 S2 x S3 degrees it in fact deals with flatroofs in spite of its heading.
A separate table covers monopitch roofs.
I
Comment:xamplesgiven in table may be somewhat
The term Cpe indicates external pressure. It appears
unrealistic in conibining 'all worst' possibilities and however that the effect of wind enteringthrough open
cornparng to 'all best', but chosen in that way they do doorways,windows etc can have a significanteffect, eg by
emphasise the importance ofdecisions made during this adding an upward pressure to the underside ofa roof.
stage oftheassessment. Table I shows the biildup from A description ofhow to assess this is provided inan
basic windspeed to design windspeed for two cases in the
GreaterLondon region and two similar cases in the appendix to the code. In some cases the additional pressure
may need calculation but for the peace ofmind of
proximity ofLeeds. In the S2factors the high values that architects it may be notedthat where there is only a
would relate only tp rooffinishes and their immediate
negligible probability ofa dominant opening occurring
fixings have not beenapplied in theseexamples.. during a severe storm the coefficientfor internal wind(Cpi)
B Drl1amuc wind pressure (q) should be taken as the more onerous of -+ 02 and 03.
=
The code gives a forni't1 q kV forconverting design The data in table 8 ofthe code divides buildings into
windspeed into dyiaitiicpressurpofwindwhere k is a
factordepen4iig on the type of&nits used eg, for S units threegroups according to height/width ratio. For each
group it gives.,pvessure coefficientsfor winddirections
N/rn2 and mis, the k value is 0613. Table II is a towards the long side or short side ofthe buildings. These
reproduction ofthe code table 4. values refer to the mainareas of a roof. Additional, higher
value coefficientsare given for local areas ie eaves, verges
Part2,table 4)
:
'Tabig IiValue, of qinSIunit, (N/rn') (Takenfrom (2J' Chapter V; and ridges.
Since on most sites it must be assumed that wind may
Va 0 1-0 2-0 30 40 50 60 70 8-0 90 blowfrom any direction acomposite picturemust be
formed, allocating tO each roofarea theworst Cpe that
10 61 74 89 104 120 138 i57 177 199 221
20 245 270 297 324 353 383 414 447 48i 516 could apply.
30 552 589 628 668 109 751 794 839 880 932

40 i03 1080 5i30 ii9O i240 1300 i350 1410 1470 'Complications. It must not be assumed that a satisfactory
50
60
98i
1530
22i0
i590
2280
1660
2360
1720
2430
1790
2510
i850
2590
1920
2670
1990
2750
2060
2830
2130
2920
assessment has now been achieved: uplift to eaves du
projection will need to be allowed for. Parapets and other
70 3000 ' roofprojections can raise further complications.The code
 78

statesthat pressure on roofoverhangs is to betaken as the

same as that on the adjoining wall surface. (Other tables
and diagrams in the code are used for assessingthis.) The
p?otectiveeffect ofparapets is not referred to in the code
but is dealt with in the handbook. Iftheeffects ofeaves or
othercomplicationsare ignored it is clear from the code
values that ulift around roofperimeters is greatest with
flat roofs, with a Cpe coefficientof —20for all shapes of
building. For pitched roofs pcrimeter values vary both with
angle ofroofpitch and with the height/width ratio of the
building.
Ifthe code Cpe values are applied io the 'best' or 'worst'
East Pennines area situations from table I with an
assumption that the roofs are flat and without
complicationsofeaves, parapets etc, the external pressure
c'oefficients, taking account'ofall wind directions, would be
as in 1.

Final estiri ion ofwinduplift values can now be made

ad are sh wn' table III. Although the two examples are
extreme cases, nd not strictly comparable,they illustrate
the very wide rangeofconditions that appear to be possible
in onearea ofthe country.
TableillEstimation of windupiift forwindconditionshownini
Basicwind speed46ms
Condition Worst case(Nm') Btca
(Nm')
Uplift on centre ea 3587 i 0 3587 233 i'0 = 233
Upiifion end area 3587 i2 = 4384 233 12 = 280
Uplift due iocai tifects
(forcladding andfixings) 3587 22 7891 233 2 2 = 5i3

D The implicationsof the calculations

Whether'or not calculations based on the code provide an
accurate assessment ofsite conditions is questioned by
some engineers but, even ifthe results are only very
approximate, they indicate the importance ofan aspect of
1 Windpressureson a develop locally but not
•

building safety that until recently has been almost ignored

in most books on building construction and which even in building in the East everywhere at one time.
recentworks has generally received only slight attention. Pennines,assuming a basic Again these values are
wind speed of46 rn/s. In the b
increased as in a and for
There seento be threemainconstructional problems to worstcase,equivalen(basic permeability.
consider: =
pressureq 3587 N/rn2, Calculationsare shown in
and in the best case table III.
Security ofouter roof coverings =
q 233 N/rn2 (seeutable I).
Existing codes ofpractice (eg CP 142 Slating andtiling or a, b Wind'is blowing at 90
CP 143 Sheet roof andwallcoverings) deal wish securing to the building faceand
external finishes. Iftheir recommendationsare sound then pressure values are shownfar
withthe exception ofvery severe exposure conditions the the centre area. Ifthere is a
fixing for outer finishes can followthese codes and the dominantopening facing the
windload CP 3 need not be applied. One wonders, wind the values are
however, how finishes suchas looselybonded sheet increased. Ifno specific
material, or asphalt on a loose underlay, could withstand calculationis made, normal
thesuction values that resultfrom code calculations. permeabilityshouldbe
allowedfor by adding 0
Preventingdamageto main roof structure to thepressure.values.
For manytypesofstructurethis may mean examining the 'shown.
following categories offixings: c Wind is blowing at an
angle to the building face
1 Decking: eg boards,'heets or slabs, sited immediately other than 90 and the
beneath rooffinishes. The fixing of these units to pressurevalue for the end
supporting members such as rafters,beams or walls. area is shown. Dependingon
the angle,pressuresof 2p can
2 The fixing ofintermediate
supports, eg rafters or small
- beams to larger morewidely spaced members.
'a 3 Te fixing offinal roofsupport rriembers to walls.
Designers may find two typesofproblem at this stage:
 79

(a) To determine how load transfer occurs through a roof D. EvansPalmer'wrØte: 'Theonly winddamage to the
structureandtherefore what load conditions need to be buildings designed by this practice in seventy-five years
met for positions 2 or 3 above. occurred about 1956,*hen a narrow belt ofhigh wind,
(b) To determine a realistic value for various typesof which took out trees, ifted a bus shelter and a stadium roof,
fixing. Steel bolted to steel can be reasonably assessed but also lifted an asbestos: cement sheeted roof complete with
what is the value of a nail? How can a laboratory test rafters offa row ofa dozen garages and laid it upside down
result be translated to the probable value of a haphazardly on the ground. The ur1ins pulled out ofthe stonewall,
driven nail put in by a disgruntled workman operating on a breaking the bed;ointsin the process and the upward force
cold and windy site? What.s the achieved value for the not was later calculated to be ofthe order of80 lbs per sq ft.
altogether unusual 'fixing' ofa waliplate which according to
some construction books is 'bedded in mortar'? 'The client's insurers paid,without question, for direct and
consequentialdamage. This was an exceptional gale; it
The effect of roof uplift on wall stability causedmassive damage to property but not—and this is the
This discussion has been directed to winddamage to roofs point—not to the reputation ofany aichitects. And why
but the code is also aguideto design for walls. Lateral should it?
stability ofwalls is often dependent uponroofsupport. If
wind lifts the roofthen supportto walls may be lost. The 'The threat to reputation arises at two levels: call them
locationand detailed design ofroofto wall fixings must ludgment and coinpetence, judgment bearing on what we do
take this aspect into account. To what extent must roof to andcompetence on howWe do it. The "Comment" at 4
wallanchorage do more than just overcomethe roof (page 77) sums the problem up but until we sort it out it is
uplift force? not easy to know the basis on which further information on
this, and similar subjects, should be published.
Comments: Two letterssent in response to detail 17 as
originallypublished in The Architects'Journalare printed 'Easier for the architect and more profitable to (over) design
below. Correspondencewas also received from the Marley for any and every risk,even catastrophe. More difficultand
Tile Company, thawing attention to advice they have more expensiveto work to the hazy limits ofCF 3 and the
prepared intheform ofa roofing specification.This design ofthe tonstruction details themselves, to follow.'
tabulates fixingfor tiles by clipping andby nailing, taking
intoaccount building height, ite exposure andwind speed. 'My contention is that the reasonable exercise ofprofessional
judgment shouldafford a defence against an actionfor
From BernardWarren: 'With reference to winddamage negligencein all but exceptionalcircumstances, while a
to roofs, the experience ofthis corporation may be ofsome failure ofcompetence, in the implementation ofthat
interest to you. You may recall that in February 1962 there judgment, shouldbe fair game.
was a considerable amount ofdamage by wind in this city
[Sheffieldjand the city architect's department at that time 'There is a distinction between the two which, though
produced a report on the damage which occurred, together difficultto describe is, like the elephant, easy to recognise.'
with recommendationsforfutige construction which
endeavoured to reduce the risk ofsome otherdamage in
future. This report was published in The Builder on 5
October 1962.

While therewere manyand varied typesofdamage tonew

buildings, the general impression was thatthemost
difficultyoccurred when therehadbeenreductions in the
standards ofspecificationsinan endeavour to reducethe cost
ofbuilding, which were then added to by a reduction in the
quality andstandardofworkmanship or the site. The
combination ofthese twofactors appeared almost certain to
cause ailure to a greateror lesser extent. Following this
reportthe specificationsfor roofconstructions and detailing
generallyused in this city by the city council were
considerably mproved onwhat hadpreviouslybeen standard.
The numerical majority offailures was clearly in tiled and
slated roofs and, in an'endeavouD to reduce suchfailures in
allcorporation workincorporating such roofs, it ha since
1962 been specifiedthat each tile or slate must be nailed or
clipped to theroof. The ridge tiles should be fully bedded in
cement, and preferably with a mechanical fix to the roof
structure by means ofwire ties or other suitable systems It
must be appreciated that this is whatis specifiedbut itis
kIiown that the workmen on site, usually on bonus, do not
always provide the 100 per cent fixing specifiedbut a
reduction ofeven 50per centin whtwas required is far
better than a reduction of50per centon a specification
whichcalls foreverythird or even fifth course oftiles to be
nailed.'
 80

18-'
,
'
.

Flat roofs: falls .

For many years codes ofpractice and most specialist

roofing contractors have called forslightfalls in 'flat' roofs,
usually 1:80 for well laid smooth finishessuch as asphalt
and 1:60 for sheet coveringswith sealed laps. Because of
cost'or problems ofdetailing, or the effect uponappearance
ofverges, designers have not always provided such falls.
In othercases the slight falls provided for in design have
not beenachieved in practiceseither because ofinaccuracies
inconstruction or because ofdeflection after completion.
Are falls necessarr?
Whereroofs are overlookedfrom above, falls may,be
considered necessary in orderto avoid unsightly puddles.
Falls may be thoughtadvisable as a precaution.aainst
serious floodingifa leak occurs.
A common reason putforwardfor the need for falls has
been the probable increase in the rate ordeterioration of
roofmembranes whenexpose'd to alternate wetting and
drying aroundpuddles.
- '-- - : '
BRE Digest 144(August l972) gave damning evidence of
the general inefficiencyofflatrooffinishes but did not give
a clear lead on whether falls a1e necessary.The digest said
that ponding is less harmful tothe roofcovering than was
at onetime supposed. Itis not clearwhether 'less
harmful' means it can be accepted. Laterinthe digest
ponding is referredtoas causing crazing onasphalt finishes
'whichmay beonly shallow' an&inthecondition shown on
one illustration 'does not warrant the cost ofremedial
treatment unless on grounds ofappearance'.
Certain felts are held to have greaterresistance to wet/dry
deterioration than others. Rag based felts should never be
laid withouteffectivefalls.
Falls should be omittedonly after very careful
consideration ofparticular situations, including roofsize,
frequency ofoutlets,basic rOofstructure, and type of
waterproofing finish, and only in agreement with the
roofing contractor. Because falls materially affect design
appearance,detailing and cost, a basic decision must be
made early—often before,consultation with throoflrig
specialistwh will eventually carry out the work is
feasible.Hence,the responsibility for effectiveroof
performance must lie withthe architect. -faM —_ faJA

Minimum falls
- Itis suggested that minimum falls should be 1:80 for
smooth surfaces and 1:60 otherwise. These are to be
achieved-falls after allowing for building inaccuracy, main,
structure and roofdeck deflectionor creep (all ofwhichare
difficulttoestimate so allowancesmust be generous).
Note,fOr example, that on floor screeds a tolerance of —-
±3mm over 3m5and ±1.0mm across largeareas is a
normal specificationallowance
Care in detailing is needed to avoid checksto the flow of
water,lab,-Zab. 2*
Thisis aproblem'which occurs not only at the eaves. It '
can happen on joints running across the fall, 2a. Ifthe lap avZ ro-'2.,

'.,
-Fu,LA
Ialicv( —: . )ae,
causes'a 3 mm upstandat a slope of1:60 the ponding ,
couldextend60 > 3 = 1 8m back from the'lap. .

Publishedbythe Building Research Establishment 2b

 81

The answer to avoiding ponding probably lies in careful

workmanship gradually to build upthe bottom layerover
the last few metres to make up for the thickness ofthe
lower sheet, 2b. Otherwise the pitch ofthe roof must be
increased.

Rooffallarrangements
The feasibilityofa rooffal' arrangement is often related to
roofconstructiors. Internalrwps must be related to
internalplanning and all rwp positioning affects
underground drains. Itis essential therefore to determine
roofarrangements atan earlydesign stage.
The followingdiagrams show various arrangements ofroof
falls and water disposal with noteson some ofthe
advantages and disadvantagesofeach type.

&op v€ %ps%
One-way fallto external gutter Jout

The basicarrangementis shown in 3. Ways ofachieving

itare described below.

3
Structure -
Shaped beams or joists, flat ceiling, 4a.

Flat beams or joists, simple fifing, flat ceiling, 4b.

TffttttEi,
4b

Sloping beams or joists, slopirg or flat suspended ceiling, 4c.

4c
Slopingslab, slopiig ceiling, 4d.

4d
Flat slab screeded, 4e.
This may resultin very thickscreed. Heavier and more
expensivethan 4d.

Sheetdecking on firring to fallson a flat slab, 4f. Common

on the continent. One system available here uses wood wool
on precast concrete firrings. The void spaceprovides some
chance ofventilation to the external air to preventwater
vapour pressure and condensation.
4f
 82

-Sloping slab,the
suspended ceiling, 4g.
Structurally one-way fall is most likely to suit shortor
medium span buildings. On long buildings a roofexpansion
joint can run in direction offalls.
Guttersand rwps
Minimum numberand cost. Blockageimmediately obvious.

Drains
Minimum number. None beneath building.

Appearance
Visible gutterand rwps (unless behind a parapet).
End verges slope unless detailed with a parapet or
upstand. Ifndverges are detailed with parapet r
upstand,the corner junctionwith the external gutter may
be unacceptable in appearance.

5
Two-wayfalls to external
gutters
The basic arrangement is shown in Sa. Ways of achieving !Q4VCi opw
itare described below. rwP
Structure
.
Normally used for wider spans than For similarspans,
thereis less build-upofscre.edsor firring than 3. For
Ht.
unshaped joists or beams, laying to fall is only possible if
two members meet over an intermediate support, 5b.
Expansion joints can run with falls.
i_i
rp — rwp
5a
Guttersand rwps
Gutters are double the length ofroof3. Rwps probably
more than roof3.

Drains
From two sidesofbuilding. Expensive ifto maindrain
disposal but less important withsoakaway system.

Appearance
Roof3 factors apply, but end verge slopes are two-way
balanced.

Four-wayfalls to external
gutters
The basic arrangement is shown in 6.
Structure
Except for screeded roofs, the cross fallsintroduce
complicationsbut taperedtimber or lattice steel girders
can befixed to forjn hips.
Gutter and rwps and diains
[>
rwp
i2i rp
Rwps and drains may be similar to rooftype 5. Gutter
length is increased. The tendency i's to limit gutter falls to
absolute minimum and extreme care is needed to maintain
line and avoid backfalls.

- Appearance
Gutter is similar all round. Obviates sloping verges of
types3 and 5.
 83

Fourway:falls to single internal

The basic arrangement is shown in 7.
Structure
Except for screeded roofs the cross falls introduce
difficulties.Any required expansion joint is difficult to
locate satisfactorily.
7
Rwps
Must be located to suitinternalplan.Single outletmay
becomeblocked and remain unnoticed. Largebuild-upof
water weight may occur. A very widebrerwp (say
200 mm) withprotective basket shouldb trouble free.
(Thispolicy is usually adoptedin large industrial buildings
even ifthe rwp connects to a 150 mm drain.)

Drains
Economicalsingle point drain, but earlyinstallation
nt involvesaccurate positioningfor later
connectionrwp.
0

Appearance
/
All verges similarj

Four-wayfalls to multiple
it,t'nal outlets
basic arrangement is shown in8.
Te
Struètu4e
Generally similar to type 7 but location ofexpansion
joint is easier.
Rwps
The introduction ofmultiple rwps does not substantiilly 8
reduce riskofwaterbuild-up from blockagebecause
outlets are separated by a highridge line(largeoutlets
again advisable).

Drains
More drainage needed than for type 7.

Appearance
All verges similar.

Four-wayfalls to two outlets

and.valley
Thebasicarrangement is shown in9.
Generally similar to 8but atthe risk ofsomepooling of
waterahingthe valley. The outlets can act as alternativesif
• one is blocked. -
- Expansion joint can be reasonably located.
84

Roof falling to internal gutters ,

,
I
The basicarrangementis shown in lOa.

Structure
Simple rooffalls, but structure must be able to accommodate
gutterdepth including falls.This may be difficultifroof
trucrure is basically at rightangles to gutter.Expansion lOa
'— .
.

joint continuity across gutter raises problems. Risk of

/I
single rwp blockage. Some reliefmay be obtained by weir
oerflows at external elids ofgutter.
Twocps>. lob, are better-.thai lOa for blockage ofouliets . I
but there'i'eitraost for rwp and drains. —— a — —
Locationofexpansion joint does not cause problems.
Both lOaaxd b are acceptable ifthere' is structural support
4
I
\
alongand unfler theinternalguttei.- lOb ,

lnteril drainage generally

Unlessa flat roofis easily isib1e from higherbuildings in
the same occupancy, blockageofoutlets mayremain
unnoticed. Clients should be advised on the need for
regular checks. Theprobalilityofadequate iOspectionwill
beaffected byease,ofaccess to the roof.
Snow and ice are freqtxent causeoftempodry blockage.
'Grids over internalgutters can help but•rbiectionof
outlets in rooftypes8to 10 is difficult.
Unless regular maintenance can beexpected it is
questionable whether internlgutters or outlets should be
ued on low buildings with trees nearby, 11.
In addition to acceptablelocation ofgutters and rwps to
suit internalplan arrangement, the possibility ofnoise'
nuisance from internalpipes shoul4 be considered. Bends
increase the risk ofnoise. '
Internal guttersshouldnot be allowed to reducetherthal
insulation andthus form cold bridges with a consequential
risk ofcondensation. Condçnsationmay alsooceur.on'
surfaces of rwps chilled by cold rainwater; inheated
buildings. .
Leakage frominteral rwps can-be disastrou. Jointsthust
be adequaté Consider possible build-up ofpressure tf.low
lë\el blockage occurs and how trouble can be curedwithout
floodingthe building in the proceis.

I
19
Flat roofs: timber joist construction
Detail 18 considered in general termsthe need for falls on
'flat' roofs and how the arrangement offalls affects
efficiencyand appearance. In this detail the provision of
falls to roofs oftimber construction is considered in more
detail.
kp r4
fJJ fd
deL5
5x
Thereare three basic methods:
.1 to provide sloping roofdeck by forming falls in the
below-deck structure, I; -

6,tt LAS

Ive 1€k lMd

..
2 to form a level deck and above that to lay screed or
shaped insulation material to provide falls, 2; 2

LLA be de,4(
t
3 to form a level structure by using unshaped joists and
forming falls by firring timbers below the deck, 3.
3
Inhe second and third methods the basic roofconstruction
can be designed virtually withoutregardto rooffalls except
where.internal gutters are reqi.ac1 which must be able to\
runparallel to add withid the dih ofroof members. .'
Until recently, roof falls fori'ncd above deck lreel were
generally restricted to screeded roofs, 2(a system more
suitable for concrete deck systems). Lately, lightweight
wedge shaped roofinsulating slabshave been used. It is
worthnoting that to meet a need for muchhigher standards
ofthermal insulation, and as a precaution against
interstitial condensation onth underside ofimpermeable
rooffinishes, theremay well be an increase in methods
stsing thick insulation on top of a vapour barrier laid on the
roofdeck, 4. This may prqa'ide ad attractive method for LI LI—
forming rooffalls although it will be important to resist a
temptation to reduce insulation too much at the 'low' ends,
offalls. It is also offhe greatest irrtportance to ensure that
whatever light preformed insulation is used it has a surface
ofnfficient density to standup to people,walking on the
roof finish (even ifonly for maintenance). Considerable
probleois have been experienced in the use oflightweight
pQl.ystyrene screeds because ofindentation ofthe roof

polyurethane can ilvoid this problem. . . '

surfact by foor traffic A higherdinsity pol.ysryjent. or

TJhe remainder
beneath the roofdeck.
'
ofthis detail relates to-the fbrming ofroof
, ,
lls
Methods of forming falls below
the roof deck
1 Firring parallel with, andon top of, joists.
2 Cross firring (battensof differing thickness—or tapered,
depending on the direction offall) above joists.
3 Joists cut to falls.
(All the above provtde level cilings.)
4 Joistslaid to falls. (Resulting in sloping ceilings.)
5 Joisrs laid to falls plus suspended cross battent or other
means to obtain level ceilings.

Animportantfactor in determining choice ofthe abose

will be whether tl-ie jxoposed roof.falls are parallel to or
across the proposed joistdirection.

Falls paralle.l to joist direction

With all variations of this method internal gutters are
difficult or impossible to form, unless thereis an
intermediate structural support (wall or baam)5

Becausethe upper surface ofa roofdeck fhould provide and

maintain a smooth fall, decking ofsquare edged timber
angles acrOss the joists is unsuitable

Simple and economical 5 Sloping ceiling may b

unacceptable.A slope exceeding the necessaryminimum
may look better than a very slightone, and a two-way slope
may look better than a monopitch. But this requires ii.
central supportin.the form ofa be.am and not a wall as in 7,
whe.re the slopes are visually separated.

_c
Slope is especiallynoticeable abeve.nearby window heads, 6.
Curtain tracks simply set in ceiling Will mit work.';

6-
Tv'o-way rooffalls are feasible.only ifan internal beaFing
wall or beam occurs coiivenicntly,7. Thi ftiethod-does not
providconvenenefor servicespr help roofspace
ventiFanoninherent in methods using cro.firring or
suspended ceilings. Roofventilation ii4ghtbc prvide.4 at
the ridge through. the roofcovering.

Joist cut tbf1i

Exarnpl 8 is sithple to fix but joists m'aybe more costly
than 5 ar 7, but not necessarilysince two jojsts can
probably be cut from one scantlin Level eLFin&.&lso
anadvantage. S
 87

Shaping to two-way falls is feasible,9. Restriction to c1eckg

servicesand cross ventilation. When used at hirly
wide spacing to support strong decking material, or
decking on secondary supports, fabricated beams for main — hapet s+
members can be constructed to falls. The cuttingof solid 9
joists to falls is unlikely to be feasiblebecause of the sizes
bf tiihber required.
Method lOb allows roofboards to run with the falls. It also 'C

provides the advantages over lOa ofcross ventilation and

easy service runs.

iOn lOb

Sloping joistsand suspended ceiling

Manyproprietary systems are availablebut site-made
constructions with timber battens will almost certainly be cSç jmsts OMCi J85
more economicalfor small jobs, 11. Cross members' sizes
depend uponjoist spacing. Where rooffalls are considerable,
this type ofconstruction may use less timber than normal
firring above the joists but involve more sitelabour than
thoseshown previously. Goodfor cross ventilation. Very
convenient for services. Ifmainjoists vary slightly in depth
this method should overcome the tiresome problem of
f CEd

uneven ceiling leveis. 11

Firringon top of joists

The simplest and usually the most economicalmethod is
shown in 12. All firring pieces are similar. Ifnot obscured
O9ecA
by a ceiling the joints between joists and firrings may be
fw
unsightly, and increased depthoffascia can be a problem. ev
Does not provide two-way ventilation or easy runs for
services. But boring holes or groovingnear the end ofthe
spansis simple and does not affect strength. Alternatively, if 12
at centrespan,the holes may be drilled throughthe firring
orat mid-depthofthe joist.

Falls at right angles to joist direction

With this arrangement interzsalgutters can usually be y Ioçx3Eck
located between joists;13 Note that the gutteralso needs
falls, the extent ofwhich are limited bythe joist depth(d).
Insulation will be required under the gutter.
Thvwt sda.1ci 8rcOd
13
Firringon top ofand parallelto joists
'14 uses less tinber than 15 but each firring piece differs in
depth so labour is expensive. Any unequal spacing ofjoists,
a not infrequent condition, means pre-cut firringwould be
incorrect in depth. Does not provide cross ventilation or
easy service runs. This system really has only one
advantage: the firring can bereducedto zero at the lowest
point; but it is so prone to'problems and site difficulties 14
that itis best avoided.
88

Firringat right angles to joists 8oç' C5eCk8

15 uses more timber than 14, as firring cannot be less than
50 mm at low point. This means a thicker roof and slight
increase irs perimeter 'wall' height. Less labourthan 14.
Provides cross ventilation and space for easy service runs. J8ti
Joistsset on shaped wall platesor walljalates fixed to
a fall
Although 16 is seldom used it may suit somesiniatsons. 15

Two-way slopes are feasible. Disadvantage ofsloping

ceiling. Does not provide cross ventilation or space for casy
service runs.

p4
16

Choice of roof construction

The examples above illustrate only basic factors.
Complications may arise as in 17. Internal wallsmayleadto
variationin joist depthfor economy (eg in areas A and B)
or to changes injoist direction (eg in area C). 1
This may involve changing the method of obtaining falls
or could influence the basic choice ofroof fall arrangement, —
with consequential changeto gutters, rwps and drains. 17
In 18, the introduction of pro;ecting roofarea C may
complicate an otherwise simple two-wayroof. Fitting over
C, continued up roofarea B, means increased thickness for
all firring over total roofarea B and possibly, therefore, over
roofA. There may also be visual or structural detailing
problems as a resultofvariation in levels alongverges
x, yand z.
Whatpossible solutions are there?
z
1 Accept the extracost ofdeeper firring. 18

2 Use sloping joistsand accept sloping ceiling.

3 Usesloping joistsand provide suspended ceiling.
4 Treat roofareas A and B normally and provide beam
between B and C (ifno internal wall). In any case, ifno
support is provided at that point the joists spanning
section B/C would have to be structurally deeper than the
rest which would, initself, create a problem whatever
system ofproviding falls were adopted.
 89

20
F!ät roofs: verges of timber joist roofs

criteria
is not feasible to illustrate all the possible roofverge
ariations but any proposed design shouldbe checked
gainst the followingcriteria:
UT
1 adequacy offixing ofroofto wallsor structureto prevent
damageto the rooffrom windsuction, 1;

1 2 adequacy offixing ofroofto wallsor structureto ensure

any necessary lateral supportto prevent damage to walls
from wind, 2; 2

3 the need to provide slight or considerable ventilation of

roof voids either to prevent deterioration ofvulnerable
materials or; where materials are resistant, to prevent
build-up ofinterstitial condensation, 3;
4 the need to ensure that all materials at the verge are
suitable for their situation, 4;

5 the need to ensure that watei from the verge, including

wind-blown overspill from the roof, will not damageor
disfigure the walling, 5;
6 the need to avoid cold bridging caused by lack of
continuity ofthermal insulation, 6;

7 the possible need to provide for thermalmovement of

edge trim anto ensure that provision for movement does
not permit water entry,7;
8 whether the detailing is reasonablein allowing a
satisfactorysequence ofbuilding operations, in particular 5 6
whether delay in fixing the waterproofing finish would
cause trouble, 8;

9 the need to ensure that all the visual implications ofthe

proposed design have been considered (especially at points
through whichnosection has been detailed), 9;
10 the need to ensure that all parts ofthe construction are
sufficientlydescribed:
a to facilitate properestimates ofcost,
b to ensure that all materials or components can be
availablewhenneeded,
c to weventunnecessary site queries or unsatisfactory
ad hoc 'solutions'.

F. H. Skinnerwrote: 'The detail shown for the fascia,

particularly in reference to item 5 is, I believe, a poor detail.
'I believe that it is muchpreferable to have the fascia board
fixed so that the back ofthefascia-is on a bearer giving
about a un projection from the face ofthe brickwork to the
back ofthe fascia. The detailthat you showis bad in the
sense that the fascia cannot be truly fixed because thereare
ixaccuracies in the face ofthe brickworkand thefascia
cannotbe painted properly. Apart from the aesthetics this is
a structural detailwhichI believe is incorrect.
'I should be interested to have your commers oflthis, since
90

Ian thinic it is a small but important detail in respect ofboth

aesthetic appearance and a good ccinstruction.'

The editorsreplied:'Whileagreeing that this alternative has

some ofthe advantages mentioned, the original detailis
often used and fixed without apparent difficulty.Re-painting
ofthe vulnerable bottom edge ofthe fascia would certainly
be easier with the battenfixed method.'

Sk:nner' suggestion.

The followingnotesand diagrams deal with some ofthe

matters which arise. To avoid confusion each diagram deals
only with limited aspects and therefore is not in itselfa full
workiqg deiil. Further aspects will be covered on pages 94
to 98 and in detail21.

Details where roof joists are at rf aU ' nt ahr

right ang'es to wafl
A detailsimilar to 10 is not uncommon but it has several 1Os-rs
drawbacks, as shown below.

10
The introduction ofa wall plae, 11,shouldenable better
fixing ofjoists than 10 (providing the wall plate itselfis
adequately fixed down). The wall plate should ensure good
levelling ofloists to receive ceiling. With 10 method levels
may vary. Ifwall fimsh is plaster, thewall plate adds to
movement problems and reinforcement is necessary.
Although better thanlO, fixing may still be insufficientif
wall plate is secured only by bedding in mortar..

I'
On exposed sites wherewinduplift is considerable,
holding-downstrapsmay be needed, 12. The length and
frequency ofstrap fixings will depend uponwind load
assumptions (seedetail 17, page 761 /
With this arrangement the val9e ofa wall plate would he
to ensure joist levels. An alternative method is to 'strap'
downthe wall plate and fix joists to it.
I

12
1 /j
 91

Withthe wall cavity open to the roofvoids cavity moisture

can betransferred.This adds to the riskofcondensatioxi
and possible damage, 13.

13

Closingthe cavity below joist level with solid material for

full width ofthe wall results in a possible path for rain
penetration, 14. The wall mightbe protected by an increased
depthoffascia. The solid closure reduces wall insulation
and increases risk ofinternal surface condensation where
trouble is most common. (Thiswould be more likely ifall
walling was ofdense material.)
I.-
r - cI bv
4cu
depth

14

Beam filling couldform a partial barrier between wall

cavity and roofspaces, 15. Itis unlikely to be very
effectiveas tight jointing between joistsandbeam fills is
unobtamable. Beam filling would inhibit cross ventilation.
/
=- --L-
/////

T'1 //
15
A vapour-proof membrane, stuckwith adhesive, would
form an effectiveseal to the cavity, 16. Roofventilation
can be obtained as required. Thermalinsulation ofwalling v4-iai -
is maintained. Longitudinal jOintsin the membrane should
belappedand sealed. Holding'down straps(as in 12)
would piercethe membrane, but this would be acceptable
y prcf AbYaMe

(as the extentofthe gapswouldbeso small) some if

roofventilation is provided.
Notes on illustrations 10 to 16
Ecamples 10 to 16are all ofthe 'warm roof' system where
roofinsulation is above the roofdeck and is therefore
unaffectedby the alternatives illustrated. Wherethe 16
system incorporates thermalinsulatiOnat ceiling level care
is needed toensure that itseffectivenessis not
interrupted by. vergedetailing.
Thestructural value oflinking the two leaves ofa cavity
wall by a solid toppinghas not beenmentioned. It is
questionable whether a single course brick linkadds
anything significanttO lateral stability. Wall ties (rigidnot
wire)located near the top of,the wall are likely to be more
-92

effective.Alop course,spanning the cavity may be necessary .

to spread roofbids. 'This would depend upontheability

ofthe chosen walling material to carry theloading for a -

particular situation. Building Regulationsrequirethat in

someconditions the roofload shall becarriedpartly by
the outer leaf. Even ifthe cavity is not closed, the load will
be shared by both leaves ifthe joists carrythrdughpast S

the tuter bay and are properly sCated.See Schedule 7 5

Clause 11(6) e. .

Detads where
to
rf
'laP
-JoHsts are at
and project
right angles
to form a roof overhang
The introductionofthe overhang, 17,exposes the roofto
more windforce, so better fixing will be necessary
-T-,-
-
1 1
K'--KKX> -

(as in 12).
S

-
'
The overhangprovides someprotection tothe upper wall -
and, except on very exposçd sites, probably obviates the - , •-
risk ofrain penetration throughsolid bridging
immediately below the roof. Closing the cavity in the way . -'
ihown would resultin aline ofexposeJ headers just under
the eaves. This change in bondappearance shouldbe
considered.
/77%
c'. ..-
'- ''
/7/
17

Details where roof joists run

paraflel to wall
A brick or block can close the cavity and support an edge
batten.Theclosure member isnot exposed to rain, so a
nailable material may be usedto facilitatefixing ofthe
timber battenandfascia.
OçYt1o)
clpc

Ifroofjoists are adequately secured at their ends and the

veige roofing does not project, detail18 should provide
safe fixing for theroofedge onall but very exposed sites. 18

The arrangement in 18 provides negligiblelateral support1

to the wall. Wherethis is needed, metalstrapsshould be
secured tothewall andturned across the roofjoists, 19.
Notethe need toallow for wall finish to accommodatethe
straps. On the ceiling the strapscould be recessed into
the joists, provided the required minimum joist depthat

1
mid-span is obtained.
V//I'i "/1
7_;
Cyu.c*toi. Q//d Lke

19
 93

Whenever possible it is betterto provide any requiedroof

v'entilationinthe direction 'ofthe roofjoists. Ifthis is not
possible, cross battening is necessary foi good
ventilation, 20; this also has the advantage ofproviding for
v
falls at right angles to joists when required.

20

Small holes bore4 at mid-depth ofroofjoists are sometimes

used for ventilation, 21. Whereroofmaterials are not
vulnerable to damage by dampness and conditions require
only minor ventilation this method maybe adequat.
It should not be regarded as suitable wher&the situation
-requires a fully ventilated roof.

21

Details where joists are parafle

to wafls and a roof overhang is
reqnired
Unless an edge joist (joist 'A'), 22, spans to suitable
fixings, egprojecting walls or secure porch posts, safe
fixing,at least on all but very sheltered sites, is
questionable withthis arrangement.

Anchorage couldbe obtained bye3çternal ties fromthewall

to the underside bfjoist A or some form ofstrap fixing
along the joistsand down the cavity mightbe devised.
Whereroofconstruction makes an alteration ofthejoist
direction feasible, it would be better touse the method
shown in 23. For a substantial overhang, the strap fixing
shouldbe anchored well downthe walling.

23
94

Water overflow
Itisgenerally recognised that in the absence ola parapet
someedge upstandshould be provided topreventwind Wcs' ovapcM
blown waterspilling oveQ flat rQofverges. There is evidence
that upstands needto behigherthan they often are, 24.
Cases are known where an upstand of50 mm has been
insufficientto prevent soaking ofwalling below the verge. drake
//////
cnlcECçtfj _____________
Aisuming that construction details are adequate to prevent
water penetration into a building the consequence ofwater vece /
overspill may be: Bftnvkwjamd
/
/ ///
/// //
••
1'Increasedrisk ofdeterioration
notably to paintfinishes;
decay ofnon-durable timber fascias or cladding;
of
-
• possible trouble fromincreased risk offrost action on
masonry walling.
24

2
•• Disfigurement
extrarisk ofefflorescenceon walls;
permanent streaking, at concentrated run-off positions;
• transient discolorationegon light-coloured alcium
silicate brickwork.

These faultsare more likely to be troublesome as a resultof

frequent relatively small overspills ratherthan the effect of
occasionalseverCstorms. Upstands shouldtherefore be
sufficientatleast to prevent overspill under general weath6r
conditions. The necessary height ofan upstand depends
uponsite exposure and the shape ofthe upstand. A vertical
or steep angle between upstand and roofis more effective
than a low angle form,but, in practice, an angle ofabdut
45' or less is oftenused inorder to avoidsharp changes in
direction ofroofwaterproofingmembranes. Upstands at
verges also help to prevent loose chippings blowing offthe
roof.

Theabove factors make determination of the,leight ofan

upstanda matterofjudgment but it is suggested that 50 mm
t
should normally be regarded as a,minimum requirement
whenthe rise isformed about45', 25. 25

Upstid debils
Supportfor upstand
Ifupstands were to occur oniy where joistsare at right
angles, fixing couldbe direct to joists with the deck stopping
against the upstand, 26. 27
An objection to this method isthat, unless the deck material
45 very stiff, deflection occurs'this may cause cracking in the'
waterproofing along the junction between deck and upstand.
The method shown in 27 is therefore preferred even where
joists are atright angles.
 95

Withjoists paiallel the deck is normally carriedonthelast

joit, 27. Ujstndkerbs ar thefifixed tithe or
through thedeck to the jojts.
For simplicity, deck insulation andfirring or cross battexsing
are ignored in 26 and 27.
The effect ofroof falls .
Ifit is visually acceptable'for upstands to have"their top
edge sloping tofollow rooffalls thereare few problems.
—Where, for the sake ofappearance, tops ofupstands are to
be level, fixing problems arise. In the followingdiagrams it
is assumed that a minimum upstand of50mm is required
andthat total rooffall is 100mm. (For most rooffinishes
this would mean a rooflength' not exceeding about6m.) It
is also assumed that upstands are fixed above any decking
an'd that the top surface ofthe upstand needs to be 50 mm
wide, 28. !E%ti

At the low roofposition the kerb, as a single softwood

member; becomes large aid involves wasteful cutting.
Significantshrinkage ofthekerb member may also occur.
VI
A o
I j-IaLAs

This arrangement, 29, is more economicalthan 28, but the

kerb begins to look precarious, liable to warping and difficult Jo(St

to secure against damage, eg from ladders. -

5a'ftnl at stt pow.r sectmat isst pow.t
The effectofthermal insulation 28 29
Where design is ofthe warm rooftype ie with vapour -

- barrier andthermalinsulation above theroofdeck, thekerb

has to be higher.The following examplesassume 35 mm -

for insulation although more might wellbe used.

The upstand kerb becomes more precarious in 30, andvery
liableto twisting on drying out.Note that ifdecking is kept
level,'and wedge-shaped insulation is used, the overall size - 0
Ak.
ofkerb memberwould noralter, but the angle fillet would
have to be cut to falls andbe out oftimber-j100 mm larger. /
Where kerbs become as large as this example it may b
a
better to use framed-up formratherthan a solid member.
joit-
30

In the above examples the deck is assumed to be oftimber

boarding or similar material. Ifdeck arid insulation are
combined, eg as woodwoolor strawboard, andthe deck is
carriedthroughto the perimeter, secure fixing ofthe
upstand kerb to thejoistswould be inhibited, 31. nsuAn4ui, dat
Jois+ 'fo feAts

5ectm at hijs'f —
31

By stopping the insulating deck against the kerb member,

direct kerb to joistfixing is again obtained, but with a
further increase in kerb height and the need to provide edge
supportfor the 4ecking, 32. -
-
96

The effect of method ofobtaining roof falls

Figs 33 to 40 show how conditions forfixing a 1erb are
affetted by various methods used forobtaining rooffalls.
FU d josts
prOell to kerb
Jots rjghf
to
ugHes
t
The introduction offirring, and even more of
cross battening, reduces the feasibility ofobtaining secure
fll prallllellkerb.;
fixing ofthe kerb by nailing ofscrewing.
dfthoofjosb
Conclusions
Although the problem is a very elementary one ithas been
examined at some length. The following conclusionsrnay be
drawn: -

I Early design decisions abOut removal ofwaterand general

joist arrangement andthe direction ofrooffalls may result
in problems in later detailing (see details 18 and 19, pages
80-88).
—
2 A single 'typical' section will not providesufficient
safeguard to avoid,some nastysite problems whichmay cause
delay and would probably resultin claims for extras. It is
essential to detailall variations ofthe kerb arrangement and
tocoverspecial aspects, eg akerb endmeeting a cros wall. kirb fto w proioji
O, s!oco
3 Secure fixing ofkerbs, with adequate upstands and level O.4 fo fottfo jo(o±s a4d ±0 ±0A4s

I
tops, presents difflculties.oSimplènailing would beadequate

__
_33
in only a fewofthe above examples. 34

kos-b f
a
I
.joa-ts 10LAs
35 36
ISVE4

c,to f*L2,

( CorlO-#M.t

fwu*9fe,o.b*
L4SO24
fvwo4a2Is 4Thig coot ±o fnf4o
37 38
I6M Ive
co,olzw,t

J_qii
I
arou bqt,,s OYStO4Ot tOI46O...1 4pTh
JooO
ba.is ruj.f
(M ou of
poubLk43 of
kO9 ftq
faLts yo* csoso ba4aos Vooo Cross a.6ss coot o fcoL4s

39 40
 91

Fixing 1ecommendations
It is fairly common practice for nail flxins,and sometimes
screw fixings, to be left to thecontractor with a 'cover'
specificationsuchas 'securely fix'. In suchcases the site 0ppca 1k)
supervisor should have at least some idea ofwhat to regard
f
as acceptable.The followingexamples are intended to give
this sort guidance.
For kerbs not exceeding 50 mminthickness, opposed skew
nailing, with 100 mm headlessnails well pusheddownat
about 500 mm centres, should be adequate when fixing is to
a firmbase,41.
41
Pre-drilling andvertical screwingatabout 500 mm centres
can beused wherea screw would ensurea 'bite' ofnot less
than 35 mm into a firmbase, and where the whole length
ofthe screw is through firm material, 42. fixing cetitres
'shoul4depend on the total construction, eg on whether or
not extra stability is obtained from afascia applied to the
basiy,structure. If 150mmmaximum screw length is assumed
the deck is 25 mm,thekerb height would be 135 mm.
an

42

Skew-anglednail fixing plus care in providing lateral M" 41A

supportfrom an angle fillet securely fixed to deck and kerb D,40k&Vb
needs very careful workmanship, but is only likely to €,e
effectiveifany joists parallel to the kerbare increased to
75 mm, 43. Kerbs mightthen be up to 150 mm in height.
dtk

___t
43

FOr kerbsmore than 135mm in height some form ofmetal a1iws& scs& +o &'b
support is necessary,44. Galvanised iron angle straps of — c+ed< ads1vps
cous-isi&&k kb
w+D

35 to 40mm x 3 to 5 mm section shouldbescrew-fixed 10

kerb and firmdecking at about500mmcentres.
Lc4ms od iocd
{dAe-+' 4v cv-v

L>('
LV -J no *ct cv'
I —de,k prw4e-S
00

44
98

Verge dilp details

Withan upstandvergewhichcontains most ofthe roof M86h

waterserious wetting ofwalling will not occur, but detailiuig

ofthe çdge trim still has a disfiguring effect. czspk.&JI

//
Whereasjihalt or a sheet membrane is carried over a kerb p(4 np d€K
and turneddoi,n to form a drip,the drip should be well 5O26R'S
forward ofthefascia,45, 46. The bottom ofthe asphalt or
felt drip sh9uld be kepras level as possible to avoid wv5 1tp ed
concentrated drip-offpoints.

Theremay beobjections to details 45 and 46on grounds of

appearance. It is also questionable whether or not, even
when reinforced as shown, an asphalt finish over the top of //
threepieces oftimberwould remain undamaged. A detail
s
such 47 would be better.
45

When the appearance ofthe rooffinish exposed as a vertical

drip is unacceptable a thin metal flashing couldbe inserted
as an alternative, but it is now more usualto finish with a
proprietary edge trim cifaluminium or plastic. Care should
betaken to check that the kerb dimensions provide for
correct fixing, ie that holes throughthetrim will not be
near the edge ofthe kerb member. To avoiddistortion of
to M5t'bro.
46
c
the trim by thermalexpansion fixing should be through
slotted holes. 'P -t1-jc.d 1V1A, f- JEU foM

Adjacent 1enths oftrimare butt jointed in order to keep

alignment. These jointsshouldnotbe tight butted.
Manufacturers should advise on what joint gap is appropriate
for their material. A simple butt joint allows waterthrough
and is in the position most likely to cause concentrated run
offwith consequential streaking on the fascia or wall. While
it is difficultto eliminate this completely, the risk of
disfigurement is reducedifaflashingstrip is insertedat
joints. Some manufacturers provide these as part ofthe trim
'kit'. -47

Witha multiple layermembrane roofthe bottom layeris

sometimes detailed toproject and turn downinto the metal
trim, 48. Ifachieved as drawn this takes care ofthe butt 5YuM 1v,u&,9
5f'.)&
ck9,),\ ,sid
jointproblem but it is doubtfulwhether in practice the
__________

membrane would be finished accuratelyenough to be

effective. \! rwsh

A detail likethat shown in 49is sometimes used where the

roofmembrane is covered by a metalcapping. But note
that: /
1 the kerb nust everywhere be at least 150 mm high
(therefore higherin parts because offalls) to prevent snow
entry;
2windcouldblow waterup under the cappingand might 48 49

get throughinto tle construction unless workmanship is

exceptionallygood.
21
Pãapets in masonryconstnwtoii .

.
Criteria
Parapets.should be designed for:
.

'
Safety: height and structural stability.'
.

Durability: choice and usage ofmaterials. Appropriate

construction, eg movement joints.
AppearanceinclUdingprevention ofdisfigurement, which
may occur withoutcausing serious dçterioration. .

Avoidanceofdamppenetrationto otherparts ofa structure.

This detailis concerned primarily with methods of ,

preventing unduewetting ofparapets, and withthe

prevention ofwaterpenetration from parapets to walls . .
beneath or into adjacent roofing. . , ,

Copings
Coping material
Copings are exposed toextremes oftemperature and a
frequent cycleofwetting and drying They need to have a
greaterresistance to frost than'isnecessary for ordinary
walling andthey shouldbe resistant to,sulphate action.
Waterentry throughcopings
Watermay enterthroughthe copingniaterialor through
joints. Thermalmovement especiallyis likely to be
considerable and will almost inevitablyresultin water
penetration through,jointing ofbricks, stones or precast
concrete units.

As aprecaution against damage to coping units and joints

thenip should slopeto assist water run-off, 1. or Ja) 5op 'fOJ14'5 OOQJ, opo
ro'c + bo oso foo
off D vLb woJAo
bo
roof ao'dor
ookt 'fooo OOO-'D

P.,
Water run-off from coping may add to the risk ofdamage
andoften causes disfigurçment towalling below the
coping, especiallyifthe coping material is slightly soluble, 2.
White staining from limestone and from some precast
concrete freuent1y occurs.

2
 100

Protection against rim-off shouldinclude a projection and

drip at least on the discharge edge, 3.
• Wherethe coping material is liable to stain walling beneath,
projecting drips should be on both sides, e*en ifthe
coping,slopes pne way only, 4.'
•
For masonry type copings a projection ofnot less than
40mm tinecessary.
proJa* dou.4I0 PeJct'
3 4

Dpcbeneath copings
Unless the copingmaterialand its jointsare completely
impervious a dpc beneaththe coping is essential, 5.
The dpc should extend'at lec?stto full width ofthe wall.
Because any material above a dpc will becomewet, is it
desirable to locate the dpcimmediately beneaththecoping,
although a disadvantageis that movement inrhe coping
may loosen individual units. It is probably forthis reason
that, where copings areofsmall units such asbricks,the
dpc is sometimes placed one or two courses down. Where
this is donethematerials above dpc should all be resistant '5 pd vn
to the sulphate action and frost damage liableto occurin
situations of severe exposure; clay bricks, for example,
hoWd be to BS 32l 'special' quality. Ifa sheetmaterial
it
dpc is used should befully bedded1with mortar above,
b
and below, and preferably should ofatype with rough a
or granularsurface whichhelpsto ensure goodbonding.
305
Because mortarjointing in the projecting,part ofcopings
is very liable to fail, throughcoping movement, dribble
marks are' especiallylikely to occur onwalling beneath
joints, 6. V

Projecting the under-coping dpc helps to prevent this but

with flexible sheet material it is difficultto ensure either a
turn-down ora neatappearance, especiallyat thehecessary
lapped joints, 7.
ut //
,i1o,4a1
,
/ /,177
•
// / ' s fd
7// ,/
/
1-;',' //

In several.Euro?ean countries normal practice is to use a

stiffzinc dpcwithpre-formed drips. Withthis method it is z(0c 010:
unnecssaryforthecoping itselfto exceed the wall width,8.
Jointsinthe sethidpc shouldbe designed to allow some
movement andstill remainwaterproof, either by forming a
weltedjoint or by usingan under flashpg.

8
 101

In cavity walls flexible dpcs will deflect over the cavity. f

Water will then run alongthe 'gutter', and may discharge
•
cipc dfEcfsovw c.

jJ
atjoints, 9.. ,

The cavity should be sealed with sh

eet oftbin rigid
miterialbefore the dpcis fixed, 10. ,
Cornpletelyiijervious'coping materials, such as metals or
platics, are nurmally infairly long sections and have high
thermalmovement which must bealloweafor. Unless this
movement is accommodated by a welted joint, care should
10
be taken to design ajoint detailwhichis both watevproof
axsdwbich prevents expansioh from buckling the coping. -.

ClOse buttjointsoflong sheets shouldbe avoided. . -

.

Damp hi parapet inasouiry

Even ifrain penetration throughthe coping can be
prevented, parapet wallsare usuaJ,ly more expesed to
wetting thai'normalexternal walling because thereis
exposure on both sides and inthe case ofroofparapets,
because they are likely to be exposed to severe wind driven
rain, 11.
Even ifwalling materials, including mortar,are adequate C
fQr frost resistance and freedom from suphae actionor dp net,- ro'fnot ewt,,
efflorescence,difference in appearaace between parapet and - n
wall below may occur. The chance ofsuch disfiuremetitis ii
appreciably reducedifcavity ratherthan solid wallingis
used.

A possible alternative to cavity construction is toprevent

rain'access froth the roofside, 12. With alow parapet it
ma be feasibleto carry thetoofingmembrane up to the
coping dpc. Goodadhesion ofmembrane towallis reqtial
anda fully secured turn-inbeneath the dpcis necessary.
Vertical waterproofingcannot easily beprotected from
effects ofthesun. Thermalorother movement in thewalling
may affect themembrane. This method is nor recommended
for parapets exceedingabout 350 mm height to underside
ofcoping, and,is considered less satisfactorythan a cavity 12
for any situation.

The use ofcemnt type rendering as a waterproofing

method for this position is not recommended, 13.
Parapet movement is likely to cause cracking. Rain access
from the front increases risk offrost damage and of
sulphate action. Damage to rendering is liablein be
unnqticed until it has beconte very bad.

13

A
102

Water entry to root structure

or rooms below
Witha low parapet, incavity construction, with a fully dpc
effectivedpc beneath the coping and with the roof side of
the parapet fully waterproofed, the roofstructureand
rootns below are fully protected, 14.
(lpC

In all cases where the roofside ofthe parapet wall is

exposed to rain penetration a dpc must be provided
immediately above the roofmembrane top-of-skirting level.
Eitherthedpc or a separate flashing must cover the
PEFd
skirting.

With cavity walling, ater penetrating the roofside must

be prevented from running downthe cavity face ofthe
inner leaf bycontinuing the dpc, steppedup, across the
cavity, 15. Becausethere is only a small height ofwall
above the dpc and clearing ofmortardroppings is easy,
tht step up need not exceed 75 mm.
Detail 15 shows the lower dpc stepped downtowards the
roof. This appears to be the most frequently recommended
arrangemenf and is adoptedbecause anywaterfrom the 15
cavity is directed onto the roofratherthan onto the face of
the wall. Some experienced building supervisors say that,
on exposed sites, face waterenters the external skin
immediately below the dpc and isthen conveyed downthe
underide ofthe dpc to the interior wall.,They therefore
prefer thedpc to be laidin the reverse direction, 16. This
is a point that shoWd certainly be.çonsidered wherecavity
fill insulation is used.
16

Ifsofrd parapets are usedthere is a risk ofwaterenetration

to roofstructureor rooms from the front. This risk is
increased ifthe wall thickness is reducedabove roofbearing
- level,17.
rtdt

17

Waterproofingof roof to wall

junction
In the examples above the arrangement ofdpc/roof
skirting/roof membrane is shown only in diagrammatic
form. Avery high proportion ofroofleaks occur because
ofpoor workmanship of the wall-to-roof waterproofing.
This section deals with rooffinishesofmastic asphalt or
flexible sheetmembranes ofeither single or multiple layer
type,but for simplicity themembranes are in all cases
drawn as a single thickline.
 103

The mainroofarea should bedesigned to prevent

unacceptable stress in the membrane beingtransferred
from roof structure movement. Even with that precaution
the turn-up position from roofto skirtingneeds to be
strong. A splayed corner is usually formed. Solid asphalt
has a splayed fillet (or core), 18.
Flexible membranesuse atimber or cement mortarsplay,
dependent upon roofconstruction, 19.
A flexible angle underlay is a possible alternative to an
angle fillet for flexiblemembrane finishes,20. It shouldbe 18 19 20
used only ifthe roofing specialist contractor prefers to do
it this way.

A very large number offlat roofleaks occurbecause of

poor design or poor workmanship at skirtings. There are
three basic methods:
1 Continuous membranetfor roof, skirting and wall dpc, 21. cotet
prt.4 swp &d
This is only possible ifdone before upper part ofwall is
built (which may be inconvenient). Sometimes
recommended with asphalt but not recommended for
flexible sheet membranes. Withasphalt it is most
appropriate for solid wall parapets. Cavity walls would &oc 24
need a further material across the cavity.

2 Separate wall dpc offlexible membrane turned down and

raktd -t1t3& de-ç
adhesive fixed to skirting, 22. 21 22
This is only feasible ifdone before the upper part ofthe
wall is built; a wall dpc left projecting for later adhesion to
skirting is too likely to be damaged.
Itis cheaper than method3 below,,and avoids risk of
separate cover flashingbeinginsecurely fixed. But thereis
morerisk ofdamage from roof/wall movement. Skirting
should be at least 150 mm high and dpc flashing seal should
be at least 75 mm.

This methodis not advised as the dpc material may not be

suitedto exposure or may be difficult to,shape without
damage,and the adhesivefixing maynot prove permanent.
Codes ofpractice and other recommendationsdo not call
for asplayjoint to ease the bend into the wall,but for
some materials this mighthelp to reduce risk ofcracking.

Note that for method1 the whole system may be completed

atone time and therefore by a single contractor. Ifthe
waterproofing is delayed the incomplete wall is very open
to damage by waterentry. A fully effectivetemporary
protection should be specifiedand its provision ensured by
site inspection.
104

3 A separate flashing unit inserted beneath the wall

flashingand lapping the skirting, 23.
Ifin metalthe flashingis unbonded to skirting, and
roof/v>all movement is less critical. It is more expensive
than methods 1 and 2. Height to flashing should be at least
75 mm. (Watch for reduction due to roofslopes.) Suitable
Ij, 175 ¶
for asphalt or sheet membrane roofing. Flashing frequently
becomes displaced because ofbad fixing. In theorythe
parapet wall with dpc may be completed prior to roof 23
membrane and skirting but 1, it is difficult to ensure good
fixing ofthe flashing ifdelayed until roofing is completed,
andthe wall dpc is likely to be damaged, and 2, iffixed
prior to roofmembrane a stiffmetal flashingwill be
inconvenient to the roofer, and may be loosened during the
manipulation necessary to allow skirting to be applied.
Ifflashingis done by general contractor the work should
follow immediately afterroofing unless the flashing has
been fixed at the same time as the wall dpc. In the latter
case thegeneral contractor should immediately followthe
roofer to dress the flashingto position and check against
damage.
Ifmethod 3 is used in conjunction with asphalt the asphalt
shouldbe turned into a wall chase, 24. A chaseofat least
i
- f01 '4d
25 mm x 25 mm is needed. Raking of a normal wall joint
is not sufficient. Themetalflashingis wedged under a dpc
at higherlevel. 25 25

Verysimilar conditions applyat the junction offlat roofs

witha higherbuilding but usually without the optionof ______________
IIII liiiIuhlHflJTJiJ1j
carrying out all the waterproofing while the wall is at dpc
11111111!

level (see detail 16, page 72). ra

24
 105

22
!itched roofs: eaves
Keeping out the rain
Faults
Withpitched roofs, trouble from water in the wrong place
is most likely to occurat the eaves, 1. Faultsinclude:
1 Failure to discharge mainrun-off watercorrectly into
gutters.
2. Failure to ensure that waterreaching the top surface of
sarking is carried clear ofroofor wall structure.
3 Dampness caused by condensation. Condensation within
pitched roofspaces is likely to be worst near the eaves.
lobt
It is worth notingthat faults oftypes I and 2 have
'probably increased in frequency followingthe trend
towards low pitched roofs. One ofthe factors influencing
condensation is roofspace ventilation.

This detail covers faults I and 2. The effect ofeaves

detailing uponcondensation will be covered on page 107.

Main water run-off

Water drippingfrom the roofedge tendsto be blown back,
towards the fascia, 2. This is especially so with thickedged
tiles. S.'
I
Gutters shouldbe fixed as high as possible in relation to
edge ofroof, 3. Gutter falls increaseguttercapacity, but.
excessivefalls in long gutters resultin the low end being

,
2
too far below roofedge. Falls should be 10 mmfor 5 m
to 6 m length.
Ip 9.Mw
The edge ofthe roofcoveringshould project well across the
gutter,4. With very small gutters theremust inevitably
be some compromise between projecting the roof too little,
and as a resulthaving waterblown back over the back of
thegutter, andprojecting too much, with resultant
overshoot ofwaterduringheavy rain. A look ata rangeof
illustrations in text books andbrochures discloses
remarkabledifferences.

,Normally tiles or slates should overhang the gutterby 4O .%cww.i.t I

40 mm. Withvery small gutters this might perhaps be cut
to 35 mm. It is better to risk occasionaloverspill at the
front than frequentblow-backonto the fascia.
Even with better detailing, fasciasare liable to be wetter than
most exposed vertical surfacesTimber fascias should
always be treated with preservative. Painted fascias should
receive full paintingbefore guttersarefixed, They will
seldom, ifever, be properly painted subsequently.

The bottoni edge' oftimber fascias is especiallyvulnerable

4J
to rot. A splayed bottom edge helpsin reducing the risk by
encouraging waterto drip offthe bottom outer edge, 5.
The outer edge shouldbe softened to preventpaintfilm
cracking and flaking.
105

Waterfrom top of sarking

It should be accepted that some penetration ofdriving rain
or snow through tiled roofs will occur at times. Ifcorrectly
laid, sarking is an effective second line ofdefence. It is
essential that water runningdvn the top surface ofthe
sarking should have an easy outlet at the eaves. This does
not always occur.
Sheer carelessnessin workmanship and supervision
sometimes results in sarking stopping shortofthe fascia, 6,
or shortof thegutter beyond.
Ideally the sarking should project and turn down into the
gutter,7. At least the material should come over and
beyond the front edge of the fascia.
A less obvious trouble occurs where low pitched roofs
resultin the sarking becoming horizontal, or even sagging
below the top edge ofThe fascia. Illustration 8 appeared not —.Ai.s+
long ago in a series ofdetails from a very reputable source.
The sarking is drawn almosthorizontal and may well sag
.te
rru#
between supports. When roofpitchmakes a nearly flat
finish inevitable, the sarking should be fully supported over
that area by boarding ratherthan by fillets only at joist
positions.

Any joint, or accidental damage on the almost horizontal 8

sarking, would lead to trouble. There is the added risk that
some rain or snow may be blown up under the roofto this -- r.f4-,s
b.i4
area. Cases are known where, in cold weather, accumulated

r
wateron flat sarking has frozenand caused a blockage,
thus trapping waterfrom higherup with resultant leaking.
With very low pitched roofs it is difficultto avoid almost
horizontal sarking immediately behind the fascia. This
makes careful supervision very important immediately before
9a
tilingstarts.
Detaildrawings, and the work executed before battens are
covered, should be checked to ensure that at no point is
there any possibility ofwater accumulatingalongthe
length of battens, as this syilllead to subsequent rottingof
thebattenand/orwaterpenetration in the roof, 9.

Sarking should sag slightly between rafters,and in cases

where continuous members are at right angles to rafters
(eg roofboarding) counter battens should be used.

bLMe5 .. f
t*%S
— /
— —i-—
pvdss
c...,i't.k t'-' +0-S*Y +0
—,------------

:' 4:i41
 107

Eftect on condensation
The problem rf w44 aq,L& -ph* ra,fs ho.
'Idw.k ,,f .y
Ventilationis only one ofa numberoffactors that affect the w*tw rfz*
incidence ofcondensation irS roofspaces, but since the
difference in conditions which cause serious troubleand
thosewhich are satisfactorycan be quitesmall, the degree
ofventilation may bea decisive factor. General pointsto wl
note are shown in 10 and include: d -tt t.i4 I0
10.
I Tiledor slatedroofs are now almost always relatively
well sealed by sarking, so the general roofspacegets much
less fortuitous ventilation than do manyold roofs.
2 The volume ofroofspace is reducedwhere the roofhas
a low pitch. Water vapour reaching the roofspacetherefore
has a greater immediate effect uponroofspace air moisture
content.

3 Withlow pitched roofs thespacenear theeaves is

particularly restricted and, in the absence ofeaves
ventilation, may become stagnant and therefore conducive
to timber rot.
In recent years it has become commonplacefor technical
information publications to include recommendationsfor
deliberate ventilation atthe eaves.A look through
information from a numberofreputable sources suggests
that thereis no general agreement on exactly what should
be done. Thefollowing illustrations show some ofthe rather
confusing variations that have appeared. The illustrations
and their descriptions arereproduced in their original form.
Thecomments have been addedto drawattentionto
important points.

Examples ofpublished information

Tiled or slatedroof over20 pitch
Explanation oforiginal drawing
In the circumstances shown in 11 thereis no need fora
vapour barrierat ceiling level as the ventilation ofthe roof
spaceis sufficientto maintain moisture below saturation
level.

In exposed areas care should betakenin laying ofroofing

felt inorder to preventrain or snow driving intothe roof
space.
Comments
• Area ofventilation is equivalent to acontinuous gap
p,bItk
f 3OOu
yu
1 mm. wide. Couldthe soffit be fixed without providing at
least this?
• Top ofwallcavity is sealed. Possibly done for purpose
ofspreadIg theroofloadbut has the effect ofpreventing 11

cavity moilt air risingdirecjiyto the eaves timber.

• Ceiling insulation stops atinner wall face and therefore
does not impede eavesventilation reaching mainroofspace.
• Nospecial vapourcheck at ceilingis indicated.
108

Tiledor slatedroof over2O pitch: recommendations

for Scotland
Explanation oforiginaldrawing
In the circumstances shown in 12 thereis no need for a
vapour barrierasthe natural ventilation ofthe roofspace
is sufficient to maintain moisture vapour below saturation
level.

Comments
• No positive eavesventilation shown but ventilation
assumed to occur(compare 11).
____ -
• No ceiling vapour check 'because naturalventilation of
roofspace is sufficient'.
• Ceiling ilation carried part way across wall but still 12
doesnot prevent eaves ventilation reaching mainroofspace.
• Top ofcavity wall not sealed. Probably the external
rende?ing will reduce rain penetration through the outer
wail but, as cavity air is still likely to have high moisture
content at times, it seems curious that the cavity is not
sealed.

Tiledor slated roof below2U pitch

Explanation oforiginaldrawing
Low pitched roofs dd-ot provide sufficientvolume ofair
to disperse vapourpenetrating from the rooms below. A
vapour check is therefore required at ceiling level, 13. In
Scotland and other areas ofhigh relative humidity it is not
desirable to ventilate the roofspace.

Comments
• Except for the addition ofthe ceiling vapour check, this
is similar to 11.
• The reference to areas ofhighhumidity is not
In most areas, including the South, winterair is atexplicit.
high
relative humidity for muchofthe time. Thistypeof 13
weather maypersistfor longer in Scotland and some other
regions.
• Not everyone would agree with the recommendation to
omit ventilation. In fact some fortuitous ventilation
probably occurs anyway,and it may be that this proves
adequate (see the comment to illustration 11).
Low pitchedtile roof
Explanation oforiginaldrawing
In thisexample, 14, the cavity is open to the roofspace.
Comments
• No specificreference to eavesventilation.
• Top ofcavity not sealed.
• Ceiling is foil-backed plasterboard. Withother insulation pboaxd
materials in contact, the refjectivethermalinsulation value
ofthefoil is lost. Presumably therefore the foil is intended
toform avapourcheck. Ifthis is so it seems odd to allow
moistair from the wall cavity to rise unimpeded to the roof
space.
14

Steeppitchtile roof
Explanation oforiginaldrawing
Example 15 has a sealed cavity but witheaves ventilation.
Comments
• Ventilation holes specifiedby size but no information
on how many.
• Ifpositive ventilation is desired why spendmohey on
tonguedand grooved joint at soffit/fascia,when a gap
between a plainedged soffit and fascia will provide
ventilation?
• Note that no &iling or otherthermalinsulation is shown.
15
 109

Open and closed cavities

Explanation oforiginal drawing
The building constructed as thown in 16a had decaying
eaves timbers withinfour years. Rooms showed some signs
ofcondensation. The defect was attributedto moist air
rising from open wall cavity plus some watervapour
passing through ceiling, all resulting in build-upofaamp
condition in airtight eaves.

Construction as in 16bwas suggested as a suitable alternative,

with eaves soffitventilation of 1000mm2 per metre run,,
and a closed top to the wall cavity. Also moisture
penetration through the ceiling to be prevented. l6a

Comments
• Having ventilated the eaves and sealed the wall cavity, it
seems odd to have carriedbrickworkup as beam filling.
This would, ifsolidly carried out, prevent the eaves
ventilation reaching the mainroofspace.
• There is no specific adviceon how to preventwater
vapour from rooms penetrating the ceiling. A vapour check
at ceilinglevel is presumably intended. Ceiling vapour
checksare not completely effectivebarriers, and for this
reason the mainroofspace would have been better ifopen
to benefit from the eavesventilation.
16b
Roofventilation
Explanation oforiginaldrawing
Ifroofspace is ventilated, insulation should be atceiling
level, 8. For goodventilation allow2000 mm2 ofopening
per metre run ofeaves. The ceiling should be free from
gaps orholes.
Comments
• Ventilation recommendationis for twice the quantity
suggested by pther examples (11, 13, 15).
• No proviso aboutnot ventilating in Scotland or 17
similar weather regions.
• Reference to theceiling beingfree from gaps or holes
presumably does not implythe higher requirement of
including a positive vapourcheck at ceiling level.

Summary vftfio ij be- peS&

Itseems that thereis a need formore reliable information eabk

of raJA caMes spare b
ec45

roofe soe
o4o rn'
L&*t Ias.ptkeI
based on feedback information. Pending this (and as shoM be siev
summarised in 18) it is suggested that:
ea.er5 'koS o.t
leaoi- shouAd be

I Topsofwall cavities shouldbe sealed. .

2 Withlow pitched roofs.ceilings should provide a

reasonably goodvapourcheck. This mightbe in the form w.t, Ii-pkd'.e4 rfs
ofa layer ofimpervious material above the ceiling or, haoAd poa..iSe- a
whereceilingis free from joints, mightbe obtained by Yaou-( ck,ec.k
surface finisJ ofa gloss oil paintor similar.

3 Ifall rooftimbers are not treated with preservative at

least thoseat the eaves should have some protection. 18

4 Eaves design should not deliberatelypreventeaves

ventilation, egthe rendered soffit ofdrawing 16a. In most
forms ofconstruction fortuitous ventilatioa at the eaves
seems likely toprovide the amount ofinlet area qfthe
various recomniendations(I to 2 mm2 per mm run ofeaves).

5 Wherea roofhas ab1eends theseare sometimes

accepted as the positions in which tolocate ventilation
openings. This may usually be quiteeffectivebutfor low
pitched roofs where stagnant air near the eaves is a
particular risk, some eaves ventilais probably worth
having.