RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION:

The word research means “to search again” or “to examine carefully". Research is systematic
inquiry, or study to validate and refine existing knowledge and develop new knowledge. The
ultimate goal of research is the development of a body of knowledge for a discipline or
profession such as nursing.

Research conducted by nurses includes various types of studies in order to derive clinical
interventions to assist those who require nursing care. The complexity of nursing research and its
broad scope often require scientific underpinning from several disciplines. Hence, nursing
research cuts across traditional research lines, and draws its methods from several fields.

DEFINITION:

RESEARCH:

A careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem using

scientific methods.

Earl Robert Babbi

“Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the

observed phenomenon".

Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or

suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
(Clifford Woody)
NURSING RESEARCH :

- A formal, systematic, and rigorous process of inquiry used by nurses to generate and test the
concepts and propositions that constitute nursing theories, which are derived from or linked with
a conceptual model of nursing.
 - Nursing research is research that provides evidence used to support nursing practices. Nursing,
as an evidence-based area of practice, has been developing since the time of Florence
Nightingale to the present day, where many nurses now work as researchers based
in universities as well as in the health care setting.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:

1. A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and procedures are an
integral part of the process that set the objective. Researchers need to practice ethics and a
code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time from actual observations in natural
settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated
with it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more
opportunities for research.
6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research. The information that is obtained
should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, laboratories provide a controlled
environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the final result of the experiment.

PURPOSES OF RESEARCH:
There are three purposes of research:

1. Exploratory: As the name suggests, exploratory research is conducted to explore a group of

questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a final conclusion to the perceived
problem. It is conducted to handle new problem areas which haven’t been explored before.
This exploratory process lays the foundation for more conclusive research and data collection.
2. Descriptive: Descriptive research focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through
a process of data collection. Descriptive studies are used to describe the behavior of a sample
population. In a descriptive study, only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three
main purposes of descriptive research are describing, explaining, and validating the findings.
For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century
possess the moral right to receive a huge sum of money from the company profit.

3. Explanatory: Explanatory research or causal research is conducted to understand the impact

of certain changes in existing standard procedures. Conducting experiments is the most
popular form of casual research. For example, a study conducted to understand the effect of
rebranding on customer loyalty.

TYPES OF RESEARCH:
Research used in evidence-based practice can be quantitative, qualitative or both. From there,
these two types can be divided into multiple categories.

1. Quantitative research: Numbers, percentages and variables are used to communicate

results.

Three Types of Quantitative Research are:

1. Descriptive research : Expresses the characteristics or traits of a specific group, situation

or individual. This type of research looks for new conclusions and connections that can be
made based on observed traits.
2. Quasi-experimental research: Looks at cause-and-effect relationships between different
variables.
3. Correlational research: Considers the relationships among variables, but does not draw a
cause-and-effect relationship.

2. Qualitative research: Findings take the form of thoughts, perceptions and experiences.

Five Types of Qualitative Research are:

1. Ethnography: Observes or provides analysis about cultural and social customs and
practices and how particular cultures understand disease and health.
2. Grounded theory: Is all about building theories in response to questions, problems and
observations.
 3. Symbolic interactions: Studies personal interaction, communication patterns,
interpretations and reactions. These factors can influence how people change their health
practices over time.
4. Historical research: Systematically reviews a topic, culture or group and the subject’s
history.
5. Phenomenology: Uses personal experiences and insights to inform the author’s conclusion.

SAMPLING
INTRODUCTION:

Sampling is a process of selecting representative units from an entire population of a study.

Sampling is not a new development, but in recent times it is used by people in all fields, even
in day-to-day life, to get an understanding about societies, opinions, or situations. Similarly
in research studies, it is not always possible to study an entire population; therefore, the
researcher draws a representative part of a population through sampling process. In other
words, sampling is the selection of some part of an aggregate or a whole on the basis of
which judgments or inferences about the aggregate or mass is made.

DEFINITION:

Sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting a representative segment of the

population under study.

Sample: Sample may be defined as representative unit of a target population, which is to

be worked upon by researchers during their study. In other words, sample consists of a
subset of units which comprise the population selected by investigators or researchers to
participate in their research project.

PURPOSES OF SAMPLING:

• Economical: The researcher can save lots of time, money, and resources to study a
phenomenon. Therefore, sampling provides an economical option for the researcher to generate
empirical evidences.

• Improved quality of data: It is a proven fact that when a person handles less amount of work
or fewer number of people, then it is easier to ensure the quality of the outcome.

• Quick study results: Studying an entire population itself will take a lot of time, But with a
sample, it is possible to generate study results faster, which is one of the important objectives of
every researcher.

• Precision and accuracy of data: while carrying a study on a part of the population (sample)
helps the researcher to generate more precise data, where formulation of the interpretations of the
data becomes much easier. It is always easy to establish better rapport with a sample and thus to
collect more accurate data. Thus, a sample helps to generate precise and accurate data in a
research study.
METHODS OF REDUCING SAMPLING ERRORS:

Specific problem selection

Systematic documentation of related research
Effective enumeration
Effective pre testing
Controlling methodological bias
Selection of appropriate sampling techniques

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION:

Review of literature is one of the most important steps in the research process. It is an account of
what is already known about a particular phenomenon. The main purpose of literature review is
to convey to the readers about the work already done & the knowledge & ideas that have been
already established on a particular topic of research.

DEFINITION:

A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of knowledge on a
particular topic of research.

(ANM, 2000)

A literature review is an account of what has been already established or published on a

particular research topic by accredited scholars &researchers.

(University of Toronto, 2001)

PURPOSES:

 The purpose of a literature review is to convey to the reader previous knowledge & facts
established on a topic, & their strength &weakness.
 The literature review allows the reader to be updated with the state of research in a field
& any contradictions that may exist with challenges findings of other research studies.
 It helps to develop research investigative tools & to improve research methodologies.
 It also provide the knowledge about the problems faced by the previous researchers’
while studying same topic.
 Describe the relationship of each study to other research studies under consideration.
 Identify new ways to interpret & shed light on any gaps in previous research.
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
 Identify potential relationship between concepts &to identify researchable hypothesis.
  Learn how others have defined & measured key concepts.
 Identify data sources that other researchers have used.
 Develop alternative research projects.

SOURCES: Literature can be reviewed from two sources:

1. Primary Sources :
 Literature review mostly relies on primary sources, i.e. research reports, which are
description of studies written by researchers who conducted them.
 A primary source is written by a person who developed the theory or conducted the
research, or is the description of an investigation written by the person who conducted it.
 Most primary sources are found in published literature.

2. Secondary Sources :
 Secondary source research documents are description of studies prepared by someone
other than the original researcher.
 They are written by people other than the individuals who developed the theory or
conducted the research.
 The secondary sources may be used when primary sources are not available or if
researchers want external opinions on an issue or problem or even the results of their own
research.

Other sources:

 Electronic Sources
 CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing &Allied Health Literature)
 Pub Med
 MEDLINE (Medical Literature Analysis &Retrieved System Online)
 Registry of Nursing Research
 Online Journals
 Printed Sources
 Journals
 Research reports
 Unpublished dissertations & theses
 Magazines & newspapers
 Conference papers & proceedings
 Encyclopedias & dictionaries
 Books
STEPS IN LITERATURE REVIEW:

Stage I – Annotated Bibliography :

  At this stage, researchers read articles, books & other types of literature related to the
topic of research & write a brief critical synopsis of each review.
 After going through the reading list, researchers will have an annotation of each source of
related literature.
 Later, annotations are likely to include more references of other work since previous
readings will be available to compare.

Stage II – Thematic Organization :

 At this stage, researchers try to find common themes of research topic & organize the
literature under these themes, subthemes, or categories.

Stage III – More Reading :

 At this stage, researchers try to discover specific literature materials relevant to the field
of study or research methodologies which are more relevant for their research.

Stage IV – Write Individual Sections :

 At this stage, researchers start writing the literature under each thematic section by using
previously collected draft of annotations.
 Here they organize the related articles under each theme by ensuring that every article is
related to each other.
 Furthermore, related articles may be grouped together by ensuring the coherence
between different segments of the literature abstracts.

Stage V – Integrate Sections :

 In this section, researchers have a list of the thematic sections & they tie them together
with an introduction, conclusion, & some additions & revisions in the sections to show
how they relate to each other & to the overall theme.
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR LITERATURE REVIEW:

Be specific & be succinct

Be selective
Focus on current topics
Ensure evidence for claims
Focus on sources of evidences
Reference citation
Avoid abbreviations
Simple & accurate sentence structure
Organization of literature review
 TOPIC:

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

INTRODUCTION:

A measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data
by identifying the central position within that set of data. As such, measures of central
tendency are sometimes called measures of central location. They are also classed as
summary statistics. The mean (often called the average) is most likely the measure of
central tendency that are most familiar with, but there are others, such as the median
and the mode.

The important measures of central tendency are as follows:

 Mean,
 Median and
 Mode are all valid measures of central tendency

MEAN (ARITHMETIC):

The arithmetic mean is the quantity obtained by summing two or more numbers and then
dividing by the total number of numbers. It is also known as average or average value.

• The mean or average is probably the most commonly used method of describing central
tendency.

• Mean is computed by dividing the sum of all the values by the total number of values.
̅
Arithmetic mean is represented by 𝐗

𝐒𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞𝐬 (∑ 𝒙)

̅=
𝐗
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞𝐬 (𝐧)

𝟏𝟐.𝟓+𝟏𝟑+𝟏𝟎+𝟏𝟏.𝟓+𝟏𝟏+𝟏𝟒+𝟗+𝟕.𝟓+𝟏𝟎+𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟏𝟎.𝟓
= =
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎

Calculating arithmetic mean from discrete frequency table: In discrete frequency

table, the mean is calculated using the following formula:

̅ =∑ 𝒙𝒇
𝐗 ∑𝒇

Calculating arithmetic mean from continuous frequency table: In case of continuous

frequency table, mean can be calculated by the following formula:
 ̅ =∑ 𝒙𝒇
𝐗 ∑𝒇

where𝑥 = midpoint of class interval and 𝑓 = corresponding frequency. Midpoint of the class
interval is calculated by the following formula:
𝐋𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐭 + 𝐔𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐭
Midpoint =
𝟐

For example, calculate the mean age of the following group of people.

Class Interval of No. of People (𝒇) Midpoint (𝒙) 𝒙𝒇

Age
15-20 15 17.5 262.5
20-25 20 22.5 450
25-30 40 27.5 1100
30-35 60 32.5 1950
∑ 𝑓 = 135 ∑𝑥𝑓 = 3762.5

̅ =∑ 𝒙𝒇 = 𝟑𝟕𝟔𝟐.𝟓 =27.87
𝐗 ∑𝒇 𝟏𝟑𝟓

Therefore, mean age of the people in this group will be 27.87 years.

Merits of Arithmetic Mean:

 It is a simple average to understand and easiest to compute.

 It is affected by the value of each item in a series.
 It is defined by a fixed mathematical formula with the result that irrespective of whoever
computes the average gets the same answer.
 It can be treated algebraically.
 It is a reliable method of calculating average.
 Calculate value that is not based on the position of series.

Demerits of Arithmetic Mean:

 Very small and very large items usually affect the value of average.
 In the distribution with open-ended classes, values of mean cannot be computed without
making assumptions.
 It is not always a good measure of central tendency.
 MEDIAN
Median is the middle-most value when the data is arranged in ascending order of magnitude. The
middle value will divide the number of observations in the data into two equal parts. The median
is denoted by M. It is also called positional average.

• It refers to the middle value of distribution.

• One-half of items in the distribution have a value larger than the median value.

• One-half of items in the distribution have a value smaller than the median value.

Calculation of Median from the Discrete Data Set

Data with Odd Set of Numbers: In case of discrete data with odd set of numbers,
median is calculated using following formula:

𝒏+𝟏 𝒕𝒉
Formula =𝐌 = ( ) observation or item
𝟐

Calculating median for discrete data with even set of numbers: In case of discrete
data with even set of numbers, the median is calculated by using following steps as given
in example.

Example : Find the median for the following data set: 102, 56, 34, 99, 89, 101, 10, 54.

Steps for calculation of Median:

1. Place the data in ascending order (smallest to highest):

10, 34, 54, 56, 89, 99, 101, 102.

2. Find two numbers in the middle (where there are an equal number of data points above and
below the two middle numbers).

10, 34, 54, 56, 89, 99, 101, 102.

3. Add the two middle numbers (56 + 89 = 145) and then divide by 2, to get the average. 145/2 =
72.5.

Thus the median will be 72.5 for above given odd set of data.

Calculation of Median for the Discrete Frequency Table.

𝒏+𝟏
M= ( )
𝟐
 Calculation of Median from the Continuous Frequency Table.

Example : Calculate the median for the following frequency table data.

Income/day (𝑥) 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350 350-400

Number of households (𝑓) 05 19 03 11 06 09
Cumulative frequency (c𝑓) 5 24 27 38 44 53

Solution: In case of continuous frequency table, median can be calculated by using following

formula:
(𝑵⁄𝟐 −𝒎)𝒘
𝑴 = 𝒍+ 𝒇

Where l= the lowest limit = 200

w=the width = 50

f= the frequency of the median class = 03

m= the cumulative frequency of a class just before the median class = 24

(26.5−24)50 2.5 × 50 125

M = 200+ = 200 + = 200 +
03 03 03

= 200 + 41.67 = 241.7

Therefore, the median is 241.7. The value of median always lies within the median class.

MERITS OF MEDIAN:

• It is useful in case of open-ended and unequal classes.

• Extreme values do not affect the median.

• Most appropriate average in dealing with qualitative data.

• The value of median can be determined graphically.

DEMERITS OF MEDIAN:

• For calculating the median it is necessary to arrange the data.

• Since it is the positional averages, the value is not determined by all the observations.

• It is not capable of further algebraic treatment.

• Median is not calculated for quantitative data.

 MODE
Mode is most frequently occurring number in a data set. In other words, it is the value which has
the highest frequency in the data. In other words, the mode of the distribution value is the point
around which the items tends to be most heavily concentrated. It may also be regarded as the
most typical of a series of values. It is denoted by Z. If a set of values has two items that have the
highest frequency, then distribution has two model values and it is called bimodal distribution.

 A data set could have no mode (when no number is appearing in data set more than once)
 Unimodal (one most frequently occurring numbering in data set),
 Bimodal (When two numbers are frequently occurring at equal frequency in data set)
 Trimodal (when three numbers are frequently occurring at equal frequency in data set).
 The bimodal, trimodal and subsequent modes are also known as multimodal.

EXAMPLES:

None/ no mode: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9.

One mode (Unimodal): 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5 = 03.

Two (Bimodal): 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5 =1 and 4.

Three (Trimodal): 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5 = 1, 3 and 5.

The data set having more than one mode is also known as multimodal data set.

Calculation of Mode for Discrete Frequency: For the raw data and discrete frequency
table the most frequently occurring value is considered as mode. Z = value which has the
highest frequency.

Calculation of Mode from Continuous Frequency Data: From continuous frequency

table, mode can be calculated by following formula:
(𝑓 −𝑓1 )𝑤
𝑍=𝑙+
2𝑓−𝑓1 −𝑓2

where l = lowest limit of the modal class

f = frequency of the modal class

w = width of the modal class

fl = frequency of class just before the modal class

f2 = frequency of class just after the modal class. Modal class is the one which has the

highest frequency.

MERITS OF MODE:

 It is not affected by extreme values.

 It can be used to describe the qualitative phenomenon.
 Values of mode can be determined graphically.

DEMERITS OF MODE:

 The value of mode cannot always be determined.

 It is not capable of algebraic manipulation.