bo Royal Holloway 4 OP University Coy BevateCoyel iqSTRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS CONTENTS A 12 13 14 1s 16 L7 18 2d 22 23 2d 28 34 32 33 34 MSc COURSE NOTES Page Introduction 12 Tectonic Regimes 3-4 Fault Systems and Fault Classifications 5-8 Fault Mechanics, Fault Rocks and Fluid Flow 9-24 Geometry of Extensional Faults I - Fault geometries, fault sequences, structural styles 25.38 Geometries of Extensional Faults II - ‘Analogue models of 2D extensional fault 39-53 Geometries of Extensional Faults 111- 3D extensional fault systems 53-70 ‘Analogue Modelling of 3D extensional fault systems ~ 1:92 Orthogonal & oblique rifting Rit Systems - Case Histories 93-102 East African Rift System; Gulf of Suez; Red Sea/Gulf of Aden Inversion Tectonics I~ 103-116 Principles of inversion tectonics Inversion Tectonics II - 117-134 ‘The geometries & kinematics of inverted faut systems: A review of analogue modelling studies e-slip systems T- 135-146 ‘An overview of strike-slip systems slip systems II - 147-182 ‘Analogue modelling of strike-slip systems Hangingwall Deformation in Fault Systems 183-192 Fault Reconstruction Techniques - exercises ‘Thrust Tectonics ‘Thrust Systems I- ‘An Introduction 193 - 204 Thrust Systems I - A review of thrust terminology 205 - 220 Physical Models of Thrust Wedges 221-232 Balanced Sections in Thrust Belts 233-238 Summary of Thrust Tectonics 239-240STRUCTURAL INTERPRET: TON IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS MODULE INTRODUCTION AIMS OF THIS COURSE This course aims to teach M.Sc. Basin Evolution and Dynam- is students the latest concepts on faulting and fault systems in the upper crust. In particular the course will be focused upon developing a structural analysis ftom a variety of data soutces including geological maps, analogue modeiling tem- plates and remotely sensed images. Emphasis will be placed ‘upon the role of fault systems in the development of sedimen- tary basins. The course will combine multiisciplinary studies involving descriptive structural geology, analogue ‘modelling, stratigraphy, and numerical modelling asa way of understanding various tectonic processes and how therresult- antfaults develop. A series of overview lectures willbe given together with integrated practicals and class exercises. Practical exercises are given at the end of the appropriate sections in the course notes. ‘Throughout this course important new: concepts in tectonics and structural geology will be emphasised. These are 1) Linked Fault and Fold Systems In most tectonic regimes it has been recognised that particular structures donot generally form inisolation but are linked to other structures. These linkages are a) geometric (ie.the shapes and forms ofthe structures), b) kinematic (i the displacements and movement patterns that form the structures), and c) dynamic (ie. the stress systems that form the structures). In many cases linked fault systems, or linked fold systems form as a consequence of geometrically neces- sary accommodation to displacements on major fault sys- tems. 2) Progressive Deformation Inmany ectonic regimes multiple deformations have oceured but it has been recognised that these do not neces sarily indicate separate tectonic events but may in fact be a result of a progressive evolution of structures through time within one deformation event, Forexamplethese features are particularly important in shear zones where progressive non ‘coaxial strains are developed. 3) Seale Independence in Brittle Deformation tis commonly observed that there is a scale inde- pendence between brittle structures (faults, joints and fiac- tures, veins) over variations in scale of several orders of magnitude - e.g, from the centimetric scale to the kilometric scale. 4) Structural Inheritance In many tectonic regimes it has long been recognised that old structures are commonly reactivated and reused repeatedly. These old structures may exhibit considerable influence on younger structures. This concept has been particularly applied tothe reactivation of basement faults and shear zones in many polyphase orogenic systems, Theideaof structural inheritance can also be applied to structures devel- oped in sedimentary basins - e.g. where early exiensional faults are reactivated incontraction- positive inversion. The recognition of the importance of inversion tectonics is pat- ticularly important for the understanding of how many sedi- mentary basias evolve. FUNDAMENTAL REFERENCES ‘The following list gives the fundamental textbook refer- ‘ences for modern structural geology. Individual reference lists are given atthe end of each segment of the course. Bouler,C:. 1989, Four Dimensional Analysis of Geological Maps. Wiley, ‘Chichester. 2969. Davis Gr. 1984, Sircural Geology of Rocks and Regions. Wiley. New "Yor 4929. Hobbs, BE, Means, W.D. and Willams, PE» 1976, An Ouine of ‘Stactrl Gelopy. Join Wy, New York Tip. MeCiay, KR. 1988. The Mapping of Geological Szuctues, Geologic! Sart of London Handbook Seres, pen Univernty Pres ip MeCiay, KR (eds 1992, Tht Tetonies,Chapnan an Hal, Landon 5099. Marshak, S. & Mitra, G. 1988, Basie Methods of Sita Geology renin al, New fee, 4p. Powel, D. 1992, Interpret 9 geological srucues tough maps. ‘Longman, UK. 176 Palips, WG, 1971, The Use of Stercographic Projection in Stet CGeoboy. ded, Ewer Apo, Lando. 909 Pee} and Cosgrove, W190. Analy Geologie Siri, Canbidge Univer Press S00. Ragan, DM 1983, Stata! Geslogy: An Inoduction to Geomeric Techniques, led Wiley. New York. 393. Rannsays dG: & Habe, Mts 1983, The Techniques of Modem Strata ‘Geology, Volume 1, (Stain Analysis). Academic Press, London. 1 Sor Rampay, JG: 8 Huber, Bil, 1987. The Techniques of Modem Sra ‘Geology, Vole (oli and Pactie) Academic Pres, London 309 700p. ‘Seppe, J.1985, Principles of Structural Geology, Pretice- Hall, New ere Mp “Twiss, RJ. & Moores, EM. 1992 Structural Geology, Freeman, New York, 332p,STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMIE’TARY BASINS Ll 11.1 Introduction “This setion ofthe course reviews the fundamental tectonic regimes for faulting, folding, shear zones within the lithosphere. The fundamental plate tectonic settings are reviewed together with their characteristic structural styles. ‘Although the course is divided into various sections on faults ‘one must always keep in mind the fundamental linked nature of deformation in the crust and lithosphere and that the various geometric expressions of deformation are commonly closely related - e.g. fault-related folding in thrust and extensional terranes, Another key feature of continental deformation highlighted inthis cours is the repeated react- vation and reuse of old, fundamental faults and shear zones - basement structural controls’ 1.1.2 Fundamental tectonic setting of fault systems The fundamental tectonic regimes for fault systems are Contractional Terranes © Collision Orogens © Subduction Orogens © Inversion Orogens © Foreland Fold and Thrust Belts © Accretionary Wedges al Terranes' Extensional Orogens Rift Systems Passive Continental Margins Extensional Collapse Basins Delta Systems Salt Terranes ‘Slip Terranes Oceanic Transform Zones Intracontinencal (Intra-Plate) Strike-Slip Zones Trench-Linked Strike-Slip Zones Mixed Mode Tectonic Terranes © Transtensional Regines © Transpressional Regimes © Positive Inversion - Extension followed by Contraction © Negative Inversion Contraction followed by Extension © Multiple - Oblique Slip Terranes TECTONIC REGIMES Examples of these various tectonic regimes include Contractional Terranes Collision Orogens- Alpine - Himalayan Orogen; Appalachian Orogen,Eastem USA; Lachlan- Tasman Fold Belt, Australia, Subduction Orogens- Andes, South America New Guniea Fold Belt, New Guinea, Inversion Orogens- Pyrenees, Northern Spain; Alice Springs Orogen, Central Australia; Many Proterozoic Fold Belts or Mobile Zones Foreland Fold-Thrust Belts - Canadian Rocky Mountains; Valley and Ridge, Eastern USA; Jura, Swiss Alps: Magallanes Fold and Thrust Belt. Tierra Gel Fuego, Chile; Adelaide Fold Belt, Australi Aceretionary Prisms or Wedges - Vancouver Isaind, British Columbia, Canada: Barbados Accretionary Prism; Aleutian Arc; Peru-Chile Trench ‘Accretionary Prism. Extensional Terranes Intracontinental Rift Systems - Keweenawan Rift- Mid- Continent Rift, USA; Mt Isa - McArthur Rift, Queensland, Australia. Passive Continental Margin - North Atlantic Margin, Eastern USA; West African Continental Margin; Brazilian Continental Margin; Patagonian Margin, Argentina; NW Shelf of Australia, Extensional Collapse Basins - Devonian Old Red Sand stone Basins, Caledonides of NW Britain and Nor way; Triassic Rift Basins of Easter USA; Basin and Range, SW USA; Akiplano, Chile Delta Systems - Detached Terranes - Mississippi Delta, USA; Nile Delta, Egypt; Niger Delta, Nigeria; Barram Delta, Brunei Salt Terranes - Southern North Sea Basin; Mississippi Delta, USA; West African Continental Margin, Gabon and Angola; Brazilian Continental Margin. Strike Slip Terranes Intracontinental Strike-Slip Systems ~ San Andreas Fault ‘System, SW USA; North Anatolian Fault System, Turkey; Alpine Fault System NZ. Trench Linked Strike-Slip Systems - Atacama and West Fissure Fault Zones, Chile; Sumatra and Andaman Sea Fault Zones, Indonesia.STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS 1.1.2 Fundamental tectonic setting of shear zones Shear zones commonly develop in isotropic or near- isotropic rocks such as volcanics intrusions and continental crystalline basement. The fundamental tectonic regimes for shear zones are - Contractional Terranes © Crystalline Basement of Collision Orogens © Basement Derachments in the Interior Parts of Foreland Fold and Thrust Belts Extensional Terranes © Basement Involved Extensional Orogens - ‘Metamorphic Core Complexes © Basement Faulting in Rift Systems © Basement Detachments of Excensional © Collapse Basins Strike-Slip Terranes © Deep Shear Zones in Oceanic Transform Zones © Basement Skear Zones in intracontinental Suake-Slip Zones Mixed Mode Tectonic Terranes © Transtension © Transpression © Positive Inversion © Negative Inversion © Multiple - Oblique Slip Terranes 1.L4 Fundamental tectonic settings of fold systems ‘The fundamental tectonic regimes for folding are - Contractional Terranes © The Internal Regions of Collision Orogens - Nappe Structures © Fault-Related Folding in Foreland Fold and Thrust Belts © Thrust Related Folding and Growth Folding in Accretionary Wedges Extensional Terranes © Extensional Orogens © Roll-Over Anticlines and Foorwall Uplift Folds in Rift Systems © Roll-Over Anticlines and Footwall Uplift Folds in Passive Continental Margins © Roll-Over Anticlines and Footwall Uplift Folds in Extensional Collapse Basins © Growth Folds associated with Growth Faults in Delta Systems © Detachment Folds and Diapiric and Pillow Folds in Salt Terranes Strike-Slip Terranes © Drag Folds associated with Oceanic Trans ‘form Zones © Second Order Folding in Jntracontinental Strike-Slip Zones - Flower and Palm Tree Structures Folding of many different styles and associations may ‘occur in mixed mode tectonic terranes such as those outlined below - Mixed Mode Tectonic Terranes © Transtension © Transpression © Positive Inversion © Negative Inversion © Multiple - Oblique Slip TerranesSTRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION I SEDIMENTARY BASINS 1.2 FAULT SYSTEMS AND FAULT CLASSIFICATIONS 1.2.1 Introduction This section introduces the fundamental tectonic settings for fault systems and discusses the various classifications of faults ‘The following aspects of fault systems will be emphasised throughout this course - |. Faults are dynamic structures that evolve in both space ‘and time. Fault systems are 4 dimensional - they change shape and grow or die through time. 2. Faults commonly occur in linked systems. These linkages usually follow mechanical and geometric rules that permit fault systems to form characteristic patterns that can be readily recognised. 3. Deformation achieved by britle faulting in the upper crust must be balanced by plastic deformation in the lower crust. The nature ofthe linkage between the uppet and lower crust will be dependent upon the tectonic regime. The concept of balancing sections is an important aspect in analysing faulted terranes. 4. Most faults are nor simple planar surfaces but may show complex shape changes in 3 dimensions (je. both in plan and in cross-section): Changes in fault shape must generate geometrically necessaryaccommodation structures (Folds, faults, or internal strains such as cleavage develop- ment and volume loss in the part ofthe hangingwall that has moved over the variable fault surface. This aspect is ex- tremely importantin both map and cross-sectional analysis of faulted terranes. 5. Faults and faultsystems are fundamental inthe location and deformation of orebodies. Orebodies may be located on faults, deposited in faults, above or adjacent to faults, or be dismembered by faults. 6, Faults are dilarant (volume increase) zones in the crust that focus fluid iow. Faultsmay suckor pump fluids through the crust in very significant volumes. Faults may be the dominant control for hydrothermal circulation systems. 1.2.2 Fundamental tectonic setting of fault systems ‘The fundamental tectonic regimes for faulting are ~ Contractional Terranes © Collision Orogens (© Subduction Orogens © Inversion Orogens © Foreland Fold and Thrust Belts © Accretionary Wedges Extensional Terranes © Extensional Orogens Rift Systems Passive Continental Margins Extensional Collapse Basins Delta Systems Salt Terranes Strike-Slip Terranes © Oceanic Transform Zones © Intracontinental(Inira-Plate) Strike-Slip Zones © Trench-Linked Strike Slip Zones: Mixed Mode Tectonic Terranes © Transtensional Regimes © Transpressional Regimes © Positive Inversion - Extension followed by Contraction © Negative Inversion Contraction followed by Extension © Multiple - Oblique Slip Terranes Faults and fault systems may produce horizontal, vertical and rotational movements within the earth's crust. In this section we are mainly considering faulting in the brittle Uupper 10 to 12 kms of the crust - that is above the brttle- plastic transition below which rocks and minerals deform plastically resulting in ductile strains without widespread fracturing. As with fold systems in many orogenic regimes, faults commonly experience multiple deformation histories with reactivation in different tectonic modes - ie extension followed by compression (positive inversion).STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMENTARY BAst¥S 1.2.3 Fault geometries and fault classification Fundamental fault geometries are reviewed. Faults ‘may be classified in three ways, 1) Anderson’s Dynamic Classification (Anderson 1951) based upon the orientation of the fault plane and the Stross state at the surface of the earth, This classification applies only to high evel faults and only atthe instantof their formation, 2) Separation Classification - This is based upon the concept of stratigraphic separation of key datum planes across the fault, This isa geometric and kinematic classifica- tion that does not depend upon the orientation of the fault surface. Fundamental to these concepts are the notions of extensional faults and contractional faults. 3) Slip Classification - This is based upon the knowl- edge and determination ofthe absolute direction and magni- tude of slip on the fault. This can only be done by knowing the displacement of linear structures by the fault (these produce piercing points on the Fault surface) and isusually not obtainable, Anderson's Dynamic Classification of Faulting Anderson's (1951) dynamic classification of faults (Fig. 1.2.1)is is based on the fact that no shearing siress can exist atthe earth's surface - for faulting to occur close to the earth's surface one of the principal stresses (c,.0, or 6, )) muse be perpendicular to the earth’s surface - ie. vertical Normal Faults: ois vertical and, and, are horizontal. The dip ofthe fault planes are 60° Wrench or Strike-Slip Faults: ois vertiealand o, and @,,are horizontal In this case the fault planes are vertical and the movement direction is horizontal, ie. strike-slip Reverse Faults: ©, is vertical and 0, and @, are horizontal, The fault planes dip at approximately 30° to the horizontal Note that the angle between conjugate fault planes is ‘function of the material properties ofthe rocks e.g. Navier- Coulomb Failure) undergoing faulting and can vary between 45° and 90° . 60° is taken as atypical value of the angle between conjugate fault planes. % % of 9 4 % of 4 6 & & & Onencton —acom ANDERSONIAN CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS Figure 12.1. Andersonian clasifieaton of faults related tothe hte pincipa sess directions «6. 0: & 0STRUCTURAL INTERPREFL7IOW IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS Separation Classification This classification is based upon the sense of movement and stratigraphic separation across the fault plan. Stratigraphic separation across a fault isthe displacement (measured perpendicular to the bedding) ofa reference bed- ding plane. Dip separation js the displacement of a bedding —_ Figure 13.10, Andersion syle fault systems with associated hydrothermal extensional vin systems. (eam Sibson 1990), 12STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS Pon FM oa Figure 13.11. Mohr stress disgram showing how ineveasing the poreuid pressure sis the Mohr circle to the left and produces ale lundercompaction and trapping of pore fluid by rapid buriai (e.g. deltas), by dehydration reactions during burial and metamorphism, by aquathermal pressuring as a result of increased temperature (e.g. intrusions), or by capillary action Elevation ofthe pore-fiuid pressure generates a stress regime whereby the effective normal stresses across 2 faut surface are lowesed but the differential shear stresses along the fault surface are unaffected (Fig. 1.3.11). High pore fluid pres- sures therefore promote fictional sliding along fault surfaces atlowershearstresseseffectively reducing the depth of burial of the fault system, Extremely elevated pore fluid pressures will promote hydrofracturing and vein development, Itrmust be borne in mind, however, that elevated pore fluid pressures are essentially transient phenomena, 1.3.5 Rock friction The fictional behaviour of faut slidingis governed by te frictional characteristics oft rocks, the nature of the fault ‘gouge, the pore-fluid conditions and the tess regime. Sim- pleslidingis governed by Amonton’s aw (equation S above). Fault Surface Contacts and Surface Topography Modern frictional concepts are attributed to Bowden and ‘Tabor (1964) who considered al frictional surfaces to have an irregular topography so that 1wo faute blocks would only touch at a few asperities (Fig. 1.3.12). Slip on the fault surface will depend upon the nature and size ofthese asperi- ties. The asperities may plough or gouge into the adjacent fault block (generating slickenlines), or they may ride over each other, they may interlock and stop sliding on the fault surface or they may be broken off and ground away. Athigh ‘compressive stresses welding of asperities may take place, and when slip occurs these welded junctions must be broken and sheared. Itis important to understand the nature of fault surface topography. Brown and Scholz (1985) studied rock surfaces 13 ZT fa) (b) Figure 13.12, Seeion and plan view oft surfaces in cama showing ‘heareas of aspenty conict which when summed together comprise the eal contact are (rom Scho 1990). \ , SHEAR STRESS. us SLIP a b Figure 13.13. Two common (pes of sees-dsplacement curves foe ‘etional siding. a) Frictional yielding followed by slip hardening. b) ‘Sling followed by an upper yield point, (aie Schatz 1980), over the scale of 105t0 1 m. They found that natural fault surfaces have a fractal roughness geometry, and that rough ness does not appear to decrease with increasing fovlt displacement. However, a largerseaiesisolatedfaultsshould ‘get smoother. Experimental rock deformation shows that sliding can begin at relatively low stresses (Fig. |.3.13a), at the initial friction level, Frictional resistance continues to rise rapidly, and as sttess is increased, slip accelerates untit a frictional yield point is eached, which marks the beginning of principal sliding. The frictional strength may then fall to, a residual value and increase again with slip hardening (Fig. 13.136),“STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IY" ,DIMENTARY BASINS 60 MAXIMUM FRICTION 50 SHEAR STRESS T (BARS) 10 ° 70 20 30 40 Ey NORMAL STRESS ©, (BARS) MAXIMUM FRICTION SHEAR STRESS (BARS x 10°) a a ) NORMAL STRESS Gp (BARS x 10°) Figure 13.14. Serves at ioe fra wide range of materiale, a) Low sresse, b) High stresses. (rom Byelee 1978) 14“STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATI Byerlee (1978) has investigated the frictional strength of many rock and surface types (Fig. 1.3.14). At low loads, below 50 bars, most rocks exhibit a linear friction law, but great variations occur due to surface and rock ype (Pig. 1.3.L4a). Surface roughness inereases fiction dramatically at Jow loads. At high loads, (Fig. 1.3.14b), the roughness effect is weaker, and friction is non-linear and wt decreases with, Byerlee fitted many experimental datatotwo straight lines t= 04066, o and when G, > 200 MPa t= 0856, o What is remarkable about this equation is that friction is largely independent of rock type with the exception of clay minerals which have an unusually tow friction (Fig. 1.3.14) Roughness and Wear ‘The topography of natural fractures is very important. They strongly affect the fault behaviour. The friction data at low stress (Fig. 1.3.14) have a large scatter due to variations in roughness, where maxirwum friction level is accompanied by riding up of asperities and dilatancy. At high normal stresses asperity riding-up is suppressed and the asperities shear through. Because wear tends to roughen smooth surfaces and smooth rough surfaces, this suggests that the early part of friction behaviour on faults is controlled by roughness, but after a certain amount of sliding the surfaces, tend to a similar roughness and frictional strength, Frictional sliding causes damage and erosion of fault surfaces, a process known as wear. There are two mecha- nisms of wear; adhesive and abrasive (Rabinowicz 1965). Adhesive wear occurs where junction adhesion is so strong, that junctions shear off part of the adjoining asperity, rather than at the junction itself, which results in a transfer of material from one surface of the fault to the other. Where there is a hardness contrast of materials across the fault the harder material may plough through the softer, and gouge material out, 2 process known as abrasive wear. Because faults usually juxtapose materials of differing harciness abra- sive wear is the most important process. Wear is most important in the early stages of sliding as starting surfaces, have greater roughness. As wear continues the fault blocks may become totally separated by fault gouge and the fric- tional properties then depend on the gougerather than the two fault surfaces. In general gouge thickness increases with displacement and a linear relationship has been observed by several authors (Fig. 1.3.15). Inexperiments itis found that cataclasis produces a fractal size distribution of gouge fragments. Once shear has reached, a critical level, further deformation becomes localised in Reidel shears oriented at an acute angle to the shear zone, Fault gouge often contains clay minerals which may reduce the frictional strength and stabilize sliding, so that faults with 15 JON IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS FAULT GOUGE THICKNESS vs FAULT SLIP bed LOG D (SLIP, m) LOG T (THICKNESS, m) Figure 1.3.15. Fault gouge shickness (7) ploned against otal slip (D), for fouls msnly i erystalline rock (rom Scholz 1990), clay gouge may be far weaker than predicted by Byerlees law. Pore Fluids, Temperature and Ductirty Pore fluids affect frictional behaviour by reducing the effective normal stress across the fault surface and they also wet the mineral grains reducing the cohesion of the material, ‘Temperature has little effect on frictional sliding. Hows ever, if the temperature is raised sufficiently that points of contact can recrystalliseand weld together so thatreal contact ares is increased dramatically, then slip will occur by ductile shearing and a flow law, which will be more independent of normal stress. 1.3.6 Formation and growth of faults AAs discussed in section 1.3.2 faults form and grow as a resultof propagation ofcracks, [thasbeen shown experimen- tally bat in general fault propagation usually occurs by Mode | fractures which can propagate within their own planes (Lawn and Wilshaw 1975, Horii and Nemat Nasser 1976, Cox and Scholz 1988). Observations of active strike-slip faults in Iceland agree swith he experimental results. Binarssonand Eriksson (1981) showed that an en-echelon series of Mode 1 fractures is produced ahead of the Mode 3 fault tip which has not broken through to the surface yet (Fig, 1.3.16). The rough fractal geometry of fauls from over ten orders of magnitude from 10* to 10°strongly suggests that faults grow by linkage of individuat fault strands at all scales (Scholz and Aviles 1986).STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMENTARY P SIS Figure 1.2.16, Mode | fractures produced athe surface above te tp of propaaaing Mode 3 strike-slip fault cuting bassks in leeland (from inasson and Erikson, 1981), Displacement Distributions on Faults Rippon (1985), Barnett etal.(1987), Walsh and Watterson (1988). and Gillespie (1990) have investigated the displace- ment distribution along normal and thrust faule surfaces. ‘They show chat isofated faults tend to have an elliptical shape defined by the tip line of zero displacement. The ellipse has ashort axis parallel to the movement direction with the long? short axis around 2:2-3:t for normal faults and up to 18:1 for thrust faults (Fig. 1.3.17). The reason forthisellipticity isnot clearly defined. ‘Watterson (1986) and Walsh and Watterson (1988) have alsoinvestigated the relationship between the maximum total displacement on a fault plane and the maximum width ofthe Jauls, measured at right angles to the movement direction “They showed there isa non-linearincrease of fault width with total displacement and suggested that an arithmetic growth ‘model can explain the daca, where the fault slip increases by a fixed slip increment after each slip event. Davison and ‘Waltham (1980) have shown thatthe displacement-distance datado not clearly fit the arithmetic growth model prediction (especially at fow and very high displacements) and that a single mathematical model of fault growth is inadequate to eseribe the complex behaviour of fault groweh (Fig. | 3.18), Faulk barriers, finkage, proximity to neighbouring fauls, lateral and vertical rigidity variations, will all have an effect fon displacemenywidth relations. For faulis with tm of displacement, faut widths can vary well over three orders of magnitude (Fig, 1.3.18). Minimum aspect ratios (disptace- ment) width) for faults at any scale are aboutl:10 (Fig. 1.3.18) 1.3.7 Fault Linkages ‘The fundamental concept ofalinked fault system is thacit develops by growtt and connection of individual fault seg ments as total displacement increases. If regional plate displacement rates are constant the number of active faults will decrease with increasing strain and time as the large displacement inked faultsbeginto predominate. This behav- iourhas been convincingly reproduced in extensional experi- ments on cohesionless dry sand (Vendevitle 1987) Once faults link together, displacement should be smaller ona linked fault compared to anindividual fault of equivalent width; and as deformation increases the irregular displace- ment distribution associated with linkages will be smoothed- ou. “Se ecu 10m sh ° 94 oo Ae 3e fe 10% im Vem 00% tien Foem TOR T6005 Width Figure 2.2.18, aultwidehw (W) vers total dgplacement{D) (From Walsh and Waterson, 1988) tm 16STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IV SEDIMENTARY BASINS west COLUMNS (12,5m INTERVAL) BAST 290 900 310320308400 60370980380 a ag 500m 400 400 500 500 UNcoNFoRN «00 my | ag 1 2 i 700. 700 800 100 900 200 1000 1000 1100 1190 Figure 12.172. Displacement contour diagram fran extensional faultaken fom seismic daa (rom Chapman and Merely, 1990), 200 400 Depth (m) 600 226" _contours in metres 400 800 1200 +1600 Distance along fault strike (m) Figure 1.47, Displacement conioue diagram for an extensions fut in Coal measures (ftom Rippon, 1985) a“STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS isp 706m 7 bate ane ‘Tvougngoing fault zone win sher fens Iractwepanay seve ute Figure 1.349, Model experimens of strike-slip faults (rom Naylor etal, 1986) Model experiments of strike-slip faults with tens ofem of displacement in loose dry sand and clay show how Reidel shear faults progressively join together across later devel- ‘oped P shears to produce a linked braided shear fault plane (€g, Tchalenko 1970; Naylor etal’ 1986; Fig. 1.3.19). The theoretical stress concentrations at a fault barrier between two interacting offset relay faults propagating along mode 3 edges has been examined by Segall and Pollard (1980). However, it must be remembered that their stress analysis is only valid for small amounts of movement in a homogeneous elastic medium, when both fault strands are propagating instantaneously. They state there should be significant interaction between strike-slip faults, if they are separated by less than twice the depth of faulting. Compu- tation of principal siresses around fault bridges indicates that transtensional overlaps produce a tensional area which ex- tends well outside the area of overlap, with tensional fractures predicted to form between the two faults (Fig. 1.3.20) If tensional fractures link the two fault stands together, slippage may develop along this link. Tension fractures tend totum away from the fault bridge and linkage is suppressed in transpressional regimes because of the higher frictional component which would be produced by high normal stresses across the linking foult (Fig. 1.3.20). Subsidiary shear fault Zone of potential heat fracture 02 02 on 00 02 Figure 1.3.20. Suess concenationsbetween overlapping relay faults (eom Segall and Polar 1980). orientations fn the bridge area can also be predicted, these dependon fault overlap, spacing, rock rigidity and fault mode (€. Woodcock and Fischer 1986). An indication that separate co-planar faults may have linked together to produce a single fault can be infered from plots of the fault displacement against distance from a fixed reference point on the Fault (Elis and Dunlap 1988). They show that thrust faults of varying magnitudes show several displacement minima along the fault trace which can be interpreted as fault linkages. 1.3.8 Fluid Flow and Faults {thas clearly been recognised that active faults are associ- ated with fluid flow and discharge. Sibson (1990) has demonstrated that many faults are associated with elevated pore fluid pressures (i.e > hydrostatic). As discussed above, elevated pore fluid pressures may result form a variety of ‘mechanisms (e.g. under compaction and dehydration reac- tions) and many tectonically active areas exhibit elevated pore fluid pressures (e.g. in the region ofthe San Andeas fault Fig. 1321) Suction Pump and Fault Valve Behaviour Studies of areas around active faults have shown that the rock around the faultzonedilates beforea large seismic event. This is due to the formation of microcracks during strain accumulation which occurs in the aseismic period. During 18SURE MPa 60 80__ 10012 Figure 1.3.21. Fore lid pressure regimesinbatins astociate withthe San Andreas faut stem (after Sibson 199%). this dilation tuids will be drawa into the zone. On faulting, strain release and stress drop provoke closure of the dilatant cracks nd fluid isexpelted along the faultplane. This feature is evident from the widespread observations of surface fluid Nlows around many faults after an earthquake event Sibson (e.g. 1990) has proposed two fundamental mecha- nisms for fluid flow around and in fauks - the suction pump ‘mechanism and the fault valve mechanicsm (Fig. 1.3.22) Suction Pamp Behaviour In near-surface environments the ambient pore fluid pres- sure may be reduced below hydrostatic by suction pump behaviour around the fault. This appears to occur during slip transfer or aresting of fault movement along dilational jogs or offsetsin the fault zone. During displacement transfer or fault arrest at a jog extensional fractures open up and fluid flows into the dilational zone (Fig. 1.3.22a). Atdepths below afew hundred metres the :luid-pressure gitferential between an extensional fracture and its surrounding wallrock can be sufficient to induce wallrock brecciation and hydraulic im- plosion (Sibson 1990). This mechanism leads to vertical extensional veins at shallow levels associated either with extensional faults (normal faults) or jogged strike-slip fault systems (Fig. 1.3.24). Much epithermal mineralisation is thought to have formed inthis way - by extension hydraulic fracturing focusing upward fluid low. Figure 1.3.23 shows the pore Muid pressure (measured as the ratio = pore fluid pressure/lithostatic pressure) ans depth fields forextensional veindevelopmentassociated with extensional (normal) fault- ing. strike-slip faulting and thrust faulting. Note that in the 19 1ON 1 SEDIMENTARY BASINS A SUCTION - PUMP EXTENSIONAL FAULT v B_FAULT VALVE REVERSE FAULT Hyrothermal . As; Fluids © FLUID PRESSURES 4 Ea FQ EQ Mesohemal_ FhkAetivaed "7. Epithermat Suction Pump TIME, P| Pri Ay Figure 1.3.22. Fault: Auidnechanial models (adapted after Sibson 1990), 8) Suction-Purp behaviour with vertical extension wens formed around.n extensional fault system, During seismic fuking EQ episodes) pores ‘nla the ful system lowering the hydrostatic poe Aud pressure in the faul zone (se diagram el. b) FaulValve behaviour associated with reverse oF thrust felt at intermediate depts within the crust. Pore Quid pressure builds upto suprodihosaic levels whic induees fault rupture leading to draining ofthe Nid servi at deh and uid expulsion up the fault system. ) Pre Mud prescure actuation with the seution-pump nd Fault valve mechanism.STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IV SEDIMENTARY BASINS HYDRAULIC EXTENSIONAL FRACTURING IW THE VICINITY OF FAULTS dy = Py Py os Hyorosranc DEPTH km Figure 1.323. Fluid moverants associated withthe seismic eye. a) Seismie pump mechanism, b) Seismic valve mechanism (fom Sibsen eal 1975), thrust regime extensional veins can only form when supre- lithostatic pore fluid pressures occur. Fault Valve Behaviour In deeper crustal environments, typical of mesothermal vein formation, a diiferent type of pore fluid behaviour may ‘occur where faults may form highly permeable channelways for fluid movement immediately post rupture but form seal- ing systems in periods in between seismic activity (Sibson 1990). In this situation a zone of elevated pore fluid pressure may develop beneath an impermeable barrier within the crust ig. 1.3.24) such that when rupture occurs (this may be triggered by supra-lithostatic pore fluid pressures), the fault becomes a permeable channel way that allows fluids to move up the fault and hence deposit vein mineralisation (Figs 1.3.22b and 1.3.24b). Reverse faults provide the optimum conditions for fault valve behaviour (Sibson 1990). Mesothermal Au-Quartz vein and lode systems suchas those in the Palaeozoic slate belt of Victoria, Australia, or the Cretaceous Mother Lode vein system of Claiforniaare exam- ples of vein systems probably developed by fault-valve behaviour (Sibson 1990) Fault Seals Faults have often been considered to be effective conduits for fluid flow, but this should only be the ease for active faults where dilatancy occurs. Once the fault is inactive and cementation has occluded the porosity the fault may act as an effective seal to fluid migration. However the buoyancy effect of hydrocarbons rapped against the seal may promote A PREFAILURE FLUID PRESSURE err FLUIO pREssuRE ‘upruna Suprtysrosite nae srr? Figure 1.324. FaultValve behaviour (fom Sibson 1990) 2) Pre-ilure, 1) Post aue fracturing o fluid flow through otherwise impermeable rocks adjacent to the fault plane giving the impression thatthe fault is a conduit although the actual fault plane is sealing. Fault seals will also be broken by supraclithostatic pore fluid pressures during fault valve behaviour (Fig. 1.3.24) Four types of fault seal appear to be important: 1) Juxtapositionof impermeable against permeablestrata, 2) Clay, salt or coal smears These are very important in trapping hydrocarbons or otherfluidsalong fault plane. The faultseal formsas result of shearing of the more ductile lithologies (e.g. clays, salt) into the fault surface. 3) Cementation and vein seals Cementation with silica or carbonate is very common in fault zones and this may reduce the porosity within the fault and also in the damage zon: around the fault surface. 4) Grain comminution During faulting, cataclasis produces a reduction in grain size which will decrease the effective pore throat size within the gouge in the fault zone and thusform aseal. Comminution of fault rock is an important sealing mechanism. 20STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IY SEDIMENTARY BASINS Depth km. ° 5 10 15 20 25 1 1 L J P.T Increasing —E Metamorphic Grade Increasing ———————>> Zero Very Low Low Medium High INCOHESIVE COHESIVE Fandom Fabrie Forated a ____ eee 2 sem prance | CATACLASITES MYLONITES E wateragrerts | [crush protobrecclas i 2 or | et sam |e hemen secre rovonponte [Ext 6 n 1 & SS qoige KA 3 ° <8 oe a 8 58 / _onoo fg Howse Zosmm| Of t-- bai iees & 13g Augen Mylonite |® 81 é c | St a ie ee 0.05 mm rauit Ge 28 be Qo jeeeoore (fatietragmens |B Mytonite eed Sec |e ween ig mB eee Utramytonite |e 0.005 mm, 3 —> is 2 LASTIC ‘ONITES Figure 1.125, Classification offal rocks (modified afer Sibson 197). 1.3.9 Fault Rocks and Deformation Mechanisms Faulting causes breakage of grains into angular blocks which gradually reduce in size with incteasing deformation, this isknownas cataclasicflow, which involvesgrain rolling, grain boundary frictional sliding, and comminution by britle fracturing. Although some authors e.g. Sibson 1977) state thatcataclasis producesa random fabric this isnotnecessarily the case and a strong shape fabric of oriented fragments, ora crystallographic orientation, can be produced by faulting. In the fault rock classification scheme shown in Figure 1.3.25 such cataclasites would be described as foliated breccias or foliated gouges. Nevertheless tise classification erected by ‘Sibson is broadly applicable (Fig. 1.3.25) Mylonitics rocks are produced by plastic deformation and recrysalisaion processes and are clearly distinguishable from cataclastic rocks in most cases by the development of pervasive foliated fabrics which include both grain shape and xystallographic fries (Fig 1.325) 2 Figure 1.3.26 shows an hypothetic depth section across @ fault zone suchas the san Andreas (after Scholz {990). In this figure the transition from brittle, cataclastic behaviour to plastic, ductile behaviour occurs at around 300°C or Ll kmin the crust (Fig. 1.3.26). The diagram also highlights the fault rock deformation mechanisms operating within the crust from abrasive wear in the upper || km to adhesive wear below passing downwards, with increasing temperature, into plastic flow (Fig. 1.3.26). The seismic behaviour of such a fault system is also illustrated - note the maximum rupture depth of a large earthquake is around 15 km depth,STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATI 1OW IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS ceoLoaie FAULTROCK FRICTION RATE seismic STRENGTH FERTONES hecianens "genavion BEHAVIOR Cray Gouge ures sHeMTe Proce nsen nn Rann nnn qo ERT ao ‘Long Term = Taonyiye 23 a ‘Nucleation Zo g cotcastes | EE eo stinger > a oynaitie 3 ede ------ * oor ¢|sram ouane anes Shaw z z Faster Taso : reanseniat 3 uw puprune e — fesensene A ___ 2 # Mylonites 4 (ag Eaton asorclaaum¥ YA reooar 2 Wsrrrrv T « "eeaitosacine! Y “Amphibotte Figure 1.336, Synoptic model ofa sear zon (adapted from Scholz 190) REFERENCES Starred references are recommended papers and books. Anderson, EM, 1908, The dynamics of faulting: Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society, v. 8, p. 387-402. Aayustkov, EV. 1987. Riis and grabens: Tectonophysics . 133, 32l- 331 Atkinson, BC 1987, Introduction to Fracture Mechanics and its geophysi- cal applications: in B.K. Atkinson (ed), Fracture Mechanics of Rock. ‘Academie Press. p. [23 Archuleta, R, 1984, faulting model forthe Imperial Valley earthquake: Journal of Geophysical Research, Dakua, W.H., King, G.C. P. and Cockerham, RS. 1986, Seismic sip. ‘seme slip andihe mechnies of repeating eahquakes, onthe Claveras Fault Californias Earthquake source mechanics, American Geophyst- cal union Memo, Das, Set. (eds) Washington D.C. p. 198-207 Barker,C.. 1972, Aquathermal pressuring fle of temperaiue inthe devel- ‘opment of abnormal pressure zones: Bulletin of the American Associa tion of Petoleum Geologists v.56, p2068-2071 DarnettJ.A.M. Mortimer, J, Rippon HL, Walsh, J and Watterson, "1987, Displacement geometry in tbe volume containing a single oemal Bult Bulletin ofthe American Assocation of Plrcleurn Geol Bist, v.71, p. 925.938 Bertram, G.T. and Milton, N., 1988, Reconstructing basin evolution from sedimentary thickness; the imporance of palebathymetricconul with reference othe Noah Se Basin Reseach vl, 9287-257 Bowden, F. and Tabor, D., 196, The friction and lubiieation of soli: art 2, Oxford Clarenden Press. Bradshaw, GA. & Zoback, M.D.1988, Listrie normal faulting. sess refraction, and tate of ees inthe Gulf Coast Basin: Geology. 16. p a2, Brown, S.R.y and Schola, CHL. 1985, Broad bandwidth sudy of the opographyof natural rock surfaces: Joumal of Geophysical Resesch, 50. p. 12575-12582, Bruce, C.H., 1973, Pressured shale and related sediment deformation: ‘mechanism fordevelopmentof sional contemporaneous faults: Bulle tin of the American Asociation of Petroleum Geologists, v.57. p87 586 Duck, R, 1988, Flexural rotation of normal fouls: Tectonics. v7. p. 959+ 973 [Byerlee J.D. 1970, Themechaies of stck-slip, Tectonophysics v9.9. 75 136, DByorle, J.D, 1978, Fiction of racks: Puce and Applid Gophytie, v.16 615.6%. 22 Cockerham, RS. Eaton, LP. 1987. The Morgan Hillearhquake and is aftershocks, April 24 through September 30, 1984: Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey. a0, 1638, 15.28 ‘Cox,S.Jand Scholz, CAL, 1988, On the formation and growth of faults: Snexperimenta stud: Joumal of Siseturl Geology» 10, p30, Dietrich, J 1978, Time dependent ction in rocks: foumal of Geophys cal Research, v.77, 9, 3690-3697 Dietrich, J. 1978b, Time dependent fiction andthe mechanics ofetik-ip, ure and Applied Geophysics v.116, p. 790-806, Donath F196]. Experimental study of shea failure in anisotropic rocks: ‘Bulle of the Geological Society of America . 72, p. 985.989, Downey, M.. 1984, Evaluating seals for hydrecarbon accumulations: Bul Tein of the American Association of Petroleum Geologist, v.68 p. 1752-1763, Eaton. J.P. O'Neilh ME. Murdoch, J.N 1970. 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Walsh, JJ. & Watterson, J 1989, Modelling bed contours {and cross-sections adjacent to planar nocmal faults: Joural trutural Geology v.11, p 317-338, Griffith, A.A. 1930, The phenomena of rupture and flow in solids: Prilosophical Transactions of the Reyal Society, Serie A, ¥-221, . 163-198 Griffith, A.A.. 1924, The theory of rupture: in Proceedings ofthe Fist Intemational Congzess of Applied Mechanics. Sienzeno, C.B. and Burgers. JM, Delft Tech, Goekhandelen Drukken.J, Waller itp. 53 53 Hlubbert, K. and Rubey, W.W. 1959, Role of Mid pressure in the ‘mechanics of overtvust faulting, Bultin ofthe Geolopieal Society of ‘America, v.70, p 115-166. Jackson, J. Ax 1987, Active normal fouling and crustal exension. in Cowaid. MP. etal eds), Continental extensional tectonics, SpecialSTRUCT RAL IVTERPRETATION IN SEDISIENTARY BASINS Pblicacion ofthe Geological Society of London no, p 3-17 ‘Jackson, JA. and White, NJ. 1989. Normal fsting in the upper ontnenal rust: observations for epions of active eensin:Joural of Structural Geology, + (9-15-36, Jackson, JA. aed MeKenaie, D, 1988, Rates of ative deformation inthe Aegean Sea and surounding regions: Basin Research 1,9, 121-128, anamori,H. and Allen, CR. (986, Eanhguakerpeattine and average ‘tress drop in Das, S., BoatwightJand Schol.CH..es, Earthquake seuceechane:Genphyseai Monogap Washngon OC 37, p 27 2s. King. G.C.P. 1986, Speculations on the geometry ofthe inition and Termination proceses of earthquake rupte and tela o morphol ogy and geological siructore: Pure and Applied Geophysics 24, $67 5 ing, G.. and Yielding, G., 1984, The evolution ofa thrust foul system: processes of rupture inition, propszation and termination ncbe 1980 El Asam (Algena) eanfguake: Geophysical Jounal of the Royal Astronomical Society, v.17-p- 918-933, ‘Brant RW. 1989, Mull ut ses and three -Uimesona strain: theory ‘and application Journal of Strvtual Geology, v.10. p. 225-238, Lava f.and Wilshaw, TAR, 1975, Focture brite solids: ambeige Uriversity Press. 2049 Logan, J-M- and Teufel,L.W. 1986, The effet of noma stress onthe rea "yes of comact during fcional sliding in rocks. Pure and. Applied Geophysics, v. 124 9. 471-486, Magara, K.. 1982. Physical constraints on fouling in a geopressured sedimentary basin: Joural of Petcleum Geology 5 p. 417-126. Mandl, GA. 1988, Mechanics of Teetoni Fling, Fever. Amsterdam, Mandl, Gi de Jong, L.NJ-& Maltha, A. 1977, Shear zones in granule ‘matenal an experimental study of their structure and mechanical eness, Rock Mechanics, 9, 95-144, Marone, Cand Scholz, C.HL, 1988, The depth of seismic feng andthe ‘upper tansition from stable to unstable ip repimes: Geophysical Reseach Later. v.15, 9, 621-896, Marko, G.M. 198, Mectnies of motion on majo fas. Annust Review (of Eashand Planetary Sciences, 9, 1610-1618 MeGarr, Av Gay, NC. 1978, Site of sess inthe eats cust: Annual Review of Earth Seiences v.6, 9, 405-436 Milani, EJ and Davison, 1. 1988. Basement contol and ansfertectoies inthe Reconcavo-Tucano-Jatoba it, Brazil Tectonophysics. 154, 41 = o Miller, E. L. Gans, P.B. and Garing, 5.1983. The Snake Range Décollement an exhumed Mid-Tertary dusiesritle wanstion: Tees toni. v2 p. 239-263, Muraoka, H. and Kamata, H., 1983. Displacement distibuion along minor faut races: Journal of Structral geology, v5. 9.183495, Nur, Ave al 1986, Fault mechani and kinematics of block oations Geology. v.14, p. 746-749, Price, RA 1988, The mechanieal paradox of large ovenhast: eolosical, Society of America Bullet, v.100 . 1898-1908, Rabinovicz, E1951, The nature ofthe static and Kinetic coefficents of ction, Joural of Applied Physics. v.22, p, 1373-1379, abinowica,E. 1958, The intrinsic varlablesatfectingthe stick lip proces, Proceedings of the Physical Society (london) v.71 9. 668-67. [Rabinomica, E196 Fiction and wear of maienais: New York John Wiley Raleigh C. Ba Healy, Jn Bredehor!t, 1.1976, An experiment in eat ‘quake contol a Rangely, Colorado: Science y. 191 .1230-1237 Reches, Z. 1983, Fauling of rocks in thre Gimensiona stain Bele “Teeionophysics, v7 p. 109-129, Rippon, Jil, (985, Contoured pattems of of he throw andhode of normal faults inthe Coal Measures (Westphalia) of nonhvest Derbyshire: Proceedingde ofthe Yorkshire Geological Sociey, 0: 48, p, 147-16 Lp. 1230-1337. Roberts, A, Yielding, Gand Freeman. 1990, Conference por: the ‘srometry of normal ult: Joural athe Geological Society of London, YLT g (S587, ‘Scholn, Ci, 1968, The equency-magnituderelationof mirofrctring in tock and its relation tO earthquakes: Bulletin ofthe Seismological Society of america. v.58, p. 399-115. Scholz, CH. 1982, Sealing laws for large earthquakes: consequences for ‘physical models: Seismologisl Society of America Bulletin. 72.p.1= 1s Scholz C.H. 1987, Wear and gouge formation in bile fauking: Geology. 15, p.9895, Scholz CH, 1989, The ctl lip distance for seismic faulting, Nature, v 336, p. 761-763, 23 *Sehole, C.H1.1989. Mechanics of faulting: Annual Review Bath and Planetary Sciences,» 17, p, 300-334 *Sehola, CH. 1980. Msshanics of earthquakes and faulting, University Press, Cambridge. Ensland. pp 39. Sehola, CH. and Aviles, CA, 1986, The fractal geometry of outs and Fouling: in Das, Boatwright. J. and Scholz, CH. eds, Eanbuake souece mechanics: Gaaphysieal \lonagtaph Washington DC.37,p 147 156 Scholz, C. tal, 1973, Earthquake predition a physical bass Science. vA81,p. 805-810. Scholz, GH., Aviles, CAs, and Wesneusky, .G., 1986, Sestng de. ences betveen lage intel and ineaplateeathquakes Seismologiet Society of Ames Bulletin, v, 76.65.71 ‘SchwartzD.P. and Coppersmith, K.., 1984, Fault behaviourandchaae teristic earthquakes: examples from he Wasatch nd San Andress ful ones: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. $9, 9, S631-5698, Schwartz. D.P., Hanson, K. an Swan, FH, 1983, Paleoseisme invest tions long the Wasatch Fauh zone: an update in Paleoseismiity along, the Wasach Front and ajacenet areas, Cretal Utah, ed. A. Crone Ucah Geological Survey Special Studies 62, 459. Segall, P, and Pollard, D.D.. 1990, Mechanes of discontinuous fault: “Joumat of Geophysical Research, v 85. p. 4337-1350. ‘Shimamoto, T-and Logan, J 1981, Efecto simulated faut gouge onthe sliding Sehaviour of Tennessee Sandstone: Joumal of Geophysical Research, v.96, , 28022914, ‘Shimazakiy K. 1976 Intepat seismicity and nterpate earthquakes, his tories tivity of southwest Japan: Tectonophysics, v3. p3H2 Sibson, RAE. 1977, Fa rocks and faut mechanisms; Journal of the Geological Society of London, v.13, p, 191-213 Sibson, R- H, 1985, A nove on (uit reatvation: Journal of Structaral Geology, ¥.7.p.151-754, Sibson, KHL, 1987. Eannguake eopuring a¢ a mineralining agent in hydeotherinal systems: Geology. v 15. p, 701-704, ‘Sibson, RAK. 1989. Eathquake faulting 3a srvtarl proses: Soumal of Structural Geology, v.11. pI ‘Sibson, RL. eal 1975 Seismic pumping. a hydrothermal uid transport ‘mechanism: Joumal ofthe Geological Society of London, v.13. p. 653 539. RS. King, G.C. & Rundle, J, 1988, The growth of seologics! structures by repeated earhquakes 2. Feldexamples of caren ip- flip faults: foural Geophysical Reseach. v.93 9.(3,319-13 331, Stesky, R Brace, W, Riley,D. and Robia, PY, 1978, FecionofFuled rok a high temperature ad pressure. Tectonophysics, 23. 177-203 ‘Stewart, J. 1982, Extensionaltectones inthe Death Valley are, Califor nin: anspor of the Panamint Range Structural block 80 km NW: Geology, ¥ Hyp. LS3157, ‘Tehalenko, JS. 197, Similars between shes diferent magoitedes: Geologiesl Society of Ameria Bulletin, ¥-81,p. 1625-1690. ‘Tehalenko, JS. and Berberlan, M, 1975, Dsshte-Bayar fault, Irn euthuake and eal related sruturesin bedrock: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v.86, p. 703-709. ‘Venderile,B 1987. Champsdeaileseteconiqueenextensio, Membres et Documents du centre Amoriain detude structurale des soces. 15, Universite de Rennes, 3959. Wallace, RE, 1980, Segmentation of ful zones in Proc, USGS Canfer- ‘ence of Segmentation of Faults, U.S. Geological Survey Open File Repo in press. Walsh J-J.and Watterson J. 1997, Disuibuions of cumulative dspace ment and seismic sip On a single normal fault surface: Joural of Strvewral Geology v9, 9, 1039-1086, ‘Waish,J.-and Watterson J, 19883. Dip of oral fats in Bish coal measures and other fedimeatary sequences Jourmal of the Geolapieal Society of London. v, 135, 9 859-874 ‘Walsh, JJ. and Watterson, J. 1988, Analysis of the slatonship between displacements and dimensions of fale: Joumal of Stretural Geology v.10. 9.238247. ‘Walsh, JJ. & Watterson, J 1989, Displacement gradient on felt sr aces, Journal of Stutura Geology v.11, 9.307316 ‘Walsh, JJ. & Watterson, J, 1990 New meitod offal projection for oalmine planning Proc. York, Geo. Soe. in press. 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SteSTRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IY SEDIMENTARY BASINS ‘Watterson, J. 1995, Fault dimessions,diplacements and growth: Pure Wesnousky,S, 1988, Seismological and seuctral evolution af srke-slip Applied Geophysics v.12: 365-373. faults: Nature. v-335. 340.382 Wawersik, W. and Brace, W.F. 1971, Post-fulure behaviour of granite Yielding, G. 1990, Footal uplift astciatce with ate Jassie fuking in ‘and a dsbase, Rock Mechanics, 3p. 61-85, "he Nochern North Sos Jourmal of he Ceolegieal Society of London, 17, p 219-223,STRUCTURAL INTERPRET ‘TION IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS 14 1.4.1 Introduction ‘Advances in our understanding of extensional fault systems over the past 15 years have stemmed from an appreciation of - 1) large extensions (up to 350%) on low angle fault systems c.f the Basin and Range Province of SW USA; 2) recognition that extensional fault systems can in some instances link together (perhaps in a manner similar to that for thrust fault systems); 3) detailed studies of young rift, systems -e.2. East African Rifts, Gulf of Suez: 4) improved reflection seismic methods and processing: S) deep reflec- tion seismic studies in attempting o understand lower crustal deformation and whole lithosphere deformation; 6) the development of mathematical/theoretical models forthe for- mation of extensional basins; 7) the application of section balancing techniques to extensional terranes: and 8) forward modelling of extensional fault systems - both analogue and numerical models. Inrecent years considerable debate has focussed upon whether major crustal extension (e.g. continental rift sys- tems) is caused largely by steep (60°) planar seismogenic faults or by large listric extensional faults (aseismic?). In terranes such as the Basin and Range, large low-angle (10° 20°) extensional detachments are found, with good evidence to show that they were active at these low angles. Both ‘geometries probably occur in continental rift systems de- ppending upon the tectonic regime. In this section we will focus upon the tectonic setting of extensional fault systems, fault nomenclature, and the ‘geometries and kinematics of extensional faults and fault systems developed within sedimentary basins. Sections 1.5, and 1.6 will focus upon scaled analogue modelling of both 2D ‘and 3D extensional fault systems as a guide tothe geometries and kinematics of natural fault systems. 1.4.2 Tectonic Settings of Extensional Fault Systems Extensional fault systems are found in a variety of tectonic environments from intracontinental rift systems, mid-ocean ridge spreading centres, passive margins to prograding delta systems. They can be broadly divided into twomain groups -crustal extensional faultsystems that affect significant thicknesses of crust (both continental and oce- nic) and shallow detached extensional fault systems such as those found in deltas or even in surficial collapse deposits. GEOMETRIES OF EXTENSIONAL FAULTS - I ‘A CRUSTAL EXTENSIONAL FAULT SYSTEMS 4) Inracontinental it Systoms ~ East African Rift System 2) Passive Continental argne - Exst Coast USA 3) MiOeean Ridge Systems - Mid-Atlantic lelancte Ridge 4) Backare Baring + Lavsaein '5) Extansional Calapse Basins - Devonian Basins of Western Norway 5) Stike Sp PuleApart Basins - Ridge and Ventura Basing, SW USA B DETACHED EXTENSIONAL FAULT SYSTEMS 1) Progradationl Dela Systeme- Niger Dat 2) Passive Coninatal Margins + West Atiean Margin 3) SaltDelachments and Diapina- Gulf of Mexico 4) Submarine Scare Collapses - Exst Coast USA Table 14.1, Tectonic senings of extensional fault ystems, Table 1.4.1 shows the main tectonic regimes in which extensional fault systems are found and Table 1.4.2 shows their main characteristics. In the subsequent discussion of extensional fault systems we will be mainly addressing extensional fault styles found in continental rift systems, passive continental margins, extensional collapse basins and detached terranes such as delta systems and those found in passive continental margins (c.g. Table 1.4.2) A CRUSTAL EXTENSIONAL FAULT SYSTEMS 1) Intracontinental it Systems = Dominanty Planar Arays 2) Passive Continental Margins Dominanty Planar Arays 3), MieOcean Ricge Systems + Planar 8) Back-Are Basing + Planar 5) Extensional Colpse Basins LowsAngiePlanarand Lstie 6) StikeSlip Pullpar Basins Dominanty Planar B DETACHED EXTENSIONAL FAULT SYSTEMS 1) Progradational Dota Systems = Listle rays 2) Passive Continental Marging = Dominanty Litre 8) SaltDetachments and Diapirs = Dominanty Liste 4) Submarine Scarp Coan + Ustae ‘Table 1462. Exensional ful styles 28STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS PURE - SHEAR MODEL LAYERED CRUST 50 km Figure 1.1. Conceptual models for inuacontinentl extension (after Listeret al, 1986), 1.4.3 Extensional Fault Systems in Intracontinental Rift Settings Extensional fault systems in intracontinental rift sys tems have been the focus of much recent research (see Coward etal., 1986; Robertsetal,, 1991). Inparticular much debate has centredon whether the intracontinental lithosphere extends under pure shear - ‘MeKenzie model’ (McKenzie, 1978), translithosphere scale simple shear-"Wernicke model’ (Wernicke, 1985) or by crustal“ithosphere delamination - ‘delamination model’ (Lister et al,, 1986). These conceptual models are illustrated schematically in Figure 1.4.1. A pure shear model of intracontinental extension will lead to largely symmetric rift structures - symmetric rift margins, and if rifting continues to crustal separation snd the formation of an ‘ocean basin, symmetric opposed continental passive margins will result (Fig. 1.4.1). In particular the post rift thermal subsidence will be symmetrically disposed about the rift axis In contrast the simple shear model of Wernicke (1985) will result in markedly asymmetric extension with the resultant, Conjugate and opposed passive margin having markedly different structures and thermal histories (e.g. Fig. 1.4.3). In particular in this case the post rift thermal subsidence will be asymmetric and not centred above the rift axis (Fig. 1.4.3) ‘The delamination model involvesintracrustal detachments in a stepped shear zone system that ultimately results in asym- metric conjugate passive margins (Fig. 1.4.1). AS in the simple shear model post-rift thermal subsidence is asymmet ric and not centred upon the rift aris, Coward (1986) suggested a variation of the pure shear model with heteroge- neous extension of the crust and lithospheric mantle (Fig. 1.4.8) To many intracontinental rift basins such as the North Sea the subsidence histories and structural architecture ap- pearsto bebest explained by apure shear model of lithospheric extension. Many passive margins and particularly conjugate passive margins (e.g. Grand Banks - Galicia Atlantic mar- gins) appear to have an asymmetry that favours simpleshear ‘ordelamination model forextension. The conjuagte margins ofthe Red Sea forexample Fig. 14.5) mightsuggestasimple shear model for the extension. Examples of these systems will be shown. Post- rift phase coal 3 4) 2 wot compat Rt . 2 oped Magmatisr oat rarorcon sin SRE : SeeZ |] see i California ‘ North America Figure 1.42, Evolution if systems through to pasive margins 26STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IY SEDIN"NTARY BASINS WERNICKE MODEL - SIMPLE SHEAR OF THE ENTIRE LITHOSPHERE LIMIT OF SIGNIFICANT UPPER CRUSTAL EXTENSION erat ‘Thnnest Diserepant oho, Topograpne Sraiaeey coat" Sse Wise ar Proximal Distal Km | erat 504 SSears Km 80 80 oe =| 60 Translithospherle. 120 ‘shear system m0 ram ZoNee [og or eg + ye? Beet bee et zone zones (Redrawn trom Wernicke, 1985) Figure 143, “Wemicke model of ranslthosphere see simple shear (rom Wemnike 1985), HETEROGENEOUS THINNING OF THE LITHOSPHERE <— OUTER ZONE ——>| << INNER ZONE >| Faults propagate away from rift EXTRA THINNING IN LOWER CRUST ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY THERMAL SUBSIDENCE (Redrawn trom Coward, 1986) Figure Lost. Heterogencous extension model (after Coward, 1986) 27‘STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS sosgges pasate veo wth svesteima wieder soesneteen Uuojewio4 wenieg out Jo sonseIg tsns9 yewaunvog vievuy vas aay vigomt3 aN mS aay Nolwnuts avoANasaua’D spemberens ney ents ener-a Kal wawav oun aNZ09ITO ¥3m01-'¥ WAS GaY FHL AO NOILLNTOAS AHL HOS TAGOW YV3SHS ATdINIS 28STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IW SEDIMENTARY BAst* Ad Classification of Extensional Faults A [GROUP [elements Romie | Faun Geomany Non-Rotational] None Planar Geometric classifications of extensional fault systems Beds, Liste have been proposed by Wernicke and Burchfiel (1982) and Rotational + Gis (1984). In a broad sense two basic categories of Sods and Faults | Planar or Liste extensional faults are found - planar extensional faults and listric extensional faults. In the planar extensional fault system both rotational and non-rotational faults occur, but such a system may 8 NonRetatona Pinar generate severe space problems atthe basal detachments. In rein ‘contrast, the listric fault system also produces rotation of the strata ut less severe space problemson the basal detachment. In both of these classifications, faults were assumed (0 nucleate and propagate into the footwail of the extensional system with the younger faults rotating the older Faults in their hhangingwalls. Experimental and field studies (McClay and Ellis, 1987) have shown however that the faulting in extensional systems is far more complex with significant hucleation and propagation into the hangingwail above the detachment. These aspects are discussed in detail in Section 1s. © ovations Pinar The 2-D geometric classification follows that of Dp Rotational ste ‘Wericke and Burchfiel (1982) and of Gibbs (1984) (Fig. 6). 7 Extensional faults may be described in terms of the effects that they have on beds and upon other faults (Fig. 1.4.68). Planar Extensional Faults Planar extensional faults fall into to categories: 1), Non Rotational Faults (Fig, 1.4.66) 2), Rotational Planar Faults -Dornino Model ig. 14.6). Figure 1.46, Clasification of extensional Sis Listric Extensional Faults Listric extension faults occur either as isolated faults that sole out into a basal detachment (Fig. 6d) or occur as linked CRESTAL COLLAPSE TRANSLATED imbricate systems. AOLL-ovER GHABEN ‘BLOCK Tl ee Listric fault systems are characterised by a roll-over ant cline geometry with acrestal collapse graben that accommo- dates the arc stretching generated by the curved fault plane (Fig. 1.4.7). Studies of the extension fault systems in the Basin and Range in the western USA have shown that in this, PRERIFT > terrane both listric and planar extension faults occur, com- § monly with a system of domino style planar faults above a ‘istic detachment, ANTITHETIC GRASEN FAULT WARKS BOUNDARY setwWeen SuBSDENCE “AND TRANSLATION Figure 1.47, Charcteristichangingwall geometry of simple ita 29STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION LY SEDIMENTARY BASINS 14.5. Complex Extensional Fault Geometries Extensional fault systems may have geometries otherthan the simple planar and listric forms described above. These are shown in Figure 8. Planar Rotational Faulting - Rigid Dominoes This geometry (Fig. 1.4.84) involves both extension and rotation with the faults operating together, The main problem with this style of faulting is what happens at depth? Signoidal Rotational Faulting - Soft Dontinoes This geometry (Fig, 1.4,3b) is found where domino style fault blocks undergo intemal deformation as extension pro- ceeds such that both the faut blocks ané the faults become deformed. The faults adopt a sigmoidal geometry with the bedding - fault cucof angle changing a depth and with ime, Planar Detachment Fauising ‘This geometry (Fig. 14.8) is found where a planar fault soles out into a basal decollement horizon giving rise to 2 planar roll-over and crestal collapse structure Kinked Planar Detachment Faulting This geometry (Fig. 1-4.8d)is found whereakinked planar faultsolesoutintoabasal decollementhorizon. & planar roll- over with tvo crests collapse structures are developed. Listrie Faulting - Concave Upwards This geometry (Fig. 1.4.8e) is found where a concave upwards lstric fault soles out into abasal decollentent hori- zon giving rise (o a roll-over anticline and crestal cotlapse structure, The amount of rotation ofthe roll-over structure is a function of the steepness of the concave-up listri¢ fault Listric Faulting - Convex Upwards This geometry (Fig. 1.4.81) is found where a convex upwards listric fault soles out into a basal decollement hori- zon. This produces a hangingwall syncline adjacent to the ‘main fault with an associated crestal collapse graben. A coll- cover anticline isnot produced. Listric Faulting - Ramp/Flar Trajectories This geometry (Fig. 14.82) produces a complex hangingwalt architecture of an upper roll-over anticline with associated crestal collapse structure, a hangingwall syncline and a lower roll-over and associated crestal collapse graben. ‘Thecomplexity ofthe hangingwall structures is controlled by the size and slope of the ramp in the listric fault profile 30 PLANAR ROTATIONAL -FIGIO DOMINOES e. t ‘SiaMoIDAL - SOFT DOMINOES INKED PLANAR DETACHMENT LUSTAIC ROTATIONAL - CONCAVE UPWARDS LUSTRIC ROTATIONAL - CONVEX‘UPWAROS LSTRIC RAMPFLAT Figure 148, 2D extensional fault geometries,STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IY SEDIMENTARY BASINS Metres ° ——— DOMINO FAULT SYSTEM !N CENOZOIC SEDIMENTS, NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT ZONE, KURSUNLU, TURKEY (From a phatograph by P.L. Hancock) Figure 1.49, Complex convex-opward domino style faults, Turkey. (GHAR LAP Secrion oF THE MGLax FAULY SYSTEM. MALTA, VIEW OF Wat CRELSAgS tne Syerens ano Phas HONE REFRACTION LOOKING WH Figure 1.480. Kinked planar fault ia limestones, Malta. The ful steepens downwards duet fault plne reaction nto a more competent unit. The change in fault plane cp is 15°. Many ofthese complex fault shapes can be observed both Other more complex fault shapes may be found including in outcrop and on seismic secsions. [tis particularly impor- _steepening downwards kinks where fault planesreftactthrough tant to note that fault surfaces and fault blocks may be more competent beds (Fig. 1.4.10). deformed during extension and that the fault to bedding cut off angles may change during deformation. An example of convex upwards 1 sigmoidal domino style faults is showa in Figure 1.4.9, 3STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS Shallow Counter Fen 2 3 a ‘Antithetic Fault the developmentoFantihetic Horgotall Faults or "Fan Hanging Wal > <9 ‘counter or Antthatic Synthete Fouts) Figure 1.412. Development of ls fn systems (Tom Gibbs 1988). 1.4.6 Linked Listric Fault Systems Gibbs (1984) has further modified the listric fault classi- fication to consider the linked extensional equivalents of Use Fan ce Hanging Wat arShorcat Fault ‘exensional Duplex Figure 14.13. Evolutionary mode! ferthedeveloprnentofaramp/atlistric fault mode (feom Gibbs 1988), contractional duplex and imbricate fan systems (Figs 1.4.11 = 1.4.13), These conceptual models incorporate similar geometries to those found in thrust systems (e.g. Dahlstrom 1970). Note the development of ‘riders’ in the footwall of a listric fault system and the development of extensional uplexes (Fig. 1.4.11). Antthetic faults and counter fan structures are characteristic of listric systems with roll-over geometries (Figs 1.4.12 & 1.4.13). In all ofthese cases the fault nucleation and propagation sequence is assumed to be into the footwall of the fault system. For lisric systems with ramp - flat geometries complex deformation patteris could result with accommodation folds and faults formed as the hangingwall plate moves over the inegular fault surface. Experimental studies and field based research have, how- ever, have clearly demonstrated that many listric fault sys- tems exhibit propagation of faultsinto the hangingwall above 1 major detachment in response to the strains developed above the principal listric fault. Sucha geometry has signifi- cant implications inthe interpretation of fault sequences and hence in section balancing and restoration. These aspects are illustrated in detail in Section 1.5. 32BASAL SHEAR ZONE) DUCTILE STRETCHING) Figure 1.4.4. asin ond Range model of ted foul blocks that sole out ino the bite: plastic transition (modified from Lister and Davis, 1989), 1.4,7 Fault shapes and fault reconstructions ‘An important consideration in analysing extensional fault systems is that of the fault shape and in particular projecting the fault plane to depth. Fault trajectory prediction may be achieved by using the shape of the rollover anticline and the heave of the fault. Gibbs (1983, 1984) has widely used the Chevron construction to recontruct fault trajectories - this assumes that the hangingwail to the extensional fault col- lapses by simple shear along vertical segments vertical shear model. Whiteet l-(1986) argue that vertical shears geologi- cally and mechanically unrealistic and they favour an in- clined shear model - ie. the hangingwall deforms by Cou- Jom failure. In the examples they use the fault trajectories are more closely predicted using an inclined shear rather than vertical shear model. Deformation mechanisms for hhangingwall collapse above planar and listrc extensional faults will be discussed in detail in Section 1.5. 1.4.8 Fault trajectories and cut-off angles Unlike contractional systems. extensionalsystems exhibit awide range of fault trajectories and fault cut-off angles (e.g. Fig, 1.4.8). Planar faults have uajectories that mustterminate ina ductile extension zone that allows accommodation of the extension by heterogeneous strain, In the Basin and Range some high level planar faults terminate in a listric ductile detachment (e.g. Fig. 1.4.14). Positive listric faults are concave upwards and sole out downwards in a bedding plane slide zone e.g. salt or overpressured shales. Negative listic faultsareconvex upwards and displacementdiesoutupwards towards the faulttip line, Listic faults that exhibit acomplex ramp-flat geometry have trajectories that are controlled by Guctile horizons (salt or overpressured shales in the upper crust) and zones of ductile extension in the lower crust. 1.4.9 Extensional Fault Displacements and Fault Geometries Considerable recent research has focussed upon the dis- placement fields around individual faults andin particular the amount of footwall uplift. Bamet et al. (1987) describe the idealised displacement field of an isolated elastic medium in terms of an ellipsoidal displacement volume (Fig. 1.4-13). ‘This shows hangingwall drag and footwall uplift. Natural fault systems clearly show these relationships - e.g. Figure 14.16 shows the displacement field associated with the 3STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IY SEDIMENTARY BASINS IDEALISED NORMAL FAULT A Strike Projection B Cross-Section Line of ross section ow ls ts la (ro ‘ Length (L) tm ena C» | me mth C8 (after Barnett et al., 1987) Figure 14.18, [dealised normal ful displacement shown in fault plane section and in eros-setion (ater Bares ea, 1987), 1 Observed Landers earthquake USA. The 3D displacement volume is = Mode shown in Figure 1.4.17. ‘ithe 3D aspects ofthese fault models are considered then alinkedsystem of domino blocks wll undergo footwalt uplift with erosion of the fault crests (Fig. 1.4.18)-a feature typical of many young intracontinental rift systems such as the East African rifts or the Gulf of Suez. The pattern of footwali uplift ‘on system of individual extensional faults will have song Distance perpendicular to fault (km) controls on drainage systems and depocentres (Fig. 1.4.9). . ‘These aspects are discussed in more detail in Section 1.6. Range change (mm) Figure 1416, Crosssectional eathquake displacement across the Landes faa (om Massonnet eta, 1993), Tigare 1.417. Map ofthe displacement field around the Landes eanhquake, USA (from Massonnet eo. (993) 34STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMENTARY BASINS -ve displacement HANGINGWALL DIP SLOPE FULCRUM (ZERO DISPLACEMENT) HANGINGWALL Y & » & +ve displacement FOOTWALL SCARP FOOTWALL Figure 14.18, Domino styl extensional fuk systems wth otion and footwall uplift Autention ahs also been focussed upon the along strike relationships of fault displacement and fault length and faule growth relationships by Walsh and Watterson (1987) and Cowie and Scholtz (1992), Single fault displacement - length relationships +The maximum amount of displacement (d) on a fault is proportional to the length (L) of the fault (Fig. 1.4.20a), according to a power law relationship of the type d OtLa. If the displacement-length relationship is linear, then n = 1 Depending on how the displacement data is obtained, ob- served displacement might not correspond to maximum displacement (Fig. |-4.20a), HEBGEN / RED CANYON FAULT BLOCKS \ ames aes 7 odepiacimert contour nest gradient ines © L419. Mapofthe Hebgen- Red Canyon fault systems showing the 3D displocement field + However, some workers have argued for relationships where a > I, with n typically corresponding to 1.5 of 2.0, Thus, dL! or d cL? + The relationship between displacement and lenzthis also believed to be dependent on the mechanical properties of the faulted rocks. * This modifies the relationship to d = L/P or d = where P is a variable related to rock properties. 2, + These two interpretations differ in more than inthe value ofthe two exponents. The value of ninthed vs L relationship deseribe the change in fault geometry with growth. + Geometrical characteristics of faults which are influ- enced by the value of the exponent are displacement profiles (on fault surfaces, depth contour patterns and spacings for faulted horizons, and displacement distributions on surfaces of single faults. + In addition, to better understand displacement-length relationships displacement-dimension data sets from faults from a wide range of scales are necessary, in order to overcome additional variables like different rock properties. + According to Cowie & Scholz (1992) the ratio of dis- placement to faut length (W/L. represented by the parameter +) determines the magnitude ofthe finite stress concentration atthe ends of faults. Faults with lenghts of more than { kin appear to have higher values of y than shorter faults (Fig 1.4.208).i [b] = — (i) 4 — = (ii) #1. (Redrawn from Cowie and Scholz, 1992) fal Displacement contours Perimeter of fault surface A, Schematic diagram of contoured displacement distribution on a fault plane surface. [b] Two displacement profiles across the fault surface shown in [a]. Note the different displacement profiles and consequently, different d/L ratios for the same fault. 10°10°10710'10° 10° 10° 10° 10° Fault length, L (km) B. Log-log plots of compiled data for maximum displacement and lenght data from. The shaded areas indicate the different regions of Y of small faults (L< 10 km) and large faults (L> 10 km). Fault data from: (1) Elliot (1976); (2) Muraoka & Kamata (1983); (3) Walsh & Watterson (1987); (4) Peacock & Sanderson (1991); (5) Peacock (1991); (6) Opheim & Gudmundsson (1989); (7) MacMillan (1975); (8) Villemin et al. (in press); (9) Krantz (1988). Figure 1.4.20, Displacement fal lenght relationships for isolated non inked extensional aus 36STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IN SEDIMENTARY B:SINS 14.10 Summary Extensional fault systems occur ina wide variety of tectonic settings and display a wide variety of geometries. For large scale and significant extension two main fault styles are found - planar domino faults and listric faults. These may occur in isolation or in linked systems. Fundamental References for Extensional Fault Systems Allmendinger, R.W., J. W-Sharp, D. Von Tish, L Sherpa... Brown. ‘Kaulman, J. Oliver and R.B. Smith, 1983. Genozote and Mesozoic "tocar ofthe eastern Basin and Range province. Utah rom COCORP seismic election data: Geology 1, 332536. Allmendinger, R. WT. A. Hauge, EC. Hauser, C.J. Potter SL ‘Klemperer, K. D. Neisoa, P. Knuepfer and J Olver, 1987a. Over view of the COCORP 40°N Transect weser Unied States: The fabric fof an orogenic belt: Geol Soc of Am. Bul, 98, 308-318, Allmendinger, R. WT. A. Hauge, EC. Hauser, C. J. Potter and J. Otiver,1987b. Tectonic heredity andthe layered lower crastinthe Basin and Range Province, western United Sats: x_Coward, M. P.J-F. Dewey, and P, L. Hancockeds., Continental Exensional Tecioncs Geologieal Society of London Special Publication 28, p. 223-236. Angeli, J and Colletta, B 1983, Tensional fractures and extensional tectonics. Naru, 301, p 49-51 ‘Axea, GA. 1988. The geometry of glnar domino style normal faults above ‘dipping basal detachment. J, Siracura! Geology 1, 805 - Bally, A.W, 1981. lanictype margins. fo: Geology of passivecontnen- ‘al margins. History. scare and sedimenologie recoré, AAPG. ‘Education courze note series #19. - USS Dally, A.W, Beraouli,D., Davis, G.A.,and Montadert, 1981, Lise normal fauks. Oceanofogica Acta, 264 Inerational Geological Con res, Pais, 1980, p 7-10 Barnett J.A.Mu-Mortimer,J.Rippon, JL, Walsh.JJ-and Watterson, 1. 1989._Displacement Geomery in the Volume Containing 2 Single Nocmal Fault Bul. .A.P.G. 71,998 -937 arr, Dy 1987. Lithosphere suetchins, detached normal faulting and footwaluplit: in Coward, M'P. J. Dewey. and. L, Hancock. es. Contnentl Estensional Tectonics: Geological Society of London Spe cal Publication 28, p. 75-93, Beach, A 1984, Stvetural evlutionof he Witch Ground Graben JL. geo ‘oe. Lond. 14 p 621-828, each, A 1986. A deep reflection profile across the other Nomh Sea: ature, 323, 83°88. Beach A.,T. Bird. and A. Gibbs, 1987, Extensional tectonics and erstal ‘suture: deep seismic reflection data from the nomen North Sea Viking graben: in Coward, M. PJ. Dewey. and PL Hancock. cds. Continental Extencional Tectonics: Geological Society of London Spe al Publication 28, 467-476, LDosworth, WV. 1985a, Diseussion onthe structural evolution ofexensional ‘sin margins J. ger, Soe, Lond, 142, 939-982 Bosworth, W.1988b. Geometry of propagating At: Nuure 316, . 625. 27, Bruce, CHL, 1973. Pressured shale and related sediment deformation - ‘Mechanismstordevelopmentof regional contemporaneous faults AAPG, Bull, $7, 876-486, Brumbaugh. DS., 1984, Compressive sins generated by normal fol ing. Genings, 12, 491-194 Brua,J.P.,and Chowkroune, P, 1983. Normal auitng. block ng and decollement ina stretched ert Tecinncs, 2, M8386. (Cheadle, M.J. McGeary, S», Warner, M.R-and Mattnews.D.EL, 1987. Exensinalsrotures on the western UK continental she review of| evidence fromdeep seismic profiling: in Coward. M.P..F Dewey.and P. L. Hancock, els, Continental Extensional Tectonics: Geolagieal Society of London Special Publication 38, 415.166, (eos, 1955, Experimenta analyse ‘Amt ¥ 6, 9241-286 (Coos E1968, Experimental analysis of Gulf coast facture pattems, ull ‘Am Atso, Bet Grol. 52, 120-834 loos, H., 1931, Zur expevimencllen Tectonic, Bruch und Falten ‘anunsietenschfien 9.2 (Coos, H. 1939. Hebung, Spaltng, Vuleanisinus. Geo. Rundsch, 30, “105-537, Coney, P. Jn, 1987. The epinal tectonic sting and prsible causes of| (Cenozoic extension ofthe North Amicon Cordillera! n Coward M.. JF. Dewey. and PL. Hancock. ed. Continental Etensona Teciics Geological Society of London Special Pubication 28 177-186 Coward, MP. 1986, Heterogeneous sietching. simple shear and basin evelopment: Earth and Plan Set. Let, 80.335 336 CCrans, Wa Mandl, G., and Haremboure, T. 1980. On the theory of| rowth faulting: a geomechanical deta mode, based on gravity siding I Patrol eo... 139 Davis, G. H, 1987. A shear zone model forthe structural evolution of "metamorphic core complexesin souheasterArigonan Coward Mt. [LF Dewey. and. L Hancock, eds. Continental Eentiona Tectonics, Geological Society of London Specil Publication 28, 247-266 Davison. 11986, Liseie normal fault profiles: calculation using bed length balance and fault displacement JU. Siac, got, 8, 209-210 Denis J.G. and Kelly, U.C..1980. Anitheticandhomothetc faut, Gel, dec, 9, 186-193, ‘imo. and Pinezich, A.C. 1981, Teniary structural development of selected valleys based on seismic daa, Basin and Range province onbesstern Nevada, Phil Trans Roy: Soe. of Lond, Ser, 30, 435 40, Ellenor, DLW. and James, DMD. 1984. The ol and gos resources of Brunei, in: James. D.NLD 0d, The geology and hydrocarbon resources of Negara Brunel, Darussalam, Mazium Brute, 1, Elis, PAG. and MeClay, K-R. 1988. istic extensional fault system « ‘sults of analogue model experiments J. Basin Research, , $510. Blmohandes, S.., 1981. The central European graben system: eifing instated by clay modelling. In les, Hed, Mechanisms of graben Jermation Tectonophysics, 73, 6-78 Evamy, B.D, Haremboure, J» Kammerling, P. Kaaap, W.A, Molloy, F.A., Rowlands, PAH, 1978, Hydrocarbon habitat of Teniary Niger dela, AAPG Bul, 62,13. Faugere, E., and Brun, JP, 1984. Moleision experimentale de Ia distention cominentale. CR Acad, Se. Pars, 29, Set. , 365-370 Freeth,.J1and K.O.Ladipo, 1986. The developmentand restoration of syn-sedimetary fouls: Earth and Planetary Seience Levers, 8, 4t1- ats, Gans, PB. Miler, EL McCarthy, Ju and Ouldeott, ML. 1988. "Teniaryextensional faulting andevelving dutle-bitl ronson zones in the northern Snake Range and vicinity: New insights from seismic data: Geolngy, 13, 189-193, Gitbs, A.D, 1983, Balanced cross-section constuction fom seismic ‘sections in areas of extensional tectonic. J. Siucr. geo, §. 153-160, Gibbs, A.D, 198da. Strctzal evolution of extensional basin mares 20. Soe. Lond, 141, 609-620, Gibbs, A.D. 1984. Clyde fed growth alt, secondary detachment bove ‘basement faults inthe North Sea, AAPG Bull, 68, 1029-1039 Gross, W.wV.,and Hillemever, FL 1982. Geomatce analysis of upper- plate fault pattems inthe Whippie-Buckskin detachment terrane, Cali fornia and Arizona. In: Frost. £.G.and Manin, D.L, ed. Mesozoic: Cenoroie tectonic evolution of the Colorado River Region, California, Arizona, and Nevnds, (Anderson-Hlamilton volume). San Diego, Conileran Publishers, 6089 Hamblin WK. 1965. Origin of evese dragon the downthrown side of rom fue. Geo Soe. Am. Bul 76, (1451164, Harailton, W., 1987. Crustal extension i the Basin and Range Province outhwestem United States in Coward M. PJ. F. Dewey, and P. Hancock, eds, Continental Extensional Teconis: Geological Society af London Special Publication No. 28, p 155176 Harding. Py and Lowell, D. 1979. Strveural styles. thi plate tectonic habit, and hydrocarbon waps in petoleum provinces! Am. Assoc Pet Geol, Bull, 63. 1016-1058, Horsfclé, W.T, 1977. An experimental approach to basement conrlled auling, Geol en Minow. $6, 363-370. Horsfeld, W-1. 1980, Contemporaneocs movement along crossing con ugate normal fuk Il. Stuer. geo. 2 308:310 ture paterns. Bul. Geo. Soe 37STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION IY SEDIMENTARY BASINS Jackson. J. A. 1987._ Active nonral faulting and crustal extension ia Conard, M. Pt. F Dewey. and P.-L. Hancock. eds. Continental Eventi Teconcs: Geologital Socty of London Special Publica ion 38.318, Jacko. J. AvRing, Gx and Vita-Finai, C. 1982, The neoteconies ofthe Aegean an alternative view Earth ad Plan, Set Let 61, 303-318, Jackson, J. A. and MeKenae, D. 1983, Tae geometrical evolution of norma ale vate. J Sint. eo, 3, 4T1-AB2 Jackson, Jad White, No Garfunkel, Zand Anderson, H. 1988, Relations besweenrarmal fault geometry ikng and viel motions in extensional feains: an etample font the southern Gulf of Suez Sirnewre Geology. 10.158 Joha.B.E. 1987, Geometry anuevoluivaofamié-crustalextensiona fault ‘sistem: Chernehuevi Mounsins southeasrn California: a Coward ALP. 1, Dewey, and P. L. Hancock, eds. Couinenal Exensional Tevtonct: Geological Society of Londen Special Pubcation 28.313 ‘Kautz, S.A. and Slater J.G. 1988, lateral Deformation in Clay Mosels ‘of Extension by Block Faulting. Tectonct,7, 23 = 832 Krantz, RAW, 1988, Sultple Foul Sets and Three- Dimensional Stain “Theory and Application. J. Sacral Genugy, 10,225 237 Lister GS. Etheridge. M.A. and Symonds, B.A 1986. Detachment Faking an the evolution of passive continental margins: Geol. 216-230, Longuell,C. R LOS. Low angle normal fal inthe Basin nd Range province. Trius. dm. ceophs. Un 26 107-118, MeClay, KR, 1990. Extensional fault systems in sedimentary basins. & ‘view of analogue model studies, Marine nd Perroleum Geology. 7, 506-233, MeckiP., 1972. Structural geology of the Cenozoic Niger delta. Ia: 4frenn “TS. and Waiteran, A. e88.)1972. badan Morley, C.K. 1988, Variable Extension in Lake Tanganyika. Tectonics, 7, 785-808 ‘Muraoka, H. and Kamata, 1, 1983, Displacement distrbution along tine fault aces, JE Sieh. ger §, 483-196. Murrits G-E- 1960. Geologic framework of Gulf Coastal Province ofthe United Sates. Recent sediments, nowhwest Gull of Mexico. APC pico. Myers, W.B,.and Hamilton, W., 1964, Deformation accompanying the Hebgen Cake earthquake of August 17, 1959. US. geo. Sure: Prof Paper $38, $5938, Ocamb, R.D. 1961. Growth faults of South Lousiana: Gulf Contr Asoc fe. Soe, Trant . 139-175, erie. Gu 1962._ Stes, srain and facture in clay models of geologic ‘sformacion, Gevvines 6. 26-31 Ocrieh G. 1965. The mechanism of faulting in clay expetiment Tecronoplysics 2, 33393. Peacock, D.C. and Sanderson. D.J. 1991. Displacement, sxment Tinkage and clay ramps in normal fall zones, Journ of Sir ture Geology. 13, 721-734 otiger, E1935, Experiments in soft rock deformation ti tte. Pe, Geol, Bull 19.271-292. ‘Rickard, MJ, 1972, Fault elasiieaton: Discussion, Bul. eo Soe vm. 83. 25453546, Rider, MHL. 1978. Growth fala inihe Carboniferous of Westem lela, ‘APG Bull, 62, 2191-2213 Rison, L. K. 1978. Clay modelling ofthe Fizroy Graten: BR J of ‘Australian Geol and Geophs, 3-71-76 Rosendahl RR, Reyaolds Di Lorber P.M, Burgess C.F. MeGil Ju ‘Scott D., Lambiate JJ. Derksen S.J, 1986, Stsctaral espresions iting: lessons from Lake Tanganyika, ica In: rosick LE. (Ede), Sedimentation in the African Rif, Geol. Soe. Lond. Spee Publ 25, 29-43. Rous, W. F. Jr 197. The developmencof growth faut siructures. AAPG, Sirutural geology schon corse notes 3p. ‘Sheton, JW. 1984, Lise aorta UKs. Ae lactated summary. AAPG Bull. 68, p. 801-815. ‘Smith, thyand Brun, RL 1984 Inaplat extensional etonis ofthe easter Basin-Range: nftencesonstrstural style from semi relee tion data, regional tectones. and thermal mechanical models of Orit

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