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PYRE

C5
266
Acids, bases and salts
This chapter covers:

Common acids theircharacteristics, where and the acid-base properties of non-metal oxides and metaloxides

how they occur neutral and amphoteric oxides

the pH scale and indicators the ions present in acid and alkali solutions

the colour changes of useful indicators acids and alkalis in the analysis ofsalts
the characteristic reactions of acids the preparation of soluble salts by various methods,
the treatment of acid soiis and waste water treatment including tifratien
the choico of the method for preparing a particularsat
proton (H') transfer in aqueous solutions
alkalis the prepa1ati3t oi insoluble salts by precipitation.
t h e characteristic properties of bases and

But taste is no. à test that should be tried - someacids

C5.01 What is an acid? would be dangerous, even deadly, to taste!
The major acids Anumber of acids are also corrosive. They can eat their way
to substances with are
The word acid was originally applied through clothing, are dangerous on the skin, and some
and
Vinegar, lemon juice, grapetruit juice
acus
a 'sour' taste. able to attack stonework and metals. These powertul
C50
spoilt milk are all sour tasting because of the presence are often called mineral acids (Table C5.01). Table

present in animal occur

of acids (Image C5.01). These acids are also gives us some idea of how commonly acids

and plant material and are known as organic acids The easiest way to detect whether a solution is aciaic
(Table C5.01). or not is to use an indicator. Indicators are substance
into an acid or alkal
Carbonic acid from carbon dioxide dissolved in water is thatchange colour it they
are puti and
Solution. Two commonly used indicators are litmusa
presentin Coca Cola", Pepsi and other fizzy drinks. The
circumstances are weak and dilute. methyl orange
acids present in these
 CS: Acids, bases and salts
salts

Litmusis purple in neutral

an acidic solution When added to
solution, it turns red
heeds a
chemical reaction ThoThis colour change of litmus
are
actually changed in the moler ules of the indicator
Substances wilth the opposite presence of the acid
are
needed to reverse chemical effect to acids
alkalis. They turn the change, and these
litmus solution blue You are called
itmus paper. This is can also use
paper that has been soaked in
solution. It comes in litrmus
blue and red forms. The
litmus paper blue form of
changes
Solutions. Red litmus
colour to red when
dipped into acid
Note that litmus paper turns blue in alkali solutions.
just gives a single colour
change.
TIP
It may seem
simple to remember the colour
litmus shows in acid and change that
alkali, but it is important. This
simple visual memory aid may help
you to remember:
n C5.01 Citrus fruits have a sour or sharp taste
conta in acids. e
Mcause they
acid base
Whatare indicators?

fetain coloured substances (many extracted from

santsl have been found to change colour if added to an e 267
gdsolution. This colour change is reversed if the acid is The presence of water is
very important in the action of acids
r20elled out' or neutralised. Substances that do this are and alkalis. One
practical consequence of this is that, when
we use litmus
inpwn as indicators. Coloured extracts can be made from paper to test gases, it must always be damp.
The gas needs to dissolve in the moisture to bring about the
ed cabbage or blackberries, but probably the most used colour change. This is
ndcator historically is litmus. This is extracted from lichens. important in your practical work.

ype Name
Strong or weak? Where found or used
Organic acids ethanoic acid CH,COOH weak in vinegar
methanoic acid HCOOH weak in ant and nettle stings; used in

kettle descaler
lactic acid CCH OH) weak in sour milk

COOH
Citric acid CH,O weak in lemons, oranges and other citrus truits
Mineral acids carbonic acid H,CO weak in fizzy soft drinks
hydrochloricacid HCI weak used in cleaning metal surtaces;, found as
the dilute acid in the stomach
nitric acid
HNO weak used in making tertilisers and explosivesS
sulfuric acid H,SO weak in car batteries, used in making
fertilisers, paints and detergents
phosphoric acid H,PO weak in anti-rust paint; used in
making fertilisers
aDle C5.01 Some
common acids.
 depending on the strength of the acit
Indicator Colour in Neutral Colour in acid or alkali
acid colour alkali
(Image C5.02).
see
When you
that solutions of
Universal
use

ferent acids prodIndic added

litmus red purple blue e differyou
colours. Indeed, solutions of the same aci

colouurs.with differ
thymolphthalein colourless colourless blue concentrations will also give ifferent
methyl orange Ied orange yellow idic solutions (for
The
turn
more ac
example,
Universal Indicator bright red. A batte
Table C5.02 Some common indicator colour changes.
less
(for example, vinegar) will only turn it acidic solun
Litmus is not theonly singlc indicator that chemists
lind useful Others that have becen fequently used are
There are also colour differences produced
alkali solutions. The most alkaline solutione with
orange-yellodiw,ffere
phenolphthalein and methyl or ange. They give different violet colour. tions give a
colour changes from litmus (lable C5.02). Thesecharnges
ae sometimes easier to 'see' than that of litmus.
ACTIVITY Cs.01
Litmus is not the only single indicator that chemists
find useful. Others that have been frequently used are .Extracting an indicator from red cabba
phenolphthalein and methyl orange. Phenolphthalein is no Skills: bage
longer recommended for use in school laboratories. It can A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safek
be replaced by thymolphthalein and the colour change for use techniques, apparatus and materiale
that indicator is included in Table C5.02. They give different (including followinga sequence of instructin
colour changes from litmus (Table C5.02). These where appropriate) ions
changes
are sometimes easier to 'see' than that of litmus. A03.2 Plan experiments and investigations
A03.3 Make and record rvations, measurements
and estimates
268 Universal Indicator
Dye is extracted from chopped-up red cabbage leaves
Another commonly used
indicator, Universal indicator (or (or other coloured plant material) and then tested to
full-range indicator), is a mixture of indicator dyes. The idea see the colour change when it is added to
acidic and
of a Universal Indicator mixture is to imitate the colours alkaline solutions.
of the rainbow when measuring acidity. Such an indicator A worksheet is included on the CD-ROM.
is useful because it gives a range of colours (a
'spectrum )

strongly acidic weakly acidic neutral weakly alkaline strongly alkaline

pH 2 3 4 6 7 8 10 11

red orange yellow green blue VIOlet

PYRE

Image C5.02 Howthe

colour of Universal Indicato

solutions of
changes in
different pH values.
 T h ep Hs c a l e

The
most usefu
eful measure ot the:strength of an acid
TIP
w o r k e d out by the Danish biochemist Søren
was
it's very important to remember that the 'reference point
in the laboratories of the Carlsberg
s o l u t i o n

Sørensen. Heworked when measuring pH is neutrality, pH 7 - the mid-point of

ries and
was interested
in ecking the acidity of the scale.
brew

he introduced was the pH cale. The scale

The scale As we move down from 7, the solution is getting
the following general rules apply.
b e e r

to 14, and
u n sf r a from 1 more acidic.
Moving up from pH 7, the solution is getting
more alkaline.
the pH scale
Rules for
less than 7.
Acids have a pH
more acidic a solution,
the lowerthe pH.
The
have a pH of 7.
Neutral substances, such pure water,
as ACTIVITY Cs.02
7.
Alkalis have a pH greater than
Rainbowfizz!
Skills:
be measured in several ways. A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely
The pH of a solutionncan
Indicator papers that are sensitive over
the use techniques, apparatus and materials
Universal
be used. Alternatively, if the (including followinga sequence ofinstructions
fullrange of values can where appropriate)
value is known, then we can usea
approximate pH measurements
that is sensitive over a narrow A03.3 Make and record observations,
more accurate test paper
and estimates
accurate method is to use a pH meter
range. The most
which uses an electrode to measure pH This activity creates a Universal Indicator pH scale in
(Image C5.03), test-tube rack containing the
solutions are a boiling tube. Set up a
electrically. The pH values of some common

shown in Table C5.03.

following:
of
Tube A: a boiling tube containing half a spatula
sodium hydrogencarbonate
Tube B a test tube containing 5 cm' of distilled water

Tube C: a test tube containing 0.5 cm' of Universal

Indicator solution

Tube D: a test tube containing 5 cm' of dilute

ethanoic acid
cm' of dilute
Tube E: a test tube containing 5
sulturic acid
observations at
Then follow this sequence, making caretul
each stage.
to the solid in tube A.
1 Add the water from tube B
solution from tube C to
2 Then add the indicator
tube A.
the ethanoic acid from
3 Tilt tube A. Very carefully pour Do not
down the side of the tube.
tube D into tube A
shake the tube.
sulfuric acid from tube E to tube A.
4 Finally, add the down the side of the
pour this
acid very caretully
Again,
shake the tube.
tilted tube A. Do not
on the CD-ROM.
A worksheet is included

Question observe at
colour changes you
Al Explain the
each addition.

age C5.03
pH neter for testing soil.
 C5.02 Acid and alkali soluti
Substance pH
0.0
The importance of hydrogen ions
strongly hydrochloric acid (HCI)
acidic if we look again at the chemical tormulae ot
gastric juIces
1.0
best known acids (Table C5.01), we see that some
s common to them all. They all one elema
lemon juice 2.5 contain hydrogen
if solutions of these acids are checked to
see if tha
conduct electricity, we rind that they all do. Alsothey.
3.0
Vinegar
so, they
Wine 3.5 conduct electricity much better than
distilled wate
This shows that the solutions contain ions.
tomato juice 4.1 Waterite
itselt
contains very few ions. In pure water, the concentra
black coffee 5.0 hydrogen ions (H) and rationst
hydroxide ions (OH) are eaual
5.6 acids dissolve in water to produce hydrogen
acid rain ions
Therefore all acid solutions contain more H' ions thanions
urine 6.0 OH ions. The pH scale is designed around the
fact that
acid solutions have this excess ot
rainwater 6.5 hydrogen ions. The term
weakly DH is taken from the German potenz
acidic milk 6.5 Hiydrogen), meani
the power ot the hydrogen ion concentration of
a solutin
NEUTRAL pure water, sugar solution 7,0 Alkali solutions also conduct electricity better
than
weakly blood distilled water All alkalis dssOlve in water to produce
alkaline hydroxide ons 1OF o n retore, all alkali solutons
baking soda solution 8.5 Contain an excess ot OH An ind cator, lke

toothpaste itmus i aft 1oythe nce ot H' or OH ions

70
Figure5
borax solution
Milk of Magnesia 105 ons (H)
in acid solutions make
limewater
ons (OH) in alkali solutions male
householdammona
strongly
alkaline sodium hydroxide (NaOH

Table C5.03 The pH values of some common

solution aurw3ter PH OH

QUESTIONS
DACId iolution H OM
C5.01 What do wr uunderstand by the word corrosive

C5.02 Which
apresent in orange or lemon juice?
C5.03 sasolutio dic,alkaline or neutral
ifitsptis pFt TOwer
a 8 d 3 an ifiu
(ure
C5.04 Methyl orangesan ndicator. What does
AI u
this mean? pPH highe
tha mus
C5.05 Which solution is mo e acidic: one with a pHof 4,
tuii lue
or one withapH of 17
C5.06 What colour is Universal indicator in a

sugar solution?
C5.07 What acid is present in vinegar S and
Figure C5.01 pH and the balance of hydrogeniou
hydroxide ions in solution
 s o m e important
i acid and alkali
in
in
present
p r e s e n t

C5.04
QUESTIONs
1ons in lable
The
are given
calytions
SOl C5.08 Which element do all acids contain?
lons present C5.09 Which ion is in excess in an alkali solution?
Name
hydrochloric acid H*(aq) and Cl (aq) C5.10 VWhich ions are present in:
ACIas

nitric acid
H(aq) and NO, (aq) a calcium hydroxide solution
sulfuric acid H(aq), HSO, (aq) and b ammonia solution?

SO (ag) C5.11 What is the formula for

Na' (ag) and OH-(aq) a sulfuric acid b hydrochloric acid?
sodium hydroxide
Alkalis
and OH-(ag) C5.12 What statement can we make about the
hydroxide Kaq)
potassium concentrations of hydrogen ions and
calcium hydroxide Ca (ag) and OH (aq) hydroxide ions in water?
ammoniasolution NH, (aq) and OH (aq)

in solutions of some acids

The ions present
Table C5.04 C5.03 Metal oxides and
and alkalis.
non-metal oxides
of water
The importance Acidic and basic oxides
acid not an acid, but simply an acid-in- in size
When is an
Venus, the Earth's nearest neighbour, is identical
waiting'? Hydrochloric acid is a good example to illustrate and density to the Earth. But Venus has yielded its secrets
chloride is made up of
this problem. The gas hydrogen reluctantly,because it is veiled in clouds and has an
molecules. If the gas is dissolved in the
covalently bonded atmosphere that destroys space probes. Magellan,
as methyibenzene, it does not
an organic solvent, such latest space probe to Venus, has looked from a
distance.
271
show any of the properties ot an acid. For example, it If it went into the atmosphere, it would meet with thick
does not conduct electricity when the gas is similar to those
clouds of sulfuric acid and temperatures
dissolved in water, a strongy lution is produced. in a self-cleaning oven acid rain with a vengeance!
The acidic oxides of sulfur, o s and carbon listed The probe would not last long
inTable C5.05 are similar. The valent molecules
The sulfuric acid clouds of Venus are the product of great
dissolved in water.
when pure, but produce acids wien
volcanic activity (Image C5.04). This has thrown out huge
Ihus,in our most useful definiton of
an acid, the of water vapour and the oxides of sultur into the
amounts
characteristic properties of an acid are shown when
dissolved in water. Alkalis are also normally used in
aqueous solution. Both acids and alkalis can be used
in dilute or concentrated solutions. If a large volume ot

Water is added to a small amount of acid or alkali, then

ne solution is dilute: using less water gives a more

Concentrated solution.

KEVATERMSs
d Substance that dissolves in water to produce a solution that
turns litmus red
has pH lower than 7
a

Contains an excess of H' ionsS.

kali: a substance that
Solution that. dissolves in water to
produ e Image C5.04Image of the European Space Agency probe
turns litmus blue orbiting above the clouds of the Venus atmosphere.
has a
pH The Venus Express spacecraft was launched to study the
higher than 7 thick atmosphere responsible for the intense greenhouse
Conta an
excess of OH ions.
effect on the planet.
 ordinated Scien
ences

b
give solutions that turn
Combustion litmus paper
oxides produced in
Spoon these reactions blue. The metsl
neutralise them they are said
- react with etal
to be acide
basic oxides to
-sulfur es.
dioxide The
sulfur
characteristics of oxides
Non-metals generally form
Oxygen dissolve in water to form acidic oxides that
gas jar Metals form oxides that acidic solutions.
aresolids. If they
water, these oxides dissolve in
Figure C5.02 Burning sulfur in give alkaline
a
metal oxides solutions. These
neutralise acids and are
gas jar of
oxygen. basic oxides
planet's atmosphere. Similar
acidic
gas jar by lowering burning sulfur intoclouds can be made ina Neutral and
amphoteric
oxygen (Figure C5.02): Water can be oxides
Ss)+0,(g)-> SO,(g) pH of 7 and is
thought of as
hydrogen oxide. It has a
Other burning non-metals (carbon, for therefore a neutral
the same
to the broad
'rule' that the oxides oxide. It is an exception
way to produce acidic example) react in acidic oxides. Neutral of
non-metals are
gases: oxides do not react
acids or alkalis. There with either
When water is added
C(s)+O,(g)CO,(g) 'rule' (see
are a tew
Figure C5.03) The
other
exceptions to this
and
to the gas
jars, it dissolves the monoxide (CO), noted tor most important is carbon
gives solutions that turn blue litmus gases most being poisonous. The 'rule' that
272 paper red. non-metal oxides are acidic remains usetul
Metals burning in important, however and
of these oxygen produce solid products. Some
dissolve in water to Of more importae
litmus paper blue. You give solutions that turn red unusual behaviour ot
in the reactions might be able to work out a metal oxIdes. T some
of some pattern OxIdes react and neutralise
in Table C5.05. elements with acids,whichh wouan
oxygen, as shown neutralise aikalis. Dected. However, they also
unusual.
Turning litmus paper red shows that some he most iportarit
solutions contain acids. These of these cramples ot metals that have
solutions are the
amphoteric coTpoutnds are znc and
of burning
non-metals to produce acidic product he lact that zinc
hyaroxide and
aluminium.
Burning metals produces oxides that, if oxides are aluminium
amphoterie helps in the identification of hydroxide
they dissolve, of these metals
salts
using sodium hydroxide
Element How it reacts
Product Effect of adding water and
Non-metals | testing with litmus
sulfur burns with bright blue flame colourless gas (sulfur dioxide, SO) dissolves, turns litmus red
phosphorus burns with yellow flame white solid (phosphorus(v) oxide, PO.)dissolves, turns
Carbon glows red litmus reu
colourless gas (carbon dioxide, dissolves slightly, slowly turns
CO,)
Metals litmus red

sodium burns with yellow flame

white solid (sodium oxide, Na O) dissolves, turns litmus blue
magneSium burns With bright white flame white solid
(magnesiumOXide, MgO) dissolves slightly, turns litmusD0E
calcium burns with red flame white solid (calcium oxide, Ca0) dissolves, turns litmus blue
iron burns with yellow sparks blue-black solid (iron oxide, FeO) insoluble
Copper does not burn, turns black black solid (copper oxide,
CuO) insoluble
Table C5.05 The reactions of certain elements with
oxygen.
itmus paper blue. The udroxide solution is added to a solution of a salt
reactions react metal ifsodiumhydr
e
with acids these metals, a hite precipitate of the metal QUESTIONS
re said to bebasic oxides
O ofeither

formed. For example:

vdroxide is C5.13 What colour is the flame when sulfur burns?
+2NaOH(aq) .Zn(OH),(s) + 2NaCl(aq) C5.14 What colour flame is
of oxides
ZnCllag)
produced when
20H (aq) Zn(OH),(S) magnesium burns?
aly form acidic oxides that 7n"(ag)+ C5.15 Write the word equation for the reaction
o form acidic solutions. recipitate will re-dissolve if excess sodium when sulfur burns in oxygen.
wever, i
that are solids. It they droxide is added, because zinc hydrox is
amphoteric: C5.16 What is the chemical equation for the reaction in
s give alkalines dissolveinir question C5.15?
solutions. These hydroxide
+ sodium hydroxide
C5.17
alise acids and are basic oxides
zinc
> sodium zincate +water
Write the word equation for magnesium
burning in air.
Zn(OH),(S) +2NaOH(aq)Na,ZnO,(aq) + 2H,O() C5.18 Which oxide of carbon is neutral?
oteric oxides will give similar set of reactions. This test C5.19 Name one amphoteric metal
Aluminil
salts a
hydroxide and write
aluminium salts from others, but the word and symbol equations for its reaction
as hydrogen oxide. It has
a distinguishes zinc and
with sodium hydroxide solutiorn.
Sections C5.07 and C12.01)
neutral oxide. It is an exception not from each other (see
he oxides of non-metals are
ides do not react with either Metal oxides
e a few other exceptions to this
Non-metal

oxides
C5.04 Acid reactions in
The most important is carbon
Amphoteric
everyday life
or being poisonous. The 'rule' that Oxides Soil pH and plant growth
are acidic remains usetul and e.g. Zno,
Plant growth is affected by the acidity or alkalinity of
Acidic oxides
Neutral Al,O | Basic oxides
the soil. Soils with high peat content, or with minerals
oxides e.g. Ca0, MgO,
he unusual behaviour of some eg. CO,, SO, CuO, K,O, Such as iron compounds, or with rotting vegetation and
e.g. H,o,
tal oxides react and neutralise SO NO,P0 CO, NO Na,0, FeO, lack of oxygen, tend to be acidic. Their soil pH can reach
273
SiO, etc.
Fe,0, etc.
xpected. However, they also as low as pH 4. Soils in limestone or chalky areas are
alkaline - up to pH 8.3. The soil pH is also affected by the
ISunusual. Figure C5.03 The classification of non metal and metal oxides.
use of fertilisers and the acidity of rainfall. Different plants
amples of metals that have
prefer different pH conditions (Table C5.06). Farmers and
s are zinc and aluminium.
KEY TERM gardeners can test the soil pH to see whether it suits the
xide and aluminiun hydroxide needs of particular plants.
the identification of salts amphoteric hydroxide (or amphoteric metal oxide): a
hydroxide or metal oxide that reacts with both an acid and an
odium hydroxide alkali to give a salt and water ACTIVITY C5.03

Effect of add water and ( ) Testing the pH of everyday substances

testing with linus Skills:
A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to
TIP safely
In these last use techniques, apparatus and materials
dissolves, turns litmus red reactions, the zinc hydroxide and aluminium
hydroxide precipitates re-dissolve in excess sodium induding following a sequence of instructions
dissolves, turns litmus red hydroxide because they are where appropriate)
turns amphoteric.
dissolves slightly, slowly ney are reacting as acids with the sodium hydroxide and
A03.2 Plan experiments and investigations
litmus red producing a salt and water as the products. A03.3 Make and record observations, measurements
and estimates
acid+alkali salt +water In this introductory experiment to the ideas of acids and
dissolves, turns litmusblue
turnslitmusD
Zinchydroxide+ sodium hydroxide alkalis, household and everyday products are tested for
dissolves slightly, sodium zincate (Na,ZnO,) + water their pH using Universal Indicator.
litmus blue aluminium
dissolves, turns hydroxide Sodium hydroxide
+ A worksheet is included on the CD-ROM.
insoluble sodium aluminate (NaAlO,) + water A follow-up experiment on neutralising vinegar with
Do notice how these slaked lime or powdered limestone is included on the
insoluble rather unusual salts are named.
Teacher's Resource cD-ROM.
 OTQndLEd SCieNces

Vegetables
potatoes Preferred pH range
chicory, parsley 4.5-6.0
carrot, sweet potato 5.0-6.5
caulitlower, garlic, tomato 5.5-6.5
broad bean, onion, 5.5-7.5
and many others cabbage
6.0-7.5
Table C5.06
Preferred soil pH conditions
different vegetables. for

Ifthe soil is too

acidic, it is
Lime' here is a loose usually treated by 'liming
term
calcium oxide, calcium meaning either
chalk or limestone hydroxide, powdered
or
(calcium carbonate). These
Compounds all have the effect of Image C5.06 Controled addition
acidity of the soil. If the soil is too neutralising the Sweden to neutralise the
of lime to a
stream in
to dig in some alkaline, it helps effects of
acidity
peat or decaying
Compost or manure). organic matter To reduce emissions of
sutur dioxide,
and power stations now sp many modern tactories
Some flowering acidicwaste gases with ets
plants carry their own 'built-in' pH of slaked ime n a
flue-gas desulfuriser ior 'scrubber
indicator. The flowers of a to
hydrangea bush are blue when
grown on acid soil and pink when the soil
neutral se them betore ne chimneys.
274 pHis alkaline
(Image C5.05).
QUESTION
C5.20 Ants
thanoic acid. What
hous ould be used to ease the
effeet
C5.21 Whe
Our stomachs, and
wy
C5.22
Indigestonblets ontan antacid Name two
Compounds that we use in these tablets

ACTIVITY CS.04

Comparing the effectiveness of different

antacid tablets
Image C5.05 The colour of the flowers of some Skills:
types of hydrangea depend on soil pH. Here the flowers A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely
are showing signs of the colour change between use techniques, apparatus and materias
pink and blue. (including following a sequence of instrucu
where appropriate)
r e m e n t s

A03.3 Make and record observations, measure

and estimates
Effluent and waste water treatment
AO3.4 Interpret and evaluate experimentat
Liquid waste from factories is often acidic. If such waste observations and data
mplesof
gets into a river, the acid will kill fish and other river life
Tnis activity involves titrating powdered safnp
Slaked lime is often added to the waste to neutralise it. antacid tablets with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Slaked lime is similarly used to treat streams, rivers and Aworksheet is included on the CD-ROM.
lakes aftected by acid rain (lmage C5.06)
 C5: Acids, bases and salts

Alkalis and bases

C5.05
of s u b s t a n c e are
What types
alkalis and bases?

ction C5.04 we saw thatt effects of acids could be bases (e.g. CuO, MgO,
i nS e c t i o CaO,
NaOH, Cu(OH),) all neutralise acids
neutralisedby alkalis. Alkalis are substarnces that dissolve
to give solutions
with a pH greater than 7 and turn
in water
itmus blue. The solutions contain an excess of hydroxide,

OH, 1ons.
However, among the antacids we use to relieve alkalis are soluble bases
(e.g. NaOH, KOH)
indigestion is insoluble magnesium hydroxide.
which also neutralises acids. As we investigate further,
tis fund that all metal oxides and hydroxides will
neutralise acids, whether they dissolve in water or not.
Therefore the soluble alkalis are just a small part of
a group of substances - the oxides and hydroxides of Figure C5.04 This Venn diagram shows the relationship
between bases and alkalis. All alkalis are bases, but not all
metals- that neutralise acids. Ihese substances are
bases are alkalis.
known as bases. Ihese bases all react in the same way
with acids.
The common alkalis are:

sodium hydroxide solution

EMTERA potassium hydroxide solution

base: a substance that reacts with an c to ormm a salt and calcium hydroxide solution (often known as limewater)
275
water only
ammonia solution (also known as ammonium hydroxide).

The relationship of alkalis to bases can e Summed up

TIP
ina mathematical device known as a Venn diagram
The four solutions listed above are the alkalis
Fgure C5.04). In more general terms it is sonething like
you will need to know for your course. They are the
thediference between our immediate family and our commonest, and they are likely to be the only ones
extended family. The bases are the extended tamily of you refer to.
LOmpounds. The alkalis are a particular small group within It is worth making sure that you learn their names and
that extended family. formulae! And you should do the same for the four
M
Dase will commonest acids you'll need to know: hydrochloric acid,
neutralise an acid, and in the process a
sulfuric acid, nitric acid and ethanoic acid.
Saltisformed. This type of reaction is known asd
ralisation reaction. It can be summed up in a
general equation:
These solutions contain OH ions, turn litmus blue and
acid+base- salt +water have a pH higher than 7. The first two are stronger alkalis
Mostbases are
insolu in water. This makes the tew than the others.
Dases that do
ven
dissolve in water
moresignificant. They are
a
special name alkalis.
-

Properties and uses of alkalis

and bases
Alkalis feel soapy to the skin. They convert the oils in
KEV TERM your skin into soap. They
are used as degreasing agents

because they convert oil and grease into soluble soaps,

alkali: a base that is
Used in soluble in water. Alkalis are generaly which can be washed away easily. The common uses of
laboratory as aqueous solutions. in Table C5.07.
some alkalis and bases are shown
 Where found or used
Type Name Formula Strong
or weak?
Alkalis strong in oven cleaners (degreasing agent); in mal
sodium hydroxide (causticsoda) NaOH and paper, other industrial uses ing soap
KOH strong in making soft soaps and biodiesel
potassium hydroxide
(caustic potash)
calcium hydroxide (limewater) Ca(OH) strong to neutralise soil acidity and acidic
gases nrd
by power stations, has limited solubility Oduced
NH,faq) or in cleaning fluids in the hom
ammonia solution weak
in making fertilisers
(degreasing agent)
(ammonium hydroxide) NH,OH
Bases calcium oxide CaO for neutralising soil acidity and industrial wasta
in making cement and concrete
magnesIum oxide MgO in antacid indigestion tablets

Table C5.07 Some common alkalis and bases.

The properties of bases, alkalis and antacids can be

summarised as follows.
C5.06 Characteristic reactions
of acids
Bases: The reactions of acids
neutralise acids All acids can take part in neutralisation reactions. But are
salt and water only
to give a
a r e the oxides and hydroxides of metals there any other reactions that are characteristic of all acids)
276
The answer is 'Yes. There are three major chemical reactions
are mainly insoluble in water
in which all acids wil take part. These reactions are best
Alkalis are bases that dissolve in water, and: seen using dil.te a
solutions. In these reactions,theacid
feel soapy to the skin reacts with.
turn litmus blue
a reactt example, magnesium or zinc-
give solutions with a pH greater than 7
Image
give solutions that contain OH ions.
a base t aka aneutralisation reaction
Antacids are compounds that are used to neutralise
acid indigestion and include: a metal carbonele (or metal hydrogencarbonate)
One type of product is common to all
magnesium oxide and magrnesium hydroxide thesereactions.
They all produce a metal compound called a salt. In a
sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogencarbonate
calcium carbonateand magnesium carbonate. of them, the hydrogen present in the acid is replacedoya
metal to give the salt. The acid from which the satisia
is often called the parent acid of the salt.
alt
QUESTIONSs Normally, the word 'salt' to mean 'common
we use
ou
which is sodium chloride. This is the salt we put on
sed
C5.23 Give the names of two examples of insoluble food, the main salt found in seawater, and the sait , tne
bases and two examples of alkalis. Over centuries to preserve food. However, in chemibu
C5.24 Write word and balanced symbol equations for Word has a more
the reaction between: general meaning
a sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
b potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid.
C5.25 Name the four main alkalis. KEY TERM esthe

C5.26 Which of the four alkalis in question C5.25 is salt: a compound made from an acid when a ice

only a weak alkali? place of the hydrogen in the acid

 The salt made
depends on the acid
hydrochloric acid always gives a
chloride
nitric acid
always
sulfuric acid alwaysgives nitrate
a

gives a sulfate
ethanoic acid
always gives an ethanoate

TIP
You may be
asked a
metal that will react question where you have to suggesta
with an acid to
give any of the very reactive give hydrogen. Do not
an
metals, such as calcium, as
2ge C5.07 a Magnesium ribbon and b zinc granules. answer. Your answer will be marked as
reaction is unsafe! wrong, as this
acting with hydrochloric acid giving off hydrogen

he reaction of acids with metals hydrochloric acid >inc

r s that are quite reactve not the e chioride hydrogen
atve ones. nis 2HCag inClagHg
e sections CE 01 and C8 04
droger trom an acid safe,
splace the
e of The reaction of acids with
e

at mede depeds o bases and alkalis

a and This is the neutr
alisation re action that
we saw In 277
sectionCS 05

nsate 10 11y thus rea

Cidbse>saltwate
ut es sodum or caum
he salt
produced by this reaction will again depend on
o1eaction OCCurs wth
combination of reactants used fo make a particular
he

at you choose suitable acd and base to ve a

ss reactiee 1hafi lead Even solution
the salt you want For example
yfead1of i a shor1t.me
0dhum hydroxIde r
hydrochiofic acd
S0dium chloride t water
agesiu 1tC aCd aOra HCag aClag O
allehydbgr Jhef csaiples of salts made from dferent
combinations
Mgis 21NO, aQ ot aCd and base are hown n fable C5 08

Base Salt made with..

Hydrochloric acid(HC) Nitric acid (HNO,) Sulfuric acid (H,SO,)
50dium hydroxide NaOm sodum criloride, Na odium nitrate, NaNO, sodium sulfate, Na,SO,
O.assium hydronide potas biulti Chiloride, AC pota siurn nitrate, KNO potassium sulfate, K, SO,
esium OIde Mg gesiurm chlorige, MgC nagnesiuft nitrate, MgNOmagnesium Suitate, MgSO,
Opper oxide CuO COPper Criionide, CuCl opper nitrate, Cu(NO, copper suifate, CuSO,
dle CS.08 Some
exa
examples of making salts
 A03.3 Make and record observations, meas
TIP
It's useful to realise the origins of a salt because it helps you
and estimates surements
A03.4 Interpret and evaluate experimental
predict which salt you get from a particular combination of
acid and base. The cubic crystals of sodium chloride come observations and data
from the neutralisation of hydrochloric acid with sodium A03.5 Evaluate methods and suggest possible
hydroxide solution. For example: improvements

Wear eye protection.

This activity investigates what happens to pH and
temperature as an acid reacts with an alkali

1 Measure 10 cm' of aqueous sodium hydroxide

into a beaker using a measuring cylinder.

2 Add a few drops of Universal indicator

sufficient
to produce an obvius colour.

SODIUM CHLORIDE 3 Place a thermometer in the solution and

NaCl record its temperature.

4 Use a pH chart to record the pH of the

solution.
the metal comes Irom the base the non-metallic part comes
or alkali from the acid 5 Using a plastic pipette, add 1 cm of
Sodium hydroxide in this case hydrochloric acid in this case hydrochtoric acid to the mixture

6 Stir and record trenew temperature and pH.

278 acid and again
7 Adda turin
The reaction of acids with carbonates recordhe re and pH.
All carbonates give off carbon dioxide when they react 8 Repear il a total of 20 cm> of
with acids. We have seen that this reaction occurs with
acid havi
effervescent antacid tablets. The result is to neutralise the
9 Plot a graph win ume of acid added on the
acid and produce a salt solution:
axis and temperature on the y-axis.
acid + metal carbonate> salt + water + carbon dioxidee 10 Indicate usingoiour or a bar chart how the p
changed during the experiment.
The normal method of preparing carbon dioxide in the
laboratory is based on this reaction. Dilute hydrochloric NaOH +HCI NaCl + H,O
acid is reacted with marble chips (calcium carbonate):
Estimate the volume of acid needed to
hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate neutralise the alkali. Explain how you arrived at

calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide your answer.

2HCl(aq)+CaCO,(s)->CaCl,(ag) + H,0) + CO,(g) A worksheet is included on the CD-ROM.

The Notes on activities for teachers/technicians
contain details of how this experiment can
ACTIVITY c5.05
be used as an assessment of skill A03.3,
and ways in which the experiment can be
The reaction between an acid and
made more accurate.
an alkali
Skills: Questions during

changed
A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely Al Explain how and why the mperature

use techniques, apparatus and materials the experiment. more

obtain
to
(including following a sequence of instructions A2 How could the experiment be changed
where appropriate) accurate results?
 TIP
word equations for the These analytical tests are very important- particularly
TIP able to give
tant to be
t i si n section.
the tests for metal ions that give coloured precipitates.
in this
reactions Also important is the way that we can identify zinc and
balanced chemical equation will be
able to give aluminium salts using alkali.
eing
even more useful.

These tests come up frequently in exams because they

are so distinctive, so it would be good to learn them.
The ability to tell an iron(u) salt from an iron(ui) salt
is important.

QUESTIONS

formulae of sulfuric and

e 27 What are the delivery tube
hydrochloric acids?

word equations for the reaction of bung

C5.28 Write
hydrochloric acid with: test tube
a potassium hydroxide
b copper oxide antacid
tablet
c Zinc
d sodium carbonate.

chemical equations for the dilute limewater-

C5.29 Write balanced
reactions listed in question C5.28. hydrochloric (calcium
acid hydroxide
solution)
Figure C5.05 Testing an antacid tablet containing a 279
carbonate as the active ingredient.
C5.07 Acids and alkali
chemical analysis Tests for metal ions in salts using alkalis
One important part of
chemistry is the ana All salts are ionic compounds. They are made up of a
of unknown substances to tind out whal e y re. positive metal ion, combined with a negative non-metal
Thereis a series of tests that is importari tor this ion. Thus, common salt, sodium chloride, is made up of
eeSection C12.01). Acids and alkalis play an sodium metal ions (Na' ions) and chloride non-metal ions
lmportant part in some of these tests. The chemistry (CI ions). Table C5.09 shows the ions that form certain
of these tests
is discussed here. important salts.

In analysis it would be useful to have tests for the metal

The test for
carbonates using acid ions in salts. We have seen that most metal hydroxides are
Il Carbonates will react with
acids to give of insoluble. By adding an alkali to a solution of the unknown
on dioxide. We can use this as a test to tind out IT an salt we can begin to identify the salt.
nown substance is a
we think is limestone
arbonate or not. A piece of rock
can be checked by dripping Salt Positive ion
rps
be of vinegar on it. If it fizzes, then it could Negativeion
estone. A more usual test sodium chloride Na C
would be to add dilutee
rochloric acid to the
ry gas powdered substance. potassium nitrate K
NO
given off would be
calciur passed into limewater
hydroxide
the newater doessolution) to see if it went cloudy. copper() sulfate Cu2 SO2
,and the
turn cloudy, the gas is carbon calcium carbonate Caz CO
Shows how an substance is a carbonate. Figure Sodium ethanoate Na CH COO
antacid tablet can be tested to see if it
ontains acarbonate
Table C5.09 The ions making up certain important salts.
 To identity a zinc or aluminium salt, the test needs to
ne test
repeated with ammonia solution, The same be
same white precipta nervous
system, it reguiates Osmosis (the r-

of zinc or aluminium hydroxide are produced. molecules through membrane

af solvent
only the zinc OWeVer,
ammonia solutionit is intothe drochloric acid that a
with excess converted

precipitate that re-dissolves, nottthe

hydroide the stomach.
when we sweat, we lose bc
N Na' O
Therefore we can tell the two
aluminium hydroxide
aparttusing
in

um chloride.
Loss of too much salt dur
amnonia soluti can give us muscle cramp. Isotonic
xercise
to replace this loss of water and te
sodium Iron)
The test for ammonium salts using alkal designed
hydroxide
Na Na
ate balance or mineral ions in our bod
and the
solution solution Ammonium salts are important as fertilisers, For a,
be obtained bu-
Fe(OH),(9)J
torm
ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulf examyje While
others
a number
or salts can

must be made by industry. Therefore

Fe and OH ions combine to a
extensively as fertilisers. I hese are industrially imoe
methods available to make
precipitate of Fe(OH),; Na' and SO, considering the
Ions stay in solution. chemicals made by reacting ammonia with nitric:
cacid can be investigated in the laboratory
or sulfuric acid, respectively. I hey are salts containine these

Figure C5.06 a The precipitation of iron() hydroxide. ammonium ions, NH," 1ons. I hese salts react with ales Two things are inportant in working outam
b The precipitation of iron() hydroxide. Note the different solutions produce
to gas, which can be
ammonia of preparation:

colour of the precipitates. because it turns damp red litmusS paper blue: detecte . Is the salt soluble or insoluble in water?

ammonium nitrate + sodium hydroxide .Do crystals of the salt contain water of cr-

Coloured hydroxide precipitates Sodium nitrate +water+ammos The first point

intluences the preparation m-
how the crystals am
Some of the hydroxide precipitates are coloured. The second point affects
NH,NO,(s)+NaOH(aq) NaNO,aq)+H,00 NH experiment.
As a result, a solution of a salt can be tested by adding at the end of the
This reaction occurs because ammonia is a more
an alkali to it and checking the colour of the precipitate
(Figure C5.06):
volatile base than sodium hydroxide. Ammonia is C5.09 Preparing soluble s
therefore easily displaced from its salts by sodium
Copper() salts give a light blue precipitateof Soluble salts can be made from their parent
280 hydroxide. The reaction can be used to test an unknown
of the three characteristic reactions of acids
copper(i) hydroxide. substence tor ammonium ions. It can also be usedto
earlier (Secten C5.06).
Iron) salts give a light green precipitate of prepr ammonia in the laboratory.

iron(i) hydroxide.
Iron(u) salts givea red-brovwn precipitate of
iron() hydroxide. d equation for the reaction betwee
dilute acid

For example: nd hydrochloricacid. -hy drogen

urecipitate is produced when testig -

metal
iron) sulfate + sodium hydroxide
o s with sodium hydroxide solution
iron() hydroxide +Sodium sulfate name of this precipitate
FeSO.(aq)+ 2NaOH(ag)>Fe(OH),(s) + Na,SO,(aq)
iisolution must be used to (i)
zinc ions and aluminium
5

ulGh between Warm the arnd Switch offthe Bunsen burner

White hydroxide precipitates solution? What is the observation that Add an excess ot the metal to the acia
1S in

Wait until no more hydrogen is given Or.

Certain hydroxide precipitates are white. They are the aistinguishes between the two?
hydroxides of calcium, zinc and aluminium. The addition filter funnel
of sodium hydroxide to a solution of a salt of these metals
produces a white precipitate in each case. For example: C5.08 Salts mixture

residue lert inn

zinc sulfate +sodium hydroxide The importance of salts - an introduction filter paper
z i n c hydroxide + Sodium sulfate evaporating
disn (the excess of
A salt is a compound formed from an acid by the
Sals the solid reactant)
ZnSO ag) +2NaOHlag)-Zn(OH),(S) +Na,SO,aq) replacement of the hydrogen in the acid by a meld.-
e so s e
filtrate
are ionic compounds. There is a wide range or Ype
Even though the precipitates are all white, the test is still a solution
of the sait
useful. When an excess of sodium hydroxide is added, the Sodium chloride is essential for life and is an
y,ithas
zinc and aluminium hydroxide precipitates re-dissolve important raw material for industries. BiologIcduy o n t r a c t i o n
igure C5.07 MethodA for preparing a soluble sa
to give colourless solutions. The calcium hydroxide number of functions: it is involved in muscle corn Stage 2: the excess solid is filtered out. c Stage s-
the
precipitate does not re-dissolve. It enables the conduction of nerve impulses "
 salts
C5: Acids, bases and

osmosIs (the passage Method A- Acid plus solid metal,

System; it regulates
, thetest eds to be through membranes), and itis base or carbonate
molecules

The same white precipitates olvent

hydrochloric acid
that aids digestion Method A is essentially the same whether you
into the
produced. However, we lose both water and solid metal, solid base or a
When we sweat, are starting with a a

be divided into
in t h e s t o m a c h .

only the zinc hydroxide and

ot too much salt during sport solid carbonate. The method can
dium chloride. Loss
he aluminium hydroxide. Isotonic drinks are four stages (Figure C5.07).
m u s c l e cramp.
us
avercise can give
rt using ammonia solution replace this
loss of water and to restore energy
signed to Stage 1: An excess (more than enough) of the
mineral ions in o u r body.
and the
balance of solid is added to the acid and allowed to react.
alts using alkali can be abtained by mining
sure that all the
number of salts Using an excess of the solid makes
as fertilisers. For example, While a it is worth acid is used up. If it is not used up at this stage,
be made by industry. Therefore,
others must
nium sulfate are used methods available to make
salts. Some of the acid would become more concentrated
when
are industrially important considering the
in the laboratory. the water is evaporated later (stage 3).
nmonia With nitriC acid these can be investigated
in working outa methobd
Stage 2: The excess solid is filtered out.
ney are salts containing Two things are important
ese salts react with alkali is gently evaporated to
of preparation: Stage 3: The filtrate
gas, which can be detected insoluble in a t o ? concentrate the salt solution. This can be done
u spaper b!uc
Is the salt soluble or
on a heated water bath (Figure C5.07) or sand tray
ysiallisation?
Do crystals of the salt contain
vi

am hydroxic 1ethod chosen.

(Image C5.08).
The first point influences the pree
crystals can be seen forming
m nitrate e r tammonia
i
handled Stage 4: When
The second point affects how and the
NaNO,(aq ) + NH,g) atthe end of the experiment. (crystallisation point), heating is stopped
solution is left to crystallise.
ammoniài more

ydroxide. Anit2nia is C5.09 Preparing Stage 5: The concentrated solution is COoled to

let the crystals form. The crystals are filtered off

and 281
m its salts by sodium Soluble salts can be made from their parent acid using any
De used to test an unknown washed with a little distilled water. Then the crystals
of the three characteristic reactions of acids we outlined
ns. It can also be used to are dried carefully between filter papers.
earlier (Section C5.06)
oratory.
glass rod

between -dilute acid glass rod

the reaction
dation for
ydrochloric acid.
-hydrogenn
when testing -metal -metal oxide
pitate is produced
ith sodium hydroxide solution carbon-
of this precipitate? dioxide
-metal carbonate
n must be used to "nedl

(ii) (iii)
ions and aluminiumn
een zinc that
n e acid, Switch off the Bunsen burner. Add a n excess
of the metal oxide Add an excess of the metal carbonate to
What is the observation UO an excess of the metal to the to the acid. Wait
until the solution the acid. Wait until no more carbon dioxide is
acia.
tween the two? dit until no more turns blue litmus paper
red. Biven off.
hydrogen is given o no longer
A glass rod is
d
filter funnel dipped into
evaporating the solution and
mixture basin then taken out
to cool; when
introduction
salts -

an
evaporating residue left in small crystals

med from an acid by

the
alts
dish filter paper torm on the rod,
metal.
(the excess of the solution is
ogen in the acid byy o f salt. the solid reactant) ready to remove
ere is a wide range of types filtrate from the bath. Crystals torm as solution cools;
(a solution tilter, wash and then dry them
ntial for life and is an filtrate
of the salt)
for industries. Biologicaly.
tion Figure C5.07 Metho
involved in muscle contracu 1:the acid is reacted with either (i) a metal, (i) a base or (ii) a carbonate.
o
s
tne
Stage 2: the A o r preparing a soluble salt. astagetion is carefully evaporated. d Stage 4; the
on of nerve impulses in excess solid is filtered out. c 3:
Stage
the s crystals are allowed to rorm.
 Filter off the unreacted solid, collectina s
7
conical flask
,the clear blue
solution in a 100 cm Afluted filter
can be used to speed up the filtration,
paper
8 Boil the solution for 2-3 minutes.
into a clean, dry dish
Pour the hot solution
9
watch the crystals grow!
and

Questionss
A1 Write word and balanced mical equations for th
reaction taking place.
A2 What does the fact hat there is some
unreactedsolid
left after the reaction tell you about the proportione
of reactants used? Why is it useful that the
carried out with these proportions? reaction
The preparation of magnesium sulfate crystals
(Epsom salts) is included i the Notes on activities for
teachers/technicians.
Image C5.08 Evaporating off the water to obtain salt crystals.
Here a sand tray is being used to heat the solution carefully.
Method B - Acid plus alkali by titration

Method B (the titration methOd) involves the

neutralisaion
TIP
Always remember to finish your description of a method
of an acid with an alkali (for example, sodium hydroxidel
or a soluble carbonate (tor example, sodium
of preparing salt crystals with at least the words filter, carbonate
wash and carefully dry the crystals' to cover the final Since both the reactants and the products are colourless,
282 stages of the preparation. an indicator is used to find the neutralisation point or
end-point (when all the acid has just been neutralised).
The method is divided inte tmrce stages (Figure C5.08)
ACTIVITY C5.06

Quick and easycopper(u) sulfate crystals

Colourless
pipette-
Skill acid
A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely
use techniques, apparatus and materials alkal
(including following a sequence of instructions
where appropriate)
Durette
AWear eye protection. Note that sulfuric acid
is an irritant at the concentration used in end point nas
conical flask
this activity. been reached

This activity is an adaptation of the

larger-scale method ol tap-
preparing a soluble salt (see Figure C5.07).
1 Pour 15 cm' of 2 mol/dm> sulfuric acid into a
after adding
boiling tube. indicator
the indicator
2 Place the tube in a beaker half-filled with
from a kettle. boiling vter evaporation ot the
solution and
3 Weigh out between 1.8 g and 2.0 g of
copper() oxide crystallisation as
4 Add half the copper) oxide to the acid in in method A
the
Agitate the boiling tube and return it to the hotboiling
tub
for prepi
water. Figure C5.08 Method B (the titratior method)
5 When the solid has dissolved, add the a soluble salt. a Stage 1: the burett is filled with
acida

portion of copper() oxide. remaining lask

a known volume of alkali is added to the conical
6 Keep the tube in the hot water for 5 more end-

minutes, b Stage 2: the acid is added to the alkali until tnea nd

taking it out occasionally to agitate.
point is reached. c Stage 3: the solution is evap OT
crystallised as for method A.
 C5: Acids, bases and salts

is poured into a burette

Stage
1 :The acidsolution QUESTIONs
solid, coll ting the clear measure the volume
blue burette
is used to accurately
onical flask A fluted filter paper o fs o l u t i o n a d d e d .
A known volume of alkali solution C5.33 What colour is the indicator methyl orange in alkali?
p the filtration. lask
flas using a pipette. The pipette C5.34 In the methods of preparing a salt using a solid metal,
conical
in à
placed
3 minutes. is
a fixed volume rately. A few drops of an
accura base or carbonate, why is the solid used in excess?
hthalein or methyl
delivers

nto a clean, dry dish and example, thymolph C5.35 In such methods, what method is used to remove
indicator(for
w! C5.09) are added to the flask.
Figure
the excess solid once the reaction has finished?
orange,
is run into the flask from the C5.36 Name the two important pieces of graduated
e 2: The acid solution glassware used in the titration method of
ced chemical equations for the t e until the indicator just changes colour. Having preparinga salt.
for the reaction, the volume of acid
found the end-point C5.37 Why should the crystals prepared at the end of
at there is some unreacted solid flask is noted. Ihe experiment is then repeated
tell you about the proportions in the
runinto these experiments not be heated too strongly
the indicator. I he same known volume of
hy is it useful that the reaction is without using when drying them?
flask Ihe same volume of acid as noted
se proportions? allali is used the
in
first part is then run into the flask. Alternatively,
gnesium sulfate crystals in the
charcoal can be added to remove the coloured
led in the Notes on activities for activated
can then be filtered off.
C5.10 Choosing a method of
indicator. The charcoal
salt preparation
Stage3: The salt solution is evaporated and cooled to
form crystals as described in method A. Soluble salts
Is alkali by titration
The choice of method for preparing a soluble salt (see
method) involves the neutralisation Thistitration method is very usetul not simply for Section C5.09) depends on two things:
(for example, sodium hydroxide) Dreparing salts but also for finding the concentration of a

(for example, sodium carbonate) particular acid or alkali solution (see Section C6.05) I s the metal reactive enough to displace the hydrogen in
ts and the products are colourless, the acid? If it is, is it too reactive and therefore unsafe?
find the neutralisation point or 283

e acid has just been rneutralised). alkati acid Is the base or carbonate soluble or insoluble? Figure C5.10
shows a flow chart summarising the choices.
(Figure C5.08).
intothreestages methyl orange
Making salts by precipitation
The reaction between marble chips (calcium carbonate)
and sulfuric acid would be expected to produce a strong
thymolphthalein COlOurtess

reaction, with large amounts of carbon dioxide being

given off. However, the reaction quickly stops after a very
Add acid unti the colour just changes.
short time. This is caused by the fact that calcium sultate
is insoluble. It soon forms a layer on the surface of the
marble chips, stopping any further reaction.
conical flask end point has
been reached This reaction emphasises that some salts are insoluble in water
(for example,silverchloride and barium sulfate precipitations
that are important in analysis). Such salts cannot be made by
the crystallisation methods we have described earlier. They are
indicator after adding generally made by ionic precipitation
the indicator

For example, barium sultate can be made by taking a solution

evaporation of the
solution and of a soluble sulfate (such as sodium sulfate). This is added
crystallisation as to a solution of a soluble barium salt (for example, barium
in methodA Acid Alkali
THYL
ORANGL nitrate). The insoluble barium sulfate is formed immediately
method) for preparing
hod B (the titration
and
l: the burette is filled with
acid
dge
OT alkali is added to the conical flask
KEVTERM
end- precipitation: the sudden formation of a solid, either:
a isadded to the alkali until the and gure C5.09 a The colour chang when two solutions are
mixed, or
.c
Stage 3: the solution is evaporated

metmethl
hyl lorang
and
anges for the
b The actual colours
indicators
when a gas is bubbled into a solution
nethyl orange in thymolphthalein.
of
r method A.
acid and alkali.
 MA
Start
Method A: can prepare
salt by using excess metal
Does the metal Does t Ye and acid, followed by filtration,
Yes react safely7
eact witlh aclds? eg. MgsO4 7H,0, ZnCl
No No
Method A: can prepare
salt by reacting acid with excess Salt crystals
Is the base or
carbonatesoluble?
No solid, followed by filtration, evaporation andprepared by
crystallisation
e.g. CusO4 5H,O
Yes
Method B: can use
titration method,
e.g. NaCl, K2 SO4, NH4NO3
Figure C5.10 Flow chart showing which method to use for preparing soluble salts. The two methods A and B ara di..
in the text and in Figures C5.07 and C5.08.
scribed
This solid falls' to the bottom of the tube or beaker as a What happens to 1ons in neutralisation?
precipitate. The precipitate can be iltered off. It is then An acid can be neutralised by an alkali to produce a
sat
washed with distilled water and dried in a warm oven. The and water only, according to the general equation:
equation for this reaction is:
acid+ alkali Salt + water
barium nitrate + sodium sulfate
barium sulfate + Sodium nitrate For example:
Ba(NO,),ag) + Na,SO.(aq)> BaSO.(s) + 2NaNO,(aq) hydrochloric acid +sodium hydroxide
284 sodium chloride +wate
16 This equation shows how important state symbols can be - it is
the only way we can tell that this equation shows a precipitation HClI(ag)+ NaOH(ag)-> NaCl(aq) +H,O()
QUESTIONSs
All these comp c s are completelyionised,except
C5.38 There are two general methods of preparing forthe water 4iticed.
soluble salts: Om the acid and the hydroxide
Method A- use a burette and an indicator.
The hydrog
ions from the COmbine to form water molecules
Method B- add an excess of base or metal to a
dilute acid and remove the excess by filtration.
For each of the following salt preparations,
acidic
choose one of the methods, A or B, name any nyd solution
additional reagent needed and then write or
complete the equation asked fo. both containing
a few drops of
a the soluble salt, zinc sulfate, from the
Universal
insoluble base, zinc oxide Indicator
i method
hydroxide ion
ii reagent
ii word equation. alkaline
solution
b the soluble salt, potassium chloride, from the
soluble base, potassium hydroxide
method water molecule
ii reagent
ii copy and complete the following symbol
equation
KCl + H,O
 C5: Acids, bases and salts
this
in the following equation: By evaporating some of the water, the salt can be
show
Wecan crystallised out. In fact, the same ionic equation can be
H'(aq) OH (aq) H,O() used for any reaction between
nydrogen lons
hydroxide lons water
an acid and an alkali
in watern
(un water In these reactions, the acid is providing hydrogen ions to
equation for this neutralisation reaction. react with the hydroxide ions. In turn, the base is supplying
ionic
the
his is and sodium ions) remain in hydroxide ions to accept the H' ions and form water.
ectator
ions (chloride
a solution ot sodium chloride This leads to a further definition of an acid and a base in
solution
-whic which becomes
terms of hydrogen ion (proton) transfer
Figure C5.11).
KEY TERMS
acid: a molecule or ion that is able to donate a proton (H' ion)
to a base
Na base: a molecule or ion that is able to accept a proton
ions in
ions in sodium
hydrochloric
hydroxide ac
TIP
CI
It is important to realise that a hydrogen ion (H") is simply
a proton. Once the single electron of a hydrogen atom has
been removed to form the positive ion, all that is left is the
proton of the nucleus (Figure C5.12).
O O 285
Spectator 1ons
a hydrogen atom a hydrogen ion (H)
the electron has been lost,
leaving just the proton
Cl of the nucleus)
water
Figure C5.11 The reaction of the ions when hydrochloric Figure C5.12 A hydrogen ion is simply a proton.
acid is mixed with sodium
hydroxide.
Summaryy
You should know:
how all acids contain thatbases are the 'chemical opposites' of acids and
hydrogen and dissolve in water
to give
solutions with a pH below 7 they neutralise the effects of acids; alkalis are bases
hat pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of an that dissolve in water
aqueous solution; acids have a pH below 7, alkalis that neutralisation between an acid and a base
above 7anda neutral solution a pH of 7 produces a salt and water only
a t indicators change colour depending on the pH that acids have certain characteristic reactions with some
e solution they are added to; some show a single metals to give a salt and hydrogen gas, and with metal
u r change (litmus, for example), while Universal carbonates to give a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas
ator shows a range of colours depending on the how salts are produced when the hydrogen in the acid
solution tested is replaced by a metal
e dissolved oxides of non-metals usually form that salts are prepared in the laboratory by a series of
solutions and thatmetal oxides, if they dissolve, methods depending on the compound reacted with
usually form alkaline the acid
solutions
 how the
neutralisation reaction betiwee
that acid solutions have an
excess of H ions, while anyacid and alkalican be represented by
ions ionic equation:
alkali solutions have an excess ofOH of
that the pH ofa solution depends
on the balance Hag) OH (aq)HO
water is how some non-metal oxides are neutral ands
concentrations present;
the H and OH ion
areequal in metal axides and hydroxides are amphoterie
neutral becausethese concentrations teric
pure water
End-of-chapter questions
of calcium hydroxide n water s akaline
1 A solution
Which one of the pH values below s alxaline
pH 3 pH6 pH 7 pH 11
b Which ofthe followin E the comimon
name eide
quicklime slaked lime
cement limestone
hydrowide to contro ol
acidity
Somefarm.ers use calt um
why
Diesc bie o 3cd aih eoPe
i ACad rain c a (aute s o to bie oie d
acd
ak num hyoroxie reaxt m ydiroc iorc
hydiroc hion arr d 2licu
um hydr owde
Sate 1he name of h p ypo of hueme al e a
ydomdie c a be
Adiute soilutior of cacAu
hydoioad mg e appal atlut s/ho
Crrdge G Se Chermysry 620 Paper 21 po
e
pH 3 pH pH9 p 13
uet
A Sieat 1hn artnate
te word etualio eeocton of ca aftorate wit hydro niora
e o treat at d Sate one ote e
 drochloric acid reacts witn iron to form iron() chloride and hydrogen.
d for this reaction.
he Complete the equation
Fe+....HCI> FeCl, T......
(2]
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 21 03 a-dJune 2012)
nd some
ic. Soluble salts can
be made using a base and an acid
lete the method of preparing dry crystals ot the soluble salt cobalt() chloride-6-water from the
cnltble base cobalt() carbonate. I he method involves four steps. The first is as follows:
ton 1: Add an excess of cobalt() Carbonate to hot dilute
Step hydrochloric acid
What are Steps 2, 3 and 4?
[4
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 31 Q8 a November 2010
[1 Aa Ammonium nitrate arnd ammonium sultate are both
commercially produced fertilisers.
i A student is given a white solid and is told
dampred
(1 that it is either ammonium nitrate or litmus paper
ammonium sulfate. She adds sodium itmus paper
[1
hydroxide solution to some of the solid turns blue
3 contained in a test-tube, and then warms
the mixture gently The ligure shows what
[1
the student observed mixture of white
solid and sodium 287
hydroxide solution
gentle heat
Explain the obser vation snown in the figure.
The student then makes an
[2]
aqueous solution of the white solid and adds
hydrochloric acid and barium chloride solution. State what would be observed,
if
anything, if the white solid is ammonium nitrate, or if it is ammonium sulfate. [2
Calcium carbonate is another
compound that is sometimes added to soil.
State and
explain how calcium can carbonate improve the quality of soil used for crops. (2
[3
Cambridge 1GCSE Co-ordinated Sciences 0654 Paper 22 Q12 b, c May 2014
ovember 2010
AUesare classified as acidic, basic, neutral and amphoteric.
à
Copy and complete the table.
Type of oxide pH of solution ofoxide
[1
Example
acidic
basic
[3 neutral
bi [6
Explain the term amphoteriC.
ane two
a
[1
to show that an oxide is amphoteric.
reagents that are needed [2
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 31 Q2 November 20o9