MAHARANA PRATAP GROUP OF INSTITUTIONSKOTHI

MANDHANA, KANPUR
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Dr. AKTU, Lucknow)

Digital Notes
[Department of Electrical Engineering]
Subject Name : Basic Electrical
Subject Code : KEE101/201
Course : B. Tech

Branch : EE

Semester : I/II

Prepared by : Mr. Anil Kumar Pathak

1
Table of Contents
Unit – 1 DC Circuits ...........................................................................................................................................10
1.1 An Electric circuit .....................................................................................................................................10
1.2 Elements of an Electric circuit:...................................................................................................................10
1.3 Classification of electrical networks ...........................................................................................................11
1.3.1 Linear and Non-Linear network ...........................................................................................................11
1.3.2 Bilateral and Unilateral network:..........................................................................................................12
1.3.3 Lumped and Distributed network .........................................................................................................12
1.4 Electrical Energy Sources: .........................................................................................................................12
1.4.1 Dependent sources: .............................................................................................................................12
1.4.2 Independent Sources :. ........................................................................................................................13
1.4.3 Voltage Source ...................................................................................................................................13
1.4.4 Current Source....................................................................................................................................14
1.5 Source Equivalence ...................................................................................................................................14
1.6 Ideal voltage source connected in series: .....................................................................................................14
1.6.1 Practical voltage source connected in series: .........................................................................................15
1.6.2 ideal voltage source connected in parallel: ............................................................................................15
1.6.3 Practical voltage sources connected in parallel: .....................................................................................16
1.6.4 Ideal current sources connected in series: .............................................................................................16
1.6.6 Ideal current sources connected in parallel ............................................................................................17
1.6.7 Practical current sources connected in parallel.......................................................................................17
1.7 Source transformation: ..............................................................................................................................17
1.8 Kirchhoff`s Law........................................................................................................................................18
1.8.1 Kirchhoff`s Current Law (KCL)...........................................................................................................18
1.8.2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)...........................................................................................................18
1.9 Introduction to Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis: .....................................................................................20
1.9.1 Mesh Analysis: ...................................................................................................................................20
1.9.2 Super Mesh Analysis:..........................................................................................................................21
1.10 Nodal analysis:........................................................................................................................................24
1.10.1 Determination of node voltages: .........................................................................................................24
1.11 Network Theorems..................................................................................................................................26
1.11.1 Thevenin’s Theorem Statement : ........................................................................................................26
1.11.2 Norton’s Theorem Statement :............................................................................................................30
1.11.3 Superposition Theorem:.....................................................................................................................34
 1.12 Star to Delta and Delta to Star Transformations .........................................................................................36
1.12.1 Delta to Star Transformation: .............................................................................................................36
Unit 2 Steady State Analysis of Single and ThreePhase Ac Circuits .......................................................................41
2.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................41
2.2 AC Waveform...........................................................................................................................................41
2.2.1 AC Waveform Characteristics .............................................................................................................42
2.2.2 Amplitude of An Ac Waveform ...........................................................................................................43
2.2.3 Relationship between Frequency And Periodic Time .............................................................................44
2.3 Average Value ..........................................................................................................................................44
2.3.1 Average Value of Complete Cycle........................................................................................................44
2.3.2 Average Value of Current Over A Half Cycle .......................................................................................45
2.4 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value ................................................................................................................46
2.5 Instantaneous Value ..................................................................................................................................47
2.6 Form Factor (kf)........................................................................................................................................47
2.7 Peak (Crest) Factor (kp).............................................................................................................................48
2.8 Phasor Representation of Sinusoidal Quantities............................................................................................48
2.8.1 Phase Difference of A Sinusoidal Waveform ........................................................................................51
2.8.2 Phasor Addition ..................................................................................................................................52
2.8.3 Phasor Subtraction ..............................................................................................................................56
2.9 Complex Notations ...................................................................................................................................57
2.9.1 Complex Numbers Using Polar Form ...................................................................................................58
2.9.2 Conversion Of Rectangular Form And Polar Form ................................................................................59
2.9.3 Complex Numbers Using Exponential Form .........................................................................................61
2.9.4 Complex Number Forms .....................................................................................................................62
2.10 Purely Resistive Circuit: ..........................................................................................................................64
2.11 Purely Inductive Circuit: ..........................................................................................................................67
2.12 Purely Capacitive Circuit .........................................................................................................................70
2.13 Series Resistance-Inductance Circuit.........................................................................................................73
2.14 Series Resistance-Capacitance Circuit .......................................................................................................74
2.15 Series RLC Circuit ..................................................................................................................................76
2.16 Parallel RLC Circuit ................................................................................................................................79
2.17 Impedance of A Parallel RLC Circuit ........................................................................................................81
2.18 Conductance, Admittance and Susceptance ...............................................................................................82
2.18.1 Admittance ( Y ) ...............................................................................................................................82
2.18.2 Conductance ( G ) .............................................................................................................................82
 2.18.3 Susceptance ( B ) ..............................................................................................................................82
2.19 Admittance Triangle for A Parallel RLC Circuit ........................................................................................83
2.20 Power in Ac Circuits ...............................................................................................................................85
2.21 Power Factor:..........................................................................................................................................88
2.22 Power Factor Improvement ......................................................................................................................88
2.22.1 Static Capacitor .................................................................................................................................89
2.22.2 Synchronous Condenser ....................................................................................................................90
2.22.3 Phase Advancer.................................................................................................................................90
2.23 Concept of Series Resonance....................................................................................................................92
2.23.1 Series Resonance Frequency ..............................................................................................................94
2.23.2 Series RLC Circuit at Resonance ........................................................................................................96
2.23.3 Series Circuit Current at Resonance....................................................................................................96
2.23.4 Phase Angle of A Series Resonance Circuit.........................................................................................97
2.23.5 Bandwidth of A Series Resonance Circuit ...........................................................................................98
2.24 Concept of Parallel RLC Circuit ............................................................................................................. 101
2.24.1 Impedance in A Parallel Resonance Circuit....................................................................................... 104
2.24.2 Susceptance at Resonance................................................................................................................ 105
2.24.3 Current in A Parallel Resonance Circuit ............................................................................................ 106
2.24.4 Bandwidth & Selectivity of A Parallel Resonance Circuit................................................................... 109
2.24.5 Example of Parallel Resonance......................................................................................................... 110
2.24.6 Resonant Frequency in Parallel Circuit Using Impure Inductor ........................................................... 112
Unit 3- Transformer.......................................................................................................................................... 113
3.1 Magnetic Materials.................................................................................................................................. 113
3.1.1Types of Magnetic Materials............................................................................................................... 113
3.2 B-H Curve.............................................................................................................................................. 114
3.3 Transformer............................................................................................................................................ 115
3.4 Transformer Types.................................................................................................................................. 115
3.4.1 Based on Voltage Levels ................................................................................................................... 115
3.4.2 Based on the Medium of Core Used ................................................................................................... 115
3.4.3 Based on the Winding Arrangement .................................................................................................. 116
3.4.4 Based on Install Location .................................................................................................................. 116
3.5 Basic Construction .................................................................................................................................. 116
3.5.1 Windings.......................................................................................................................................... 116
3.5.2 Insulation Agents .............................................................................................................................. 117
3.6 Working Principle of A Transformer: ....................................................................................................... 117
 3.6.1 Transformer on DC supply: ............................................................................................................... 118
3.7 EMF Equation of A Transformer:............................................................................................................. 118
3.7.1 Turn Ratio: ....................................................................................................................................... 120
3.7.2 Transformation Ratio: ....................................................................................................................... 120
3.8 Ideal Transformer and practical transformer .............................................................................................. 120
3.8.1 Ideal Transformer ............................................................................................................................. 120
3.8.2 Behaviour of Ideal Transformer: ........................................................................................................ 121
3.8.3 Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer:................................................................................................ 121
3.9 Practical Transformer with Resistance and Leakage Reactance................................................................... 122
3.9.1 Resistance and Reactance of the Transformer:..................................................................................... 123
3.9.2 Transformer on No-Load Condition: .................................................................................................. 124
3.9.3 Transformer on Load Condition: ........................................................................................................ 125
3.9.4 Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition ................................................................................ 125
3.9.5 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load: ............................................................................ 127
3.9.6 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive Load ........................................................................... 128
3.10 Equivalent Circuit of A Transformer:...................................................................................................... 129
3.10.1 Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are referred to Primary side: .............................................. 129
3.10.2 Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are referred to Secondary side:........................................... 130
3.11 Losses and Efficiency of Transformer..................................................................................................... 131
3.11.1 Iron loss or Core loss....................................................................................................................... 131
3.11.2 Copper Loss or Ohmic Loss ........................................................................................................ 132
3.11.3 Transformer Efficiency .................................................................................................................... 133
3.12 Voltage Regulation of A Transformer ..................................................................................................... 134
3.12.1 For inductive load ........................................................................................................................... 136
3.12.2 For Capacitive load: ........................................................................................................................ 136
3.13 Three Phase Transformer ....................................................................................................................... 137
3.13.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 137
3.14 Three Phase Transformer Connections: ................................................................................................... 139
3.14.1 Three Phase Transformer Connections.............................................................................................. 139
3.14.2 Star-Star (Y-Y) ............................................................................................................................... 139
3.14.3 Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ)............................................................................................................................ 140
3.14.4 Star-Delta OR Wye-Delta (Y-Δ)....................................................................................................... 140
3.14.5 Delta-Star OR Delta-Wye (Δ-Y)....................................................................................................... 140
Unit – 4 Electrical Machines ............................................................................................................................. 141
4.1 Dc Machines:.......................................................................................................................................... 141
 4.2Construction of a DC Machine: ................................................................................................................. 141
4.3 DC generator .......................................................................................................................................... 143
4.3.1 Principle :......................................................................................................................................... 143
4.3.2 Working ........................................................................................................................................... 143
4.3.3 Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator and Motor................................................. 144
4.4 DC motor................................................................................................................................................ 145
4.4.1 Principle and working: ...................................................................................................................... 145
4.4.2 Armature torque (Ta) ........................................................................................................................ 146
4.5 Types of DC Machines (Generator and Motors) – Separately Excited and SelfExcited ................................. 146
4.5.1 DC generator .................................................................................................................................... 147
4.5.2 Dc Motor.......................................................................................................................................... 150
4.6 Applications of DC generator................................................................................................................... 152
4.7 Three Phase induction motor .................................................................................................................... 153
4.7.1Construction ...................................................................................................................................... 153
4.7.2 Working of three phase induction motor ............................................................................................. 155
4.7.3 Torque of a three phase induction motor ............................................................................................. 156
4.7.4 Torque slip characteristic ................................................................................................................... 159
4.8 Single phase induction motor ................................................................................................................... 160
4.8.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 160
4.8.2 Types of single phase induction motors .............................................................................................. 160
4.9 Synchronous Machines ............................................................................................................................ 165
4.9.1 Construction of synchronous machines ............................................................................................... 165
4.9.2 Synchronous generator (Alternator).................................................................................................... 166
4.9.3 Synchronous Motor........................................................................................................................... 168
4.9.4 Procedure to start synchronous motor: ................................................................................................ 170
Unit 5 Electrical Installations ............................................................................................................................ 171
5.1 FUSE: .................................................................................................................................................... 171
5.1.1 Construction & Working of A Fuse .................................................................................................... 171
5.1.2How to Select Proper Rating Size of Fuse? .......................................................................................... 172
5.1.3 HRC Fuse Unit ................................................................................................................................. 172
5.1.4 Switch Fuse Unit (SFU)..................................................................................................................... 173
5.1.5 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)....................................................................................................... 176
5.1.6 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)............................................................................................... 178
5.1.7 MCCB ............................................................................................................................................. 180
5.2 Types of Wires And Cables...................................................................................................................... 182
 5.2.1 Vulcanised Indian Rubber (VIR) Insulated Cables :............................................................................. 182
5.2.2 Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS) And Cab Tyre Sheathed (CTS)Cables : ................................................ 182
5.2.3 Metal Sheathed or Lead Sheathed Cables :.......................................................................................... 183
5.2.4 Weather-Proof Cables : ..................................................................................................................... 183
5.2.5 Wires With Thermo-Plastic Insulation (P.V.C. Cables) : ...................................................................... 183
5.2.6 Flexible Cord and Flexible Cable : ..................................................................................................... 184
5.2.7 XLPE Cable : ................................................................................................................................... 184
5.2.8 Multistrand Cables : .......................................................................................................................... 185
5.3 Electrical Earthing................................................................................................................................... 185
5.3.1 Types of Electrical Earthing ............................................................................................................... 185
5.3.2 Importance of Earthing ...................................................................................................................... 186
5.3.3 Methods of Earthing.......................................................................................................................... 187
5.4 Battery ................................................................................................................................................... 190
5.4.1 Battery Types ................................................................................................................................... 190
6. Question Bank .......................................................................................................................................... 205
6.1 Question Bank of Unit 1..................................................................................................................... 205
6.2 Question Bank of Unit 2..................................................................................................................... 206
6.3 Question Bank of Unit 3..................................................................................................................... 207
6.4 Question Bank of Unit 4..................................................................................................................... 208
6.5 Question Bank of Unit 5..................................................................................................................... 209
7. Multiple choice Questions (MCQ’s) ........................................................................................................... 210
7.1 MCQ’s of Unit 1 ............................................................................................................................... 210
7.2 MCQ’s of Unit 2 ............................................................................................................................... 215
7.3 MCQ’s of Unit 3 ............................................................................................................................... 218
7.4 MCQ’s of Unit 4 ............................................................................................................................... 222
7.5 MCQ’s of Unit 4 ............................................................................................................................... 226
8. Previous Year Question Papers .................................................................................................................. 231
8.1 2017-18 .................................................................................................................................................. 231
8.2 2018-19 .................................................................................................................................................. 233
8.3 2019-20 .................................................................................................................................................. 236
8.4 2020-21 .................................................................................................................................................. 238
9. Virtual Lab Link ....................................................................................................................................... 240
Experiment 1 - Kirchhoff‟s laws.................................................................................................................... 240
Experiment 2 - Thevenin Theorem. ................................................................................................................ 240
Experiment 3 - RLC series resonance. ............................................................................................................ 240
 Experiment 4 - Measurement of power in 3- phase circuit ............................................................................... 240
Experiment 5 -Determination of parameters of ac single phase series RLC circuit. ............................................ 240
Experiment 6-To observe the B-H loop of a ferromagnetic material in CRO. .................................................... 240
Experiment 7- Determination of the efficiency of a dc motor by loss summation method(Swinburne's test). ....... 240
10. NPTEL Lecture Link ............................................................................................................................. 241
Link 1. Basic Electrical Technology............................................................................................................ 241
Link 2. Passive Components....................................................................................................................... 241
Link 3. Sources ........................................................................................................................................ 241
Link 4. Kirchoff's Law............................................................................................................................... 241
Link 5. The Sinusoid.................................................................................................................................. 241
Link 6. Phasor Analysis Part 1.................................................................................................................... 241
Link 7. Phasor Analysis Part 2.................................................................................................................... 241
Link 8. Power Factor ................................................................................................................................. 241
Link 9. Transformer Basics Part 1............................................................................................................... 241
Link [Link] Basic Part 2 ............................................................................................................... 241
Link [Link] Basics Part 3 ............................................................................................................. 241
Link [Link] Practical Transformer Part 1....................................................................................................... 241
Link [Link] Part 2 ........................................................................................................................ 241
Link [Link] Practical Transformer Part ..................................................................................................... 241
Link [Link] Machines Part 1 ...................................................................................................................... 241
Link [Link] Machines Part 2 ...................................................................................................................... 241
Link [Link] Generators Part 1 .................................................................................................................... 241
Link [Link] Generators Part 2 .................................................................................................................... 241
Link [Link] Motors Part 1 ......................................................................................................................... 241
Link [Link] Motors Part 2 ......................................................................................................................... 241
Link [Link] Motor Part 3 ........................................................................................................................... 241
Link [Link] Phase System Part 1 ............................................................................................................ 241
Link [Link] Phase System Part 2 ............................................................................................................ 242
Link [Link] Phase System Part 3 ............................................................................................................ 242
Link [Link] Phase System Part 4 ............................................................................................................ 242
Link [Link] Phase Transformer Part 1 ........................................................................................................ 242
Link [Link] Phase Transformer Part 2 ........................................................................................................ 242
Link [Link] Motor Part 1 .................................................................................................................. 242
Link [Link] Motor Part 2 .................................................................................................................. 242
Link [Link] Motor Part 3 .................................................................................................................. 242
Link [Link] Motor Part 4 .................................................................................................................. 242
Link [Link] Machine ................................................................................................................... 242
 Unit – 1 DC Circuits
1.1 An Electric circuit
• It is an interconnection of various elements in which there is at least one closed path in
which current can flow.
• An Electric circuit is used as a component for any engineering system. The performance
of any electrical device or machine is always studied by drawing its electrical equivalent
circuit.
• By simulating an electric circuit, any type of system can be studied for e.g., mechanical,
hydraulic thermal, nuclear, traffic flow, weather prediction etc.
• All control systems are studied by representing them in the form of electric circuits.
• The analysis, of any system can be learnt by mastering the techniques of circuit theory.
• The electrical circuit can be DC or AC depending on the the type of source involved

Electrical Circuits

DC Circuits AC Circuits

Fig(1.1)

• In DC circuit the voltage sources and current sources are DC where as AC sources are
connected in AC circuits
1.2 Elements of an Electric circuit:
An Electric circuit consists of following types of elements.

• Active elements
• Passive elements

Active elements : Active elements are the elements of a circuit which possess energy of
their own and can impart it to other element of the circuit. Active elements are of two types

a) Voltage source b) Current source

• A Voltage source has a specified voltage across its terminals, independent of current
flowing through it. Ex. batteries, DC generator,AC generator
• A current source has a specified current through it independent of the voltage
appearing across it. Ex. photoelectric cells , meta-dyne generators
 Passive Elements: The passive elements of an electric circuit do not possess energy of
their own. They receive energy from the sources. The passive elements are the resistance,
the inductance and the capacitance. When electrical energy is supplied to a circuit element, it
will respond in one and more of the following ways.

• If the energy is consumed, then the circuit element is a pure resistor (R).
• If the energy is stored in a magnetic field, the element is a pure inductor (L).
• And if the energy is stored in an electric field, the element is a pure capacitor (C).

1.3 Classification of electrical networks

Electrical Network

Based on presence Based on direction Based on Based on

And absence of source of current seperability linearity

Active Passive Unilateral Bilateral Lumped Distributed linear Nonlinear

Network Network Network Network network Network network network

Fig(3.1)

1.3.1 Linear and Non-Linear network

• Linear elements show the linear characteristics of voltage & current. That is its voltage-
current characteristics are at all-times a straight-line through the origin. For example,
the current passing through a resistor is proportional to the voltage applied through its
and the relation is expressed as V I or V = IR. A linear element or network is one which
satisfies the principle of superposition, i.e., the principle of homogeneity and additivity.
Resistors, inductors and capacitors are the examples of the linear elements and their
properties do not change with a change in the applied voltage and the circuit current.
The circuit consisting them are called linear network

• Non linear element’s are those whose V-I characteristics do not follow the linear
pattern i.e. the current passing through it does not change linearly with the linear
change in the voltage across it. Examples are the semiconductor devices such as diode,
transistor. The circuit consisting such elements are called nonlinear network
1.3.2 Bilateral and Unilateral network:

• An element is said to be bilateral, whose characteristics, behavior, operation don’t

depend upon the direction of current through it. And the circuit consisting such
elements are called bilateral network. ex circuit consisting of resistance.
• An element is said to be Unilateral, whose characteristics, behavior, operation depend
upon the direction of current through it. And the circuit consisting such elements are
called unilateral network. ex circuit consisting of diode.
1.3.3 Lumped and Distributed network

• Lumped networks are those in which all its elements are physically separable. Most of
the networks are lumped in nature. Ex circuit coinciding of VS,CS, Resistors, inductors,
capacitors.
• Distributed networks are those in which we cannot separate its various elements for
analytical purposes. For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along
its length and may extend for hundreds of miles.

1.4 Electrical Energy Sources:

Fig:4.1

1.4.1 Dependent sources: The special kind of sources in which the source voltage or current depends
on some other quantity in the circuit which may be either a voltage or a current anywhere in the
circuit are called Dependent sources or Controlled sources. There are four possible dependent
sources:
a. Voltage dependent Voltage source
b. Current dependent Current source
c. Voltage dependent Current source
d. Current dependent Current source
1.4.2 Independent Sources : If the voltage of the voltage source is completely independent source of
current and the current of the current source is completely independent of the voltage, then the
sources are called as independent sources.

Fig (4.2)

1.4.3 Voltage Source

• An ideal voltage source is one which delivers energy to the load at a constant terminal
voltage, irrespective of the current drawn by the load. The internal resistance of idle
voltage source is zero.
• A Practical voltage source always possesses a very small value of internal resistance R s
connected in series with it. As the value of the internal resistance of a practical voltage
source is very small, its terminal voltage drops slightly with the increase in load current
by following given equation V = Vs-IRs

Fig (4.3)
1.4.4 Current Source

• An ideal current source is one, which delivers energy with a constant current to the
load, irrespective of the terminal voltage across the load.
• A practical current source is also assumed to deliver a constant current, irrespective of
the terminal voltage across the load connected to it. The internal resistance of a current
source is always connected in parallel with it. The value of the internal resistance is very
high hence the current through load is almost constant

Fig (4.4)
1.5 Source Equivalence

1.6 Ideal voltage source connected in series:

Fig(5.1)

• Any number of ideal voltage sources connected in series can be represented by a single
ideal voltage some taking in to account the polarities connected together in to
consideration.
• The equivalent single ideal voltage some is given by V= V1 + V2
1.6.1 Practical voltage source connected in series:

Fig(5.2)

1.6.2 ideal voltage source connected in parallel:

Fig(5.3)
 • When two ideal voltage sources of emf’s V1 & V2 are connected in parallel, what
voltage appears across its terminals is ambiguous.
• Hence such connections should not be made.
• However if V1 = V2= V, then the equivalent voltage some is represented by [Link] that case
also, such a connection is unnecessary as only one voltage source serves the purpose.

1.6.3 Practical voltage sources connected in parallel:

Fig(5.4)

1.6.4 Ideal current sources connected in series:

 When ideal current sources are connected in series,

what current flows through the line is ambiguous.
 Hence such a connection is not permissible.
 However, it I1 = I2 = I, then the current in the line is I.
 But, such a connection is not necessary as only one
current source serves the purpose.

Fig(5.5) 1.6.5 Practical current sources connected in series:

Fig(5.6)
1.6.6 Ideal current sources connected in parallel

• Two ideal current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single equivalent ideal current
source.

1.6.7 Practical current sources connected in parallel

Fig(5.8)
1.7 Source transformation:
• A current source or a voltage source drives current through its load resistance
and the magnitude of the current depends on the value of the load resistance.
• Consider a practical voltage source and a practical current source connected to
the same load resistance RL as shown in the figure (6.1)

Fig(6.1)

• Rs in figure represents the internal resistance of the voltage source V s and current
source Is .
• Two sources are said to be identical, when they produce identical terminal voltage VL
and load current IL.
 • The circuit in figure represents a practical voltage source & a practical current source
respectively, with load connected to both the sources.
• The terminal voltage VL and load current IL across their terminals are same.
• a voltage source Vs in series with its internal resistance R can be converted into a

current source Is = , with its internal resistance R connected in parallel with it.
• Similarly a current source Is in parallel with its internal resistance R can be converted
into a voltage source Vs = IsR in series with its internal resistance R.

1.8 Kirchhoff`s Law

1.8.1 Kirchhoff`s Current Law (KCL)

• In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or
junction) is Zero.
• That is the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current leaving that
junction.
• Consider the case of a network shown in Fig (a).
I1+(-I2)+(I3)+(+I4)+(-I5) = 0

I1+I4-I2-I3-I5 = 0

Or I1+I4 = I2+I3+I5
i.e

• Incoming currents =Outgoing currents

1.8.2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

• In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances
in each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic
sum of the e.m.f.’s. in that path is zero.
• That is, ∑IR + ∑e.m.f = 0 round a mesh
[Link] Determination of Voltage Sign

In applying Kirchhoff's laws to specific problems, particular attention should be paid to

the algebraic signs of voltage drops and [Link].

[Link] Sign of Battery E.M.F.

• A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign
• A fall in voltage a -ve sign.
• That is, if we travel from the -ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal there is a rise
in potential, hence this voltage should be given a + ve sign.
• If we travel from +ve terminal to -ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence this
voltage should be preceded by a -ve sign.
• The sign of the battery e.m.f is independent of the direction of the current through that
branch
 Fig(7.2)

[Link] Sign of IR Drop

• Take the case of a resistor If we go through a resistor in the same direction as the
current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows from a higher to a
lower potential. Hence, this voltage fall should be taken -ve.
• However, if we go in a direction opposite to that of the current, then there is a rise in
voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be given a positive sign.
• Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig.(7.3)
• As we travel around the mesh in the clockwise direction, different voltage drops will
have the following signs :

I1R1 is - ve (fall in potential)

I2R2 is - ve (fall in potential)

I3R3 is + ve (rise in potential)

I4R4 is - ve (fall in potential)

E2 is - ve (fall in potential)

E1 is + ve (rise in potential)

• Using Kirchhoff's voltage law, we get

Fig(7.3)

-I1R1 – I2R2 – I3R3 – I4 R4 – E2 + E1 = 0

Or I1R1 + I2R2 – I3R3 + I4R4 = E1 –E2

1.9 Introduction to Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis:

• Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis are two important techniques used in network
analysis to find out different branch currents and Node voltages.
• The suitability of each analysis depends mainly on the number of voltage/current
sources in the given network. If the voltage sources are more Mesh analysis is suitable
and if current sources are more Nodal analysis is more suitable.
1.9.1 Mesh Analysis:

• Mesh analysis provides general procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as
the circuit variables.. It is preferably useful for the circuits that have many loops .This
analysis is done by using KVL and Ohm's law.
• Loop: It is a closed path along the circuit elements.
• Mesh: Mesh is a loop which does not contains any loop within it.

Determination of mesh currents:

Fig (8.1)

Step (1): Identify the no. of meshes in the given circuit.

There are two meshes..Mesh (1)...... abef and

Mesh (2)..... bcde

Step (2): Apply the KVL to the all meshes.

For mesh (1) by applying KVL… Vs - I1R1 + ( I1-I2)R2 = 0............ (1)

For mesh (2) by applying KVL.... I2R3 + I2 (R4)+ ( I2- I1)R2=0....... (2)

Step (3): solve the above equations for mesh currents.

Problem:

• Write down the mesh current equations for the circuit shown in the figure below
anddetermine the currents I1 and I2.

Solution:

• By applying KVL to the two meshes, we get

• 5 I1 + 2(I1- I2)=10
• 10 I2 + 2(I2- I1)= -50
• Solving the above equations gives.... I1 = 0.25 A and I2 = -4.25 A. The negative sign for
the current I2 indicates that it flows in the opposite direction to that assumed in the
loop two

1.9.2 Super Mesh Analysis:

• If there is only current source between two meshes in the given network then it is
difficult to apply the mesh analysis. Because the current source has to be converted into
a voltage source in terms of the current source, write down the mesh equations and
relate the mesh currents to the current source. But this is a difficult approach .This
difficulty can be avoided by creating super mesh which encloses the two meshes that
have common current source
• Super Mesh: A super mesh is constituted by two adjacent meshes that have a common
current source.
• Let us illustrate this method with the following simple generalized circuit.

Fig (8.3)
 Solution:

• Step (1):Identify the position of current source.

• Here the current source is common to the two meshes 1 and 2. so, super mesh is
nothing but the combination of meshes 1 and 2 .
• Step (2):Applying KVL to this super mesh (combination of meshes 1 and 2 ) we get

R1.I1 + R3(I2 – I3) = V.............. (1)

Applying KVL to mesh 3, we get

R3(I3 – I2) + R4.I3 = 0............ (2)

• Step (3):Make the relation between mesh currents with current source to get
third equation.

I1 - I2 = I............ (3)

• Step(4): Solve the above equations to get the mesh currents.

Example(1): Determine the current in the 5 Ω resistor shown in the figure below.

Fig (8.4)

Solution:

• Step(1): Here the current source exists between mesh(2) and mesh(3).Hence, super
meshis the combination of mesh(2) and mesh(3) .Applying KVL to the super mesh (
combination of mesh 2 and mesh 3 after removing the branch with the current source
of 2 A and resistance of 3 Ω ) we get :

10( I2– I1) + 2.I2 + I3 + 5( I3 – I1) = 0

-15.I1 +12 I2 + 6.I3 = 0 ...................(1)

 • Step (2): Applying KVL first to the normal mesh 1 we get :

10(I1–I2)+5(I1–I3)=50
15.I1 –10I2 – 5I3 = 50.................... (2)

• Step (3): We can get the third equation from the relation between the current source
of 2 A , and currents I2 & I3 as :

I2 - I3 = 2 A................... (3)

• Step (4): Solving the above three equations for I 1, I2 and I3 we get I1 = 19.99 A I2 = 17.33 A
and I3 = 15.33 A
• The current in the 5 Ω resistance = I1 - I3 = 19.99 - 15.33 = 4.66 A

Example(2): Write down the mesh equations for the circuit shown in the figure below and
find out the values of the currents I1, I2 and I3

Fig (8.5)

Solution:

• In this circuit the current source is in the perimeter of the circuit and hence the
firstmesh is ignored. So, here no need to create the super mesh.
• Applying KVL to mesh 2we get :
3(I2–I1)+2(I2–I3)= -10

3.I1 +5.I2 – 2.I3 = -10.............. (1)

• Apply KVL in mesh 3

I3 + 2( I3– I2) = 10

-2.I2 +3.I3 = -10............... (2)

And from the first mesh we observe I1 = 10 A.............. (3)

that.......
• And solving these three equations we get : I1 = 10 A, I2 = 7.27 A, I3 = 8.18 A
1.10 Nodal analysis:
• Nodal analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits nodal
voltages as the circuit variables.
• It is preferably useful for the circuits that have many no. of nodes.. This analysis is
done by using KCL and Ohm's law.
• Node: It is a junction at which two or more branches are interconnected.
• Simple Node: Node at which only two branches are interconnected.
• Principal Node: Node at which more than two branches are interconnected. example:

1.10.1 Determination of node voltages:

Fig (8.6)

Procedure:

• Step (1): Identify the no. nodes, simple nodes and principal nodes in the given circuit.
Among all the nodes one node is taken as reference node. Generally bottom is taken
as reference node. The potential at the reference node is 0v.
• In the given circuit there are 3 principal nodes in which node (3) is the reference node.
• Step (2): Assign node voltages to the all the principal nodes except reference node
andassign branch currents to all branches.

Fig (8.7)

• Step (3): Apply KCL to those principal nodes for nodal equations and by using ohm's
law express the node voltages in terms of branch current.

Applying KCL to node (1) ----I1=I2+I3

 Using ohm's law, we get (V-V1)/R1 =(V1-0)/R1+(V1-V2)/R2.......... (1)

Applying KCL to node (2) ----I3=I4 +I5

Using ohm's law, we get (V1-V2)/R2 =(V 2-0)/R3 +(V2-0)/R5 .............. (2)

• Step(4): Solve the above nodal equations to get the node voltages.

Example: Write the node voltage equations and find out the currents in each branch of thecircuit shown
in the figure below.

Fig (8.8)
Solution:

• The node voltages and the directions of the branch currents are assigned as shown
ingiven figure. Applying KCL to node 1, we get: 5 = I10+ I3

5= (V1-0)/10 +(V1-V2)/3

V1(13/30) -V2(1/3) = 5 ..........(1)

 Applying KCL to node 2, we get: I3= I5 + I1

(V1-V2)/3 = (V2 -0)/5 + (V2-10) /1

V 1(1/3)-V 2(23/15) = -10................ (2)

Solving the these two equations for V1 and V2 we get :

 V1 = 19.85 V and V2 = 10.9 V
 the currents are :

I10= V1/10 = 1.985A

I3 = (V1-V2)/3 = (19.85-10.9)/3 = 2.98A

I5 = V2/5 = 10.9/5 =2.18A

I1 = (V2-10) = (10.9-10)/1 = 0.9A
1.11 Network Theorems

• Thevenin’s theorem
• Norton’s theorem
• Superposition Theorem
• &many other theorems

INTRODUCTION:

• Any complicated network i.e. several sources, multiple resistors are present if the single
element response is desired then use the network theorems. Network theorems are
also can be termed as network reduction techniques. Each and every theorem got its
importance of solving network. Let us see some important theorems with DC excitation
with detailed procedures.

1.11.1 Thevenin’s Theorem Statement :

• Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and

resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage
source in series with a resistance (Impedance).The equivalent voltage source VTh is the
open circuit voltage looking into the terminals(with concerned branch element
removed) and the equivalent resistance RTh while all sources are replaced by their
internal resistors at ideal condition i.e. voltage source is short circuit and current source
is open circuit.

Fig (8.1 ) Fig (8.2 )

Figure (8.1) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive
elements with the load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (8.2)
shows the Thevenin equivalent circuit with VTh connected across RTh & RL .
[Link] Steps to find out VTh
• The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are
marked as say a & b after removing the concerned branch/element.
• Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals is found out using the conventional
network mesh/node analysis methods and this would be VTh .

1.11..1.2 Steps to find out RTh

• Thevenin resistance RTh is found out by the method depending upon whether the
network contains dependent sources or not.

a. With dependent sources: RTh = Voc / Isc

b. With independent sources : RTh = Equivalent resistance looking into the

concerned terminals with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal
impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short circuited and ideal current sources
open circuited)

• Replace the network with VTh in series with RTh and the concerned branch resistance (or)
load resistance across the load terminals (A&B) as shown in below fig (8.3)

Fig (8.3)

IL = V Th / ( RTh + RL) from A to B

Example: Find VTH, RTH and the load current and load voltage flowing through R L resistoras shown in
fig. by using Thevenin’s Theorem?

Solution:

Fig( 8.4)

• The resistance RL is removed and the terminals of the resistance RL are marked as A & B
as shown in the fig. (8.7)

Fig (8.5)

• Calculate the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
• We have already removed the load resistor from fig.(8.4), so the circuit became an open
circuit as shown in fig (8.5).
• Now we have to calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage. Since 3mA Current flows in both
12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors as this is a series circuit because current will not flow in the 8kΩ
resistor as it is open. So 12V (3mA x 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ resistor. We also
know that current is not flowing through the 8kΩ resistor as it is open circuit, but the
8kΩ resistor is in parallel with 4k resistor. So the same voltage (i.e. 12V) will appear
across the 8kΩ resistor as 4kΩ resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB
terminals. So,VTH = 12V

Fig (8.6)
 To calculate RTh

• All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal
voltagesources short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited) as shown in
fig.(8.7)

Fig (8.7)

• Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (R TH )We have
Reduced the 48V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in
figure (8.8) We can see that 8kΩ resistor is in series with a parallel connection of 4kΩ resistor
and

12k Ω resistor. i.e.:

8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)

RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]

RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ

Fig(8.8)

RTH = 11k

• Connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source V TH and re-connect the load resistor across the
load terminals(A&B) as shown in fig (8.9) i.e. Thevenin circuit with load resistor. This is the
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Fig(8.9)
Now apply Ohm’s law and calculate the total load current from fig 31

IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL)= 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) = 12/16kΩ

IL= 0.75mA

And VL = ILx RL= 0.75mA x 5kΩ

VL= 3.75V

1.11.2 Norton’s Theorem Statement :

• Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and

resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current
source in parallel with a resistance (Impedance),the current source being the short
circuited current across the load terminals and the resistance being the internal
resistance of the source network looking through the open circuited load terminals.

Fig (8.10 ) Fig (8.11 )

Figure (8.10) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive
elements with the load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (8.11)
shows the Norton equivalent circuit with IN connected across RN & RL .

[Link] Main steps to find out IN and RN:

1. The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out
aremarked as say a & b after removing the concerned branch/element.
2. Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals and ISC through these two
terminals are found out using the conventional network mesh/node analysis
methods and they are same as what we obtained in Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit.

3. Next Norton resistance RN is found out depending upon whether the network
contains dependent sources or not.

a) With dependent sources: RN = Voc / Isc

b) Without dependent sources : RN = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned

terminals with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances
(i.e. ideal voltage sources short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)

4. Replace the network with IN in parallel with RN and the concerned branch
resistance across the load terminals(A&B) as shown in below fig (8.12)

Fig (8.12 )
Example: Find the current through the resistance R L (1.5 Ω) of the circuit shown in thefigure (8.13)
below using Norton’s equivalent circuit.?

Fig (8.13)
Solution:

• To find out the Norton’s equivalent ckt we have to find out IN = Isc ,RN=Voc/ Isc. Short the
1.5Ω load resistor as shown in (Fig 8.14), and Calculate / measure the Short Circuit
Current. This is the Norton Current (IN).

Fig (8.14)

• We have shorted the AB terminals to determine the Norton current, I N. The 6Ω and 3Ω
are then in parallel and this parallel combination of 6Ω and 3Ω are then in series with
2Ω.So the Total Resistance of the circuit to the Source is:-

2Ω + (6Ω || 3Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)

RT = 2Ω + [(3Ω x 6Ω) / (3Ω + 6Ω)]

RT=2Ω+2Ω

RT=4Ω

IT=V/RT

IT = 12V / 4Ω= 3A..

Now we have to find ISC = IN… Apply CDR… (Current Divider Rule)…ISC = IN
= 3A x [(6Ω / (3Ω + 6Ω)] = 2A.

ISC= IN = 2A.

Fig (8.15)
All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources
short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited) and Open Load Resistor. as shown in
fig.(8.16)

Fig(8.16)

Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (R N) We have
Reduced the 12V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in fig
(8.17), We can see that 3Ω resistor is in series with a parallel combination of 6Ω resistor and 2Ω
resistor. i.e.:

3Ω + (6Ω || 2Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)

RN = 3Ω + [(6Ω x 2Ω) / (6Ω + 2Ω)]

RN = 3Ω + 1.5Ω

RN = 4.5Ω Fig (8.17)

Connect the R N in Parallel with Current Source IN and re-connect the load resistor. This is
shown in fig (8.18) i.e. Norton Equivalent circuit with load resistor.

Fig (8.18)

Now apply the Ohm’s Law and calculate the load current through Load resistance across the
terminals A&B. Load Current through Load Resistor is

IL = IN x [RN / (RN+ RL)]

IL= 2A x (4.5Ω /4.5Ω +1.5kΩ)IL =

1.5A IL = 1. 5A
1.11.3 Superposition Theorem:

• The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one
current or voltage sources sometimes it is easier to find out the voltage across or
current in a branch of the circuit by considering the effect of one source at a time by
replacing theother sources with their ideal internal resistances.
Superposition Theorem Statement:

• Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one sources, The
total current or voltage in any part of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the
currents or voltages in the required branch with each source acting individually while
other sources are replaced by their ideal internal resistances. (i.e. Voltage sources by a
short circuit and current sources by open circuit)
[Link] Steps to Apply Super position Principle:

• Replace all independent sources with their internal resistances except one
source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active source using
nodal or meshanalysis.
• Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
• Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to
the independent sources.

Example: By Using the superposition theorem find I in the circuit shown in figure?

Fig.(8.19)
Solution: Applying the superposition theorem, the current I2 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the
voltage source of 20V alone, with current source of 5A open circuited [ as shown in the
figure.41below ] is given by :

Fig (8.20)

I2 = 20/(5+3) = 2.5A

Similarly the current I5 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the current source of 5A alone with
voltage source of 20V short circuited [ as shown in the figure.42 below ] is given by :

Fig.(8.21)

I5= 5 x 5/(3+5) = 3.125 A

The total current passing through the resistance of 3Ω is then = I2 + I5= 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A
1.12 Star to Delta and Delta to Star Transformations

Like in series and parallel connections, electrical components may be connected in Star or Delta
configurations as shown in the figure below (with Resistances). Many a times circuits have to be
transformed from Star to equivalent Delta and Delta to equivalent Star configurations such that
the net terminal Resistances ( Impedances)across the terminals are the same. We will show this
transformation methodology and the resulting configurations for both Delta to Star and Star to
Delta one by one.

Fig (10.1 )

1.12.1 Delta to Star Transformation:

The circuit configurations are identical provided the net resistances across the terminal pairs XY,
YZ and ZX in both connections are the same. In Star Connection they are:
It is possible to convert a Δ (delta) connected three port network into a Y connected three port
network and vice versa. Delta networks are also known as pi networks (both in reference to the
Greek letters which mimic the shape of the network), and Y networks are also known as T networks.
These are shown below.
A true equivalent circuit would present the same resistance between any two terminals as the original
circuit. For the unloaded case, we find:

RXY = Rd + Re = Ra || (Rb+Rc) eq.1

RXZ = Rd + Rf = Rb || (Ra +Rc) eq. 2
RZY = Re + Rf = Rc || (Rb+Ra ) eq. 3

Assuming we have the delta and are looking for the Y equivalent, note that we have three equations
with three unknowns (Rd, Re and Rf). Thus, they can be solved using a term elimination process. If we
subtract eq. 3 from eq. 1 we eliminate the second resistance (R e ) and arrive at a difference between
the first and third unknown resistances (R d - Rf). This quantity can then be added to eq. 2 to eliminate
the third resistance (Rf), leaving just the first unknown resistance (Rd).

(Rd + Re ) - (Re + Rf) = (Rd - Rf) = Ra || (Rb+Rc) - Rb || (Ra +Rc)

(Rd + Rf) + (Rd - Rf) = 2Rd = 2( Rb || (Ra+Rc) + Ra || (Rb+Rc) - Rc || (Ra+Rb) )
Therefore,
Rd = Rb || (Ra +Rc) + Ra || (Rb+Rc) - Rc || (Ra +Rb)
which, after simplifying, is:
Rd = Ra Rb/(Ra+Rb+Rc) eq. 4
Similarly,
Re = Ra Rc/(Ra +Rb+Rc) eq. 5
Rf = RbRc/(Ra+Rb+Rc) eq. 6

Y-Δ Conversion

For the reverse process of converting Y to delta, start by noting the similarities of the expressions for R d,
Re and Rf. If two of these expressions are divided, a single equation for Ra , Rb or Rc will result. For
example, using eq. 4 and 5:

Rd / Re = (Ra Rb/(Ra +Rb +Rc)) / (Ra Rc/(Ra +Rb +Rc)) = Ra Rb / Ra Rc = Rb / Rc

Therefore,
Rb / Rc = Rd / Re Rb = RcRd / Re

This process can be repeated for eq. 4 and 6 to obtain an expression for R a . The two expressions for R a
and Rb can then be substituted into eq. 4 to obtain an expression for Rc that utilizes only Rd, Re and Rf. A
similar process is followed for Ra and Rb resulting in:

Ra = (RdRe + Re Rf + RdRf)/RfRb = (RdRe + Re Rf + RdRf)/Re Rc = (RdRe + Re Rf + RdRf)/Rd

(8) Problems:

1) Convert the Delta network in Fig.(44.a) to an equivalent star network

Fig (10.2)

Solution:

Convert the star network in fig(45.a) to delta network

Fig (10.3 )
Solution: The equivalent delta for the given star is shown in fig(b), where

Q: Determine the total current I in the given circuit.

Fig (10.4 )

Solution: Delta connected resistors 25 ohms, 10 ohms and 15 ohms are converted in to star as
shown in given figure.

R1 = R12 R31 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 10 x 25 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 5 ohms R2 =

R23 R12 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 15 x 10 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 3 ohms R3 = R31

R23 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 25 x 15 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 7.5 ohms

Fig (10.5 )
 Fig (10.6)

The given circuit thus reduces to the circuit shown in below fig.

The equivalent resistance of

(20 + 5) ohms || (10 + 7.5) ohms = 25 x 17.5 / 25 + 17.5 = 10.29 ohms

Total resistance = 10.29 + 3 + 2.5 = 15.79 ohms Hence the total
current through the battery,

I = 15 / 15.79 = 0.95 A
 Unit 2 Steady State Analysis of Single and Three Phase Ac Circuits
2.1 Introduction
An alternating function is defined as one that varies in both magnitude and direction in more or
less an even manner with respect to time making it a “Bi-directional” waveform. An AC
function can represent either a power source or a signal source with the shape of an AC
waveform generally following that of a mathematical sinusoid being defined as: A(t) =
Amax*sin(2πƒt), The term AC or to give it its full description of Alternating Current, generally
refers to a time- varying waveform with the most common of all being called a Sinusoid
better known as a Sinusoidal Waveform. Sinusoidal waveforms are more generally called by
their short description as Sine Waves. Sine waves are by far one of the most important types of
AC waveform used in electrical engineering.

2.2 AC Waveform
The shape obtained by plotting the instantaneous ordinate values of either voltage or current
against time is called an AC Waveform. An AC waveform is constantly changing its polarity
every half cycle alternating between a positive maximum value and a negative maximum value
respectively with regards to time with a common example of this being the domestic mains
voltage supply we use in our homes.
This means then that the AC Waveform is a “time-dependent signal” with the most common
type of time-dependant signal being that of the Periodic Waveform. The periodic or AC
waveform is the resulting product of a rotating electrical generator.

Alternating voltages and currents can not be stored in batteries or cells like direct current (DC)
can, it is much easier and cheaper to generate these quantities using alternators or waveform
generators when they are needed. The type and shape of an AC waveform depends upon
the generator or device producing them, but all AC waveforms consist of a zero voltage line
that divides the waveform into two symmetrical halves. The main characteristics of an AC
Waveform are defined as:
 2.2.1 AC Waveform Characteristics
• The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to repeat itself from
start to finish. This can also be called the Periodic Time of the waveform for sine waves, or
the Pulse Width for square waves.
• The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a one second
time period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, ( ƒ = 1/T ) with the unit of
frequency being the Hertz, (Hz). The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of the signal
waveform measured in volts or amps.
• We looked at different types of waveforms and said that “Waveforms are basically a visual
representation of the variation of a voltage or current plotted to a base of time”. Generally, for
AC waveforms this horizontal base line represents a zero condition of either voltage or current.
Any part of an AC type waveform which lies above the horizontal zero axis represents a voltage
or current flowing in one direction.
• Likewise, any part of the waveform which lies below the horizontal zero axis represents a
• voltage or current flowing in the opposite direction to the first. Generally for sinusoidal AC
waveforms the shape of the waveform above the zero axis is the same as the shape below it.

However, for most non-power AC signals including audio waveforms this is not always the
case. The most common periodic signal waveforms that are used in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering are the Sinusoidal Waveforms. However, an alternating AC waveform may not
always take the shape of a smooth shape based around the trigonometric sine or cosine
function. AC waveforms can also take the shape of either Complex Waves, Square Waves or
Triangular Waves and these are shown below in Fig. 2.1
 Fig. 2.1 Different waveforms
The time taken for an AC Waveform to complete one full pattern from its positive half to its
negative half and back to its zero baseline again is called a Cycle and one complete cycle
contains both a positive half-cycle and a negative half-cycle. The time taken by the waveform
to complete one full cycle is called the Periodic Time of the waveform, and is given the symbol
“T”.

The number of complete cycles that are produced within one second (cycles/second) is called
the Frequency, symbol ƒ of the alternating waveform. Frequency is measured in Hertz, ( Hz )
named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz.
Then we can see that a relationship exists between cycles (oscillations), periodic time and
frequency (cycles per second), so if there are ƒ number of cycles in one second, each individual
cycle must take 1/ƒ seconds to complete.

2.2.2 Amplitude of An Ac Waveform

As well as knowing either the periodic time or the frequency of the alternating quantity,
another important parameter of the AC waveform is Amplitude, better known as its Maximum
or Peak value represented by the terms, Vmax for voltage or Imax for current.
 The peak value is the greatest value of either voltage or current that the waveform reaches
during each half cycle measured from the zero baseline. For pure sinusoidal waveforms this
peak value will always be the same for both half cycles ( +V m = -Vm ) but for non-sinusoidal or
complex waveforms the maximum peak value can be very different for each half cycle.
Sometimes, alternating waveforms are given a peak-to-peak, Vp-p value and this is simply the
distance or the sum in voltage between the maximum peak value, +V max and the minimum peak
value, -Vmax during one complete cycle.

2.2.3 Relationship between Frequency And Periodic Time

2.3 Average Value

The Average Value (also known as Mean Value) of an Alternating Current (AC) is expressed by that
Direct Current (DC) which transfers across any circuit the same amount of charge as is transferred
by that Alternating Current (AC) during the same time.
We know that the standard equation of alternating current is
i = Im Sin θ
where,
Maximum value of current on sine wave = I m
Average value of current on sine wave = I AV
Instantaneous value of current on sine wave = i
The angle specified for “i” after zero position of current = θ
Angle of half cycle = π radians
Angle of full cycle = 2π radians

2.3.1 Average Value of Complete Cycle

Let i = Im Sin θ

Thus, the average value of a sinusoidal wave over a complete cycle is zero.
2.3.2 Average Value of Current Over A Half Cycle
Let i = Im Sin θ

Average Value of Current (Half Cycle)

IAV = 0.637 Im

Similarly, the average value of voltage over a half cycle

 VAV = 0.637 VM
Therefore, the value of average voltage or current is equal to multiplication of max or peak
value of voltage and current respectively with the constant 0.637.

2.4 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value

The RMS (Root Mean Square) value (also known as effective or virtual value) of an alternating
current (AC) is the value of direct current (DC) when flowing through a circuit or resistor for the
specific time period and produces same amount of heat which produced by the alternating
current (AC) when flowing through the same circuit or resistor for a specific time. It is also
known as effective or vitual value.
We know that the value of sinusoidal alternating current
i = Im Sin θ
While the mean of square of instantaneous values of current in in half or complete cycle is

The Square root of this value is

Hence, the RMS value of the current is (while putting i = Im Sin θ)

2.5 Instantaneous Value
The value attained by an alternating quantity at any instant is known as instantaneous value.
It is denoted by i for current and v for voltage. In other words, the value of an alternating
current or voltage at any particular moment us called an instantaneous value.

2.6 Form Factor (kf)

The ratio between RMS value and Average value of an alternating quantity (Current or Voltage)
is known as Form Factor. It is denoted by kf .
2.7 Peak (Crest) Factor (kp)
Peak Factor is also known as Crest Factor or Amplitude Factor.
It is the ratio between maximum value and RMS value of an alternating wave.

2.8 Phasor Representation of Sinusoidal Quantities

Phasor Diagrams are a graphical way of representing the magnitude and directional relationship

Sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency can have a Phase Difference between themselves
which represents the angular difference of the two sinusoidal waveforms. Also the terms
“lead” and “lag” as well as “in-phase” and “out-of-phase” are commonly used to indicate the
relationship of one waveform to the other with the generalized sinusoidal expression given
as: A(t) = Am sin(ωt ± Φ) representing the sinusoid in the time-domain form.

But when presented mathematically in this way it is sometimes difficult to visualise this angular
or phasor difference between two or more sinusoidal waveforms. One way to overcome this
problem is to represent the sinusoids graphically within the spacial or phasor-domain form by
using Phasor Diagrams, and this is achieved by the rotating vector method.
Basically a rotating vector, simply called a “Phasor” is a scaled line whose length represents an
AC quantity that has both magnitude (“peak amplitude”) and direction (“phase”) which is
“frozen” at some point in time.
A phasor is a vector that has an arrow head at one end which signifies partly the maximum
valueof the vector quantity ( V or I ) and partly the end of the vector that rotates.
Generally, vectors are assumed to pivot at one end around a fixed zero point known as the
“point of origin” wile the arrowed end representing the quantity, freely rotates in an anti -
clockwise direction at an angular velocity, ( ω ) of one full revolution for every cycle. This anti-
clockwise rotation of the vector is considered to be a positive rotation. Likewise, a clockwise
rotation is considered to be a negative rotation. Although the both the terms vectors and
phasors are used to describe a rotating line that itself has both magnitude and direction, the
main difference between the two is that a vectors magnitude is the “peak value” of the
sinusoid while a phasors magnitude is the “rms value” of the sinusoid. In both cases the phase
angle and direction remains the same.
The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant in time can be represented by a phasor
diagram, so phasor diagrams can be thought of as “functions of time”. A complete sine wave
can be constructed by a single vector rotating at an angular velocity of ω = 2πƒ, where ƒ is the
frequency of the waveform. Then a Phasor is a quantity that has both “Magnitude” and
“Direction”. Generally, when constructing a phasor diagram, angular velocity of a sine wave is
always assumed to be: ω in rad/sec. Consider the phasor diagram below.
 Fig. 2.2 Phasor representation of an alternating quantity

As the single vector rotates in an anti-clockwise direction, its tip at point A will rotate one
complete revolution of 360o or 2π representing one complete cycle. If the length of its moving
tip is transferred at different angular intervals in time to a graph as shown above, a sinusoidal
waveform would be drawn starting at the left with zero time. Each position along the
horizontal axis indicates the time that has elapsed since zero time, t = 0. When the vector is
horizontal the tip of the vector represents the angles at 0o, 180o and at 360o.
Likewise, when the tip of the vector is vertical it represents the positive peak value, ( +A m ) at
o o
90 or π/2 and the negative peak value, ( -Am ) at 270 or 3π/2. Then the time axis of the
waveform represents the angle either in degrees or radians through which the phasor has
moved. So we can say that a phasor represent a scaled voltage or current value of a rotating
vector which is “frozen” at some point in time, ( t ) and in our example above, this is at an angle
of 30o. Sometimes when we are analysing alternating waveforms we may need to know the
position of the phasor, representing the Alternating Quantity at some particular instant in time
especially when we want to compare two different waveforms on the same axis. For example,
voltage and current. We have assumed in the waveform above that the waveform starts at
time t = 0 with a corresponding phase angle in either degrees or radians. But if a second
 waveform starts to the left or to the right of this zero point or we want to represent in phasor
notation the relationship between the two waveforms then we will need to take into account
this phase difference, Φ of the waveform.

2.8.1 Phase Difference of A Sinusoidal Waveform

Fig. 2.3 Phase difference

The generalised mathematical expression to define these two sinusoidal quantities will be
written as:

The current, i is lagging the voltage, v by angle Φ and in our example above this is 30o . So the

difference between the two phasors representing the two sinusoidal quantities is angle Φ and
the resulting phasor diagram will be -

Fig.2.4 Resulting phasor diagram

 The phasor diagram is drawn corresponding to time zero ( t = 0 ) on the horizontal axis. The
lengths of the phasors are proportional to the values of the voltage, ( v ) and the current, ( i ) at
the instant in time that the phasor diagram is drawn. The current phasor lags the voltage
phasor by the angle, φ, as the two phasors rotate in an anticlockwise direction as sta ted earlier,
therefore the angle, φ is also measured in the same anticlockwise direction.

Fig. 2.5

If however, the waveforms are frozen at time, t = 30 o , the corresponding phasor diagram would
look like the one shown above .Once again the current phasor lags behind the voltage phasor as
the two waveforms are of the same frequency.
However, as the current waveform is now crossing the horizontal zero axis line at this instant in
time we can use the current phasor as our new reference and correctly say that the voltage
phasor is “leading” the current phasor by angle, Φ. Either way, one phasor is designated as
the reference phasor and all the other phasors will be either leading or lagging with respect to
this reference.

2.8.2 Phasor Addition

Sometimes it is necessary when studying sinusoids to add together two alternating waveforms,
for example in an AC series circuit, that are not in-phase with each other. If they are in-phase
that is, there is no phase shift then they can be added together in the same way as DC values to
find the algebraic sum of the two vectors. For example, if two voltages of say 50 volts and 25
volts respectively are together “in-phase”, they will add or sum together to form one voltage of
 75 volts (50 + 25).
If however, they are not in-phase that is, they do not have identical directions or starting point
then the phase angle between them needs to be taken into account so they are added
together using phasor diagrams to determine their Resultant Phasor or Vector Sum by
using the parallelogram law.
Consider two AC voltages, V1 having a peak voltage of 20 volts, and V2 having a peak voltage
o
of 30 volts where V1 leads V2 by 60 . The total voltage, VT of the two voltages can be found by
firstly drawing a phasor diagram representing the two vectors and then constructing a
parallelogram in which two of the sides are the voltages, V1 and V2 as shown below.

By drawing out the two phasors to scale onto graph paper, their phasor sum V1 + V2 can be
easily found by measuring the length of the diagonal line, known as the “resultant r-vector”,
from the zero point to the intersection of the construction lines 0-A. The downside of this
graphical method is that it is time consuming when drawing the phasors to scale.
Also, while this graphical method gives an answer which is accurate enough for most purposes, it
may produce an error if not drawn accurately or correctly to scale. Then one way to ensure that
the correct answer is always obtained is by an analytical method.

Mathematically we can add the two voltages together by firstly finding their “vertical” and
 “horizontal” directions, and from this we can then calculate both the “vertical” and
“horizontal” components for the resultant “r vector”, VT. This analytical method which uses the
cosine and sine rule to find this resultant value is commonly called the Rectangular Form.
In the rectangular form, the phasor is divided up into a real part, x and an imaginary
part, y forming the generalised expression Z = x ± jy. This then gives us a mathematical
expression that represents both the magnitude and the phase of the sinusoidal voltage as -
DEFINITION OF A COMPLEX SINUSOID

So the addition of two vectors, A and B using the previous generalised expression is as follows:

PHASOR ADDITION USING RECTANGULAR FORM

Voltage, V2 of 30 volts points in the reference direction along the horizontal zero axis, then it
has a horizontal component but no vertical component as follows.
• Horizontal Component = 30 cos 0o = 30 volts
• Vertical Component = 30 sin 0o = 0 volts
This then gives us the rectangular expression for voltage V2 of 30 + j0
o
Voltage, V1 of 20 volts leads voltage, V2 by 60 , then it has both horizontal and vertical
components as follows.
• Horizontal Component = 20 cos 60o = 20 x 0.5 = 10 volts
• Vertical Component = 20 sin 60o = 20 x 0.866 = 17.32 volts
This then gives us the rectangular expression for voltage V1 of: 10 + j17.32
The resultant voltage, VT is found by adding together the horizontal and vertical components as
follows :-
 VHorizontal = sum of real parts of V1 and V2 = 30 + 10 = 40 volts
VVertical = sum of imaginary parts of V1 and V2 = 0 + 17.32 = 17.32 volts
Now that both the real and imaginary values have been found the magnitude of voltage, VT
is determined by simply using Pythagoras’s Theorem for a 90o triangle as follows :-

Then the resulting phasor diagram will be -

Resultant Value of VT

Fig. 2.7
2.8.3 Phasor Subtraction

Phasor subtraction is very similar to the above rectangular method of addition, except this time
the vector difference is the other diagonal of the parallelogram between the two
voltages of V1 and V2 as shown.

Fig. 2.8
This time instead of “adding” together both the horizontal and vertical components we take
them away, subtraction.

PHASOR DIAGRAM SUMMARY

In their simplest terms, phasor diagrams are a projection of a rotating vector onto a horizontal
axis which represents the instantaneous value. As a phasor diagram can be drawn to represent
any instant of time and therefore any angle, the reference phasor of an alternating quantity is
always drawn along the positive x-axis direction.
 Vectors, Phasors and Phasor Diagrams ONLY apply to sinusoidal AC alternating
quantities.
 A Phasor Diagram can be used to represent two or more stationary sinusoidal
quantities at any instant in time.
  Generally the reference phasor is drawn along the horizontal axis and at that instant in

time the other phasors are drawn. All phasors are drawn referenced to the horizontal
zero axis.
 Phasor diagrams can be drawn to represent more than two sinusoids. They can be
either voltage, current or some other alternating quantity but the frequency of all of
them must be the same.
 All phasors are drawn rotating in an anticlockwise direction. All the phasors ahead of
the reference phasor are said to be “leading” while all the phasors behind the reference
phasor are said to be “lagging”.
 Generally, the length of a phasor represents the r.m.s. value of the sinusoidal
rather than its maximum value.
 Sinusoids of different frequencies cannot be represented on the same phasor diagram due
to the different speed of the vectors. At any instant in time the phase angle between them
will be different.
 Two or more vectors can be added or subtracted together and become a single vector,
called a Resultant Vector.
 The horizontal side of a vector is equal to the real or “x” vector. The vertical side of a
vector is equal to the imaginary or “y” vector. The hypotenuse of the resultant right
angled triangle is equivalent to the “r” vector.
 In a three-phase balanced system each individual phasor is displaced by 120o .

quantity
2.9 Complex Notations
Real numbers are not the only kind of numbers we need to use especially when dealing with
frequency dependent sinusoidal sources and vectors. As well as using normal or real
numbers, Complex Numbers were introduced to allow complex equations to be solved with
numbers that are the square roots of negative numbers, √-1.

In electrical engineering this type of number is called an “imaginary number” and to distinguish
 an imaginary number from a real number the letter “ j ” known commonly in electrical
engineering as the j-operator, is used. Thus the letter “j” is placed in front of a real number to
signify its imaginary number operation.
Examples of imaginary numbers are: j3, j12, j100 etc. Then a complex number consists of two
distinct but very much related parts, a “ Real Number ” plus an “ Imaginary Number ”.

Fig. 2.9 j operator

2.9.1 Complex Numbers Using Polar Form
Unlike rectangular form which plots points in the complex plane, the Polar Form of a complex
number is written in terms of its magnitude and angle. Thus, a polar form vector is presented
as: Z = A ∠±θ, where: Z is the complex number in polar form, A is the magnitude or modulo of
the vector and θ is its angle or argument of A which can be either positive or negative. The
magnitude and angle of the point still remains the same as for the rectangular form above, this
time in polar form the location of the point is represented in a “triangular form” as shown
below.

Fig. 2.10 Rectangular method

 Then in Polar form the length of A and its angle represents the complex number instead of a
point. Also in polar form, the conjugate of the complex number has the same magnitude or
modulus it is the sign of the angle that changes, so for example the conjugate of 6 ∠30o would
be 6 ∠– 30o.

2.9.2 Conversion Of Rectangular Form And Polar Form

In the rectangular form we can express a vector in terms of its rectangular coordinates, with
the horizontal axis being its real axis and the vertical axis being its imaginary axis or j-
component. In polar form these real and imaginary axes are simply represented by “A ∠θ”.
Then using our example above, the relationship between rectangular form and polar form can
be defined as.
CONVERTING POLAR FORM INTO RECTANGULAR FORM, ( P→R )
CONVERTING RECTANGULAR FORM INTO POLAR FORM, (R→P )

MULTIPLICATION IN POLAR FORM

Multiplying together 6 ∠30o and 8 ∠– 45o in polar form gives us.

DIVISION IN POLAR FORM

Likewise, to divide together two vectors in polar form, we must divide the two modulus and
then subtract their angles as shown.
2.9.3 Complex Numbers Using Exponential Form
So far we have considered complex numbers in the Rectangular Form, ( a + jb ) and the Polar
Form, ( A ∠±θ ). But there is also a third method for representing a complex number which is
similar to the polar form that corresponds to the length (magnitude) and phase angle of the
sinusoid but uses the base of the natural logarithm, e = 2.718 281.. to find the value of the
complex number. This third method is called the Exponential Form.
The Exponential Form uses the trigonometric functions of both the sine ( sin ) and the
cosine ( cos ) values of a right angled triangle to define the complex exponential as a rotating
point in the complex plane. The exponential form for finding the position of the point is
based around Euler’s Identity, named after Swiss mathematician, Leonhard Euler and is given
as -

Then Euler’s identity can be represented by the following rotating phasor diagram in the
complex plane.

Fig. 2.11 Rotating phasor in complex plane

 We can see that Euler’s identity is very similar to the polar form above and that it shows us that
a number such as Ae jθ which has a magnitude of 1 is also a complex number. Not only can we
convert complex numbers that are in exponential form easily into polar form such
as: 2e j30 = 2∠30, 10e j120 = 10∠120 or -6e j90 = -6∠90, but Euler’s identity also gives us a way of
converting a complex number from its exponential form into its rectangular form. Then the
relationship between, Exponential, Polar and Rectangular form in defining a complex numbers
can be obtained.

2.9.4 Complex Number Forms

So far we have look at different ways to represent either a rotating vector or a stationary vector using
complex numbers to define a point on the complex plane. Phasor notation is the process of
constructing a single complex number that has the amplitude and the phase angle of the given
sinusoidal waveform. Then phasor notation or phasor transform as it is sometimes called,
transfers the real part of the sinusoidal function: A(t) = Am cos(ωt ± Φ) from the time domain into
the complex number domain which is also called the frequency domain. For example:
Please note that the √2 converts the maximum amplitude into an effective or RMS value with
the phase angle given in radians, ( ω ).

Summary of Complex Numbers

Then to summarize Complex Numbers and the use of complex numbers in Electrical
Engineering.
 Complex Numbers consist of two distinct numbers, a real number plus an
imaginarynumber.
 Imaginary numbers are distinguish from a real number by the use of the j - operator.
 A number with the letter “ j ” in front of it identifies it as an imaginary number in
the complex plane.
 By definition, the j-operator j ≡ √-1
 Imaginary numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided the same as
realnumbers.

 The multiplication of “ j ” by “ j ” gives j2 = -1

 In Rectangular Form a complex number is represented by a point in space on the

complex plane.

 In Polar Form a complex number is represented by a line whose length is the amplitude
and by the phase angle.

 In Exponential Form a complex number is represented by a line and corresponding

angle that uses the base of the natural logarithm.

 A complex number can be represented in one of three ways:

 Z = x + jy » Rectangular Form

 Z = A ∠Φ » Polar Form

 Z = A e jΦ » Exponential Form
  Euler’s identity can be used to convert Complex Numbers from exponential form into
rectangular form.
2.10 Purely Resistive Circuit:

Any ideal basic circuit element such as a resistor can be described mathematically in terms of its
voltage and current, and we know that the voltage across a pure ohmic resistor is linearly
proportional to the current flowing through it as defined by Ohm’s Law. Consider the circuit below

The electrical current that flows through an AC resistance varies sinusoidally with time and is represented
by the expression, I(t) = Im sin(ωt + θ), where Im is the maximum ampli tude of thecurrent and θ is its phase
angle. In addition we can also say that for any given current, i flowing through the resistor the maximum or
peak voltage across the terminals of R will be given by ohm’s law as

And the value of instantaneous current is

There is no phase difference between the current and the voltage when using an AC resistance
as the current will achieve its maximum, minimum and zero values whenever the voltage reaches
it maximum, minimum and zero values as shown
This “in-phase” effect can also be represented by a phasor diagram.

Fig. 2.14 Phasor diagram

RMS RELATIONSHIP
PHASE RELATIONSHIP

AC IMPEDANCE
The impedance vector is represented by the letter, ( Z ) for an AC resistance value with the
units of Ohm’s ( Ω ) the same as for DC. Then Impedance ( or AC resistance ) can be defined as:

POWER
Since the phase angle between the voltage and current in a purely resistive AC circuit is zero,
the power factor must also be zero and is given as: cos 0 o = 1.0 , Then the instantaneous power
consumed in the resistor is given by:

However, as the average power in a resistive or reactive circuit depends upon the phase angle
and in a purely resistive circuit this is equal to θ = 0, the power factor is equal to one so the
average power consumed by an AC resistance can be defined simply by using Ohm’s Law as:
2.11 Purely Inductive Circuit:

Inductors and chokes are basically coils or loops of wire that are either wound around a hollow
tube former (air cored) or wound around some ferromagnetic material (iron cored) to increase
their inductive value called inductance. This simple circuit given below consists of a pure
inductance of L Henries ( H ), connected across a sinusoidal voltage given by the
expression: V(t) = Vmax sin ωt. When the switch is closed this sinusoidal voltage will cause a
current to flow and rise from zero to its maximum value. This rise or change in the current will
induce a magnetic field within the coil which in turn will oppose or restrict this change in the
current.

Fig. 2.15 Purely inductive circuit

then the voltage across an AC inductance will be defined as:

Where : V L = IωL which is the voltage amplitude and θ = + 90o which is the phase difference or
phase angle between the voltage and current.

Fig. 2.16 Waveforms

The applied voltage reaches its maximum positive value a quarter ( 1/4ƒ ) of a cycle earlier than
the current reaches its maximum positive value, in other words, a voltage applied to a purely
inductive circuit “LEADS” the current by a quarter of a cycle or 90o as shown .
 Fig. 2.17 Phasor diagram

Where:
XL = Inductive Reactance in Ohms, (Ω)
π (pi) = a numeric constant of 3.142
ƒ = Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
L = Inductance in Henries, (H)
We can also define inductive reactance in radians, where Omega, ω equals 2πƒ.

Power:

p=v.i

p=(VmSinωt)( ImSin(ωt-π/2)

p= -Vm Im Sinωt Cosωt

p= -(Vm Im/2) 2 Sinωt Cosωt

p= -(Vm Im/2) Sin2ωt

This means then that the total power absorbed by a pure inductor over one full-cycle is zero.

2.12 Purely Capacitive Circuit

When an alternating sinusoidal voltage is applied to the plates of an pure AC capacitor, the
capacitor is charged firstly in one direction and then in the opposite direction changing
polarity at the same rate as the AC supply voltage.

Then during this first half cycle 0o to 180o the applied voltage reaches its maximum positive
value a quarter (1/4ƒ) of a cycle after the current reaches its maximum positive value, in other
words, a voltage applied to a purely capacitive circuit “LAGS” the current by a quarter of a
cycle or 90o as shown below.
In an AC circuit containing pure capacitance the current (electron flow) flowing into the
capacitor is given as:

and therefore, the rms current flowing into an AC capacitance will be defined as:

Where: IC = V/(1/ωC) (or IC = V/XC) is the current magnitude and θ = + 90 o which is the phase
difference or phase angle between the voltage and current. For a purely capacitive
o o
circuit, Ic leads Vc by 90 , or Vc lags Ic by 90 .
Phasor Domain
In the phasor domain the voltage across the plates of an AC capacitance will be:

And in polar form this will be written as

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE

XC is the Capacitive Reactance in Ohms, ƒ is the frequency in Hertz and C is the AC capacitance
in Farads, symbol F.
When dealing with AC capacitance, we can also define capacitive reactance in terms of radians,
where Omega, ω equals 2πƒ.

From the above formula we can see that the value of capacitive reactance and therefore its
overall impedance ( in Ohms ) decreases towards zero as the frequency increases acting like a
short circuit. Likewise, as the frequency approaches zero or DC, the capacitors reactance
increases to infinity, acting like an open circuit which is why capacitors block DC.

Power:

This means then that the total power taken by a pure capacitor over one full-cycle is zero, so
the capacitors reactive power does not perform any real work.

2.13 Series Resistance-Inductance Circuit

V equals the r.m.s value of the applied voltage.

I equals the r.m.s. value of the series current.
VR equals the I.R voltage drop across the resistance which is in-phase with
the current. VL equals the [Link] voltage drop across the inductance which leads
the current by 900
As VR = I.R and VL = [Link] the applied voltage will be the vector sum of the two as
follows:

The quantity represents the impedance, Z of the circuit. Its unit is Ω .

Phase
Angle

2.14 Series Resistance-Capacitance Circuit

As VR = I.R and VC = [Link] the applied voltage will be the vector sum of the two as
follows.

Fig. 2.22 Phasor

diagram

The represents the impedance, Z of the circuit. Its

 2.15 Series RLC Circuit

i(t) = Imax sin(ωt)

The instantaneous voltage across a pure resistor, V R is “in-phase” with current. The
instantaneous voltage across a pure inductor, VL “leads” the current by 90o The
instantaneous voltage across a pure capacitor, V C “lags” the current by 90oTherefore,
VL and VC are 180o “out-of-phase” and in opposition to each other.
 For the series RLC circuit above, this can be shown as:

This means then that we can not simply add together VR, VL and VC to find the
supply voltage, VS across all three components as all three voltage vectors point in
different directions with regards to the current vector. Therefore we will have to find
the supply voltage, VS as
the Phasor Sum of the three component voltages combined together vectorially.
 So we can see that the amplitude of the source voltage is proportional to the
amplitude of the current flowing through the circuit. This proportionality constant is
called the Impedance of the circuit which ultimately depends upon the resistance
and the inductive and capacitive reactances. Then in the series RLC circuit above, it
can be seen that the opposition to current flow is made up of three components, XL,
XC and R with the reactance, XT of any series RLC circuit being defined as: XT = XL – XC
or XT = XC – XL whichever is greater. Thus the total impedance of the circuit being
thought of as the voltage source required to drive a current through it.

2.16 Parallel RLC Circuit

Since the voltage across the circuit is common to all three circuit elements we can
use this as the reference vector with the three current vectors drawn relative to this
at their corresponding angles. The resulting vector current IS is obtained by
adding together two of the vectors, IL and IC and then adding this sum to the
remaining vector IR. The resulting angle obtained between V and IS will be the circuits
phase angle as shown below.
We can see from the phasor diagram on the right hand side above that the
current vectors produce a rectangular triangle, comprising of hypotenuse IS,
horizontal axis IR and vertical axis IL – IC .This forms a Current Triangle
2.17 Impedance of A Parallel RLC Circuit
Final equation for a parallel RLC circuit produces complex impedance’s for each parallel
branch as each element becomes the reciprocal of impedance, ( 1/Z ). The reciprocal of
impedance is commonly called Admittance, symbol ( Y ).
2.18 Conductance, Admittance and Susceptance
The units used for conductance, admittance and susceptance are all the same
namely Siemens ( S ), which can also be thought of as the reciprocal of Ohms or ohm-1.

2.18.1 Admittance ( Y )
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance, Z and is given the symbol Y. In AC circuits
admittance is defined as the ease at which a circuit composed of resistances and
reactances allows current to flow when a voltage is applied taking into account the
phase difference between the voltage and the current.
The admittance of a parallel circuit is the ratio of phasor current to phasor voltage
with the angleof the admittance being the negative to that of impedance.

2.18.2 Conductance ( G )
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, R and is given the symbol G.
Conductance is defined as the ease at which a resistor (or a set of resistors) allows

current to flow when a voltage, either AC or DC is applied.

2.18.3 Susceptance ( B )
Susceptance is the reciprocal of of a pure reactance, X and is given the symbol B. In
AC circuits susceptance is defined as the ease at which a reactance (or a set of
 reactances) allows an alternating current to flow when a voltage of a given frequency
is applied.

Susceptance has the opposite sign to reactance so Capacitive susceptance BC is positive, (+ve) in
value while Inductive susceptance BL is negative, (-ve) in value.

We can therefore define inductive and capacitive susceptance as being:

In AC series circuits the opposition to current flow is impedance, Z which has two components,

resistance R and reactance, X and from these two components we can construct an
impedance triangle. Similarly, in a parallel RLC circuit, admittance, Y also has two
components, conductance, G and susceptance, B. This makes it possible to
construct an admittance triangle that has a horizontal conductance axis, G and a
vertical susceptance axis, jB as shown.

2.19 Admittance Triangle for A Parallel RLC Circuit

Now that we have an admittance triangle, we can use Pythagoras to calculate the
magnitudes of all three sides as well as the phase angle as shown. from Pythagoras
Then we can define both the admittance of the circuit and the impedance with respect
to admittance as-
Giving us a power factor angle of:

As the admittance, Y of a parallel RLC circuit is a complex quantity, the

admittance
corresponding to the general form of impedance Z = R + j X for series circuits will be
written as Y = G – jB for parallel circuits where the real part G is the conductance and
the imaginary part jB is the susceptance. In polar form this will be given as-

2.20 Power in Ac Circuits

Real power (P) also known as true or active power, performs the “real work” within
an electrical circuit. Real power, measured in watts, defines the power consumed by
the resistive part of a circuit. Then real power, (P) in an AC circuit is the same as
power, P in a DC circuit. So just like DC circuits, it is always calculated as I2*R, where
 R is the total resistive component of the circuit. Its unit is watt (W).

Reactive power (Q) (sometimes called wattless power) is the power consumed in an
AC circuit that does not perform any useful work but has a big effect on the phase
shift between the voltage and current waveforms. Reactive power is linked to the
reactance produced by inductors and capacitors and counteracts the effects of real
power. Reactive power does not exist in DC circuits. Its unit is VAR.

Apparent Power (S) As apparent power is made up of two parts, the resistive power
which is the in-phase power or real power in watts and the reactive power which is
the out-of-phase power in volt-amperes. Its unit is VA

we can show the vector addition of these two power components in the form of a
power triangle.
A power triangle has four parts: P, Q, S and θ.

Where:
 P is the I2*R or Real power that performs work measured in watts, W
 Q is the I2*X or Reactive power measured in volt-amperes reactive, VAr
 S is the I2*Z or Apparent power measured in volt-amperes, VA
 Φ is the phase angle in degrees. The larger the phase angle, the greater
the reactivepower
 cos(Φ) = P/S = W/VA = power factor, p.f.
 sin(Φ) = Q/S = VAr/VA
 tan(Φ) = Q/P = VAr/W
 The power factor is calculated as the ratio of the real power to the
apparent power because this ratio equals cos(Φ).
2.21 Power Factor:
Power factor, cos(Φ), is an important part of an AC circuit that can also be expressed in terms of
circuit impedance or circuit power. Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power (P) to
apparent power (S), and is generally expressed as either a decimal value, for example 0.95, or as
a percentage: 95%. Then we can write the relationship between the real power, the apparent
power and the circuits

power factor as:

2.22 Power Factor Improvement

The following devices and equipment are used for Power Factor Improvement :-

1. Static Capacitor
2. Synchronous Condenser
3. Phase Advancer
2.22.1 Static Capacitor
We know that most of the industries and power system loads are inductive that take lagging
current which decrease the system power [Link] Power factor improvement purpose,
Static capacitors are connected in parallel with those devices which work on low power factor.
These static capacitors provides leading current which neutralize (totally or approximately) the

lagging inductive component of load current (i.e. leading component neutralize or eliminate the
lagging component of load current) thus power factor of the load circuit is improved.
These capacitors are installed in Vicinity of large inductive load e.g Induction motors and
transformers etc, and improve the load circuit power factor to improve the system or devises
efficiency.

Fig. 2.31 Power factor improvement

Suppose, here is a single phase inductive load which is taking lagging current (I) and the loa d
power factor is Cos θ as shown in Fig. 2.31.
In Fig. 2.31 , a Capacitor (C) has been connected in parallel with load. Now a current (I c) is
flowing through Capacitor which lead 90° from the supply voltage ( Note that Capacitor
provides leading Current i.e., In a pure capacitive circuit, Current leading 90° from the supply
 Voltage, in other words, Voltage are 90° lagging from Current). The load current is (I). The
Vectors combination of (I1) and (Ic) is (I2) which is lagging from voltage at θ 2 as shown .
It can be seen that angle of θ2 < θ1 i.e. angle of θ 2 is less than from angle of θ 2. Therefore Cosθ 2
is less than from Cosθ 1 (Cosθ 2> Cosθ 1). Hence the load power factor is improved by capacitor.
Advantages:
Capacitor bank offers several advantages over other methods of power factor improvement.
 Losses are low in static capacitors
 There is no moving part, therefore need low maintenance
 It can work in normal conditions (i.e. ordinary atmospheric conditions)
 Do not require a foundation for installation
 They are lightweight so it is can be easy to installed
Disadvantages:
 The age of static capacitor bank is less (8 – 10 years)
 With changing load, we have to ON or OFF the capacitor bank, which causes switching
surges on the system.
 If the rated voltage increases, then it causes damage it.
 Once the capacitors spoiled, then repairing is costly.

2.22.2 Synchronous Condenser

When a Synchronous motor operates at No-Load and over-exited then it’s called a synchronous
Condenser. Whenever a Synchronous motor is over-exited then it provides leading current and
works like a capacitor.
When a synchronous condenser is connected across supply voltage (in parallel) then it draws
leading current and partially eliminates the re-active component and this way, power factor is
improved. Generally, synchronous condenser is used to improve the power factor in large
industries.

2.22.3 Phase Advancer

 Phase advancer is a simple AC exciter which is connected on the main shaft of the motor and
operates with the motor’s rotor circuit for power factor improvement. Phase advancer is used
to improve the power factor of induction motor in industries.
As the stator windings of induction motor takes lagging current 90° out of phase with Voltage,
therefore the power factor of induction motor is low. If the exciting ampere-turns are excited
by external AC source, then there would be no effect of exciting current on stator windings.
Therefore the power factor of induction motor will be improved. This process is done by Phase
advancer.
Advantages

 Lagging kVAR (Reactive component of Power or reactive power) drawn by the motor is
sufficiently reduced because the exciting ampere turns are supplied at slip frequency (fs ).
 The phase advancer can be easily used where the use of synchronous motors is
Unacceptable
Disadvantage:
 Using Phase advancer is not economical for motors below 200 H.P. (about 150kW)

SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

Firstly, let us define what we already know about series RLC circuits.
2.23 Concept of Series Resonance
From the above equation for inductive reactance, if either the Frequency or the Inductance is
increased the overall inductive reactance value of the inductor would also increase. As the
frequency approaches infinity the inductors reactance would also increase towards infinity
with the circuit element acting like an open circuit. However, as the frequency approaches
zero or DC, the inductors reactance would decrease to zero, causing the opposite effect acting
like a short circuit. This means then that inductive reactance is “Proportional” to frequency and
is small at low frequencies and high at higher frequencies and this demonstrated in the
following curve:

The graph of inductive reactance against frequency is a straight line linear curve. The inductive
reactance value of an inductor increases linearly as the frequency across it increases.
Therefore,

inductive reactance is positive and is directly proportional to frequency ( XL 𝖺 ƒ )

The same is also true for the capacitive reactance formula above but in reverse. If either
the Frequency or the Capacitance is increased the overall capacitive reactance would decrease.
As the frequency approaches infinity the capacitors reactance would reduce to practically zero
causing the circuit element to act like a perfect conductor of 0 Ω.
But as the frequency approaches zero or DC level, the capacitors reactance would rapidly
increase up to infinity causing it to act like a very large resistance, becoming more like an open
circuit condition. This means then that capacitive reactance is “Inversely proportional” to
frequency for any given value of capacitance and this is shown below

The graph of capacitive reactance against frequency is a hyperbolic curve. The Reactance value
of a capacitor has a very high value at low frequencies but quickly decreases as the frequency
across it increases. Therefore, capacitive reactance is negative and is inversely proportional to
-1
frequency ( XC 𝖺 ƒ ) We can see that the values of these resistances depends upon the
frequency of the supply. At a higher frequency XL is high and at a low frequency XC is high. Then
there must be a frequency point were the value of XL is the same as the value of XC and there is.
If we now place the curve for inductive reactance on top of the curve for capacitive reactance
so that both curves are on thesame axes, the point of intersection will give us the series
resonance frequency point,( ƒr or ωr ) as shown below.
2.23.1 Series Resonance Frequency

where: ƒr is in Hertz, L is in Henries and C is in Farads.

Electrical resonance occurs in an AC circuit when the two reactances which are opposite and
equal cancel each other out as XL = XC and the point on the graph at which this happens is were
the two reactance curves cross each other. In a series resonant circuit, the resonant
frequency, ƒr point can be calculated as follows.
 We can see then that at resonance, the two reactances cancel each other out there by making a
series LC combination act as a short circuit with the only opposition to current flow in a series
resonance circuit being the resistance, R. In complex form, the resonant frequency is the
frequency at which the total impedance of a series RLC circuit becomes purely “real”, that is no
imaginary impedance’s exist. This is because at resonance they are cancelled out. So the total
impedance of the series circuit becomes just the value of the resistance and therefore: Z = R.
Then at resonance the impedance of the series circuit is at its minimum value and equal only to
the resistance, R of the circuit. The circuit impedance at resonance is called the “dynamic
impedance” of the circuit and depending upon the frequency, XC (typically at high frequencies)

or XL (typically at low frequencies) will dominate either side of resonance as shown below.

Note that when the capacitive reactance dominates the circuit the impedance curve has a
hyperbolic shape to itself, but when the inductive reactance dominates the circuit the curve is
non-symmetrical due to the linear response of XL. You may also note that if the circuits
impedance is at its minimum at resonance then consequently, the circuits admittance must
be at its maximum and one of the characteristics of a series resonance circuit is that admittance
is very high. But this can be a bad thing because a very low value of resistance at resonance
means that the resulting current flowing through the circuit may be dangerously high. In series
RLC circuits, the voltage across a series combination is the phasor sum of VR, VL and
VC. Then if at resonance the two reactances are equal and cancelling, the two voltages
representing VL and VC must also be opposite and equal in value thereby cancelling each other
out because with pure components the phasor voltages are drawn at +90o and - 90o
respectively. Then in a series resonance circuit as V L = -VC the resulting reactive voltages are zero
and all the supply voltage is dropped across the resistor. Therefore, V R = V supply and it is for this
reason that series resonance circuits are known as voltage resonance circuits, (as opposed to
parallel resonance circuits which are current resonance circuits).

2.23.2 Series RLC Circuit at Resonance

Since the current flowing through a series resonance circuit is the product of voltage divided by
impedance, at resonance the impedance, Z is at its minimum value, ( =R ). Therefore, the circuit
current at this frequency will be at its maximum value of V/R as shown below.

2.23.3 Series Circuit Current at Resonance

 The frequency response curve of a series resonance circuit shows that the magnitude of the
current is a function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph shows us that the response
starts at near to zero, reaches maximum value at the resonance frequency when IMAX = IR and
then drops again to nearly zero as ƒ becomes infinite. The result of this is that the magnitudes
of the voltages across the inductor, L and the capacitor, C can become many times larger than
the supply voltage, even at resonance but as they are equal and at opposition they cancel each
other out. As a series resonance circuit only functions on resonant frequency, this type of
circuit is also known as an Acceptor Circuit because at resonance, the impedance of the circuit
is at its minimum so easily accepts the current whose frequency is equal to its resonant
frequency. You may also notice that as the maximum current through the circuit at resonance
is limited only by the value of the resistance (a pure and real value), the source voltage and
circuit current must therefore be in phase with each other at this frequency. Then the phase
angle between the voltage and current of a series resonance circuit is also a function of
frequency for a fixed supply voltage and which is zero at the resonant frequency point
when: V, I and VR are all in phase with each other as shown below. Consequently, if the phase
angle is zero then the power factor must therefore be unity.

2.23.4 Phase Angle of A Series Resonance Circuit

 Notice also, that the phase angle is positive for frequencies above ƒr and negative
forfrequencies below ƒr and this can be proven by,

2.23.5 Bandwidth of A Series Resonance Circuit

If the series RLC circuit is driven by a variable frequency at a constant voltage, then the
magnitude of the current, I is proportional to the impedance, Z, therefore at resonance the
power absorbed by the circuit must be at its maximum value as P = I2Z.
If we now reduce or increase the frequency until the average power absorbed by the resistor in
the series resonance circuit is half that of its maximum value at resonance, we produce two
frequency points called the half-power points which are -3dB down from maximum, taking 0
dBas the maximum current reference.
These -3dB points give us a current value that is 70.7% of its maximum resonant value which is
defined as: 0.5( I2 R ) = (0.707 x I)2 R. Then the point corresponding to the lower frequency at
half the power is called the “lower cut-off frequency”, labelled ƒ L with the point corresponding
to the upper frequency at half power being called the “upper cut-off frequency”, labelled ƒH.
Thedistance between these two points, i.e. ( ƒH – ƒL ) is called the Bandwidth, (BW) and is the
range of frequencies over which at least half of the maximum power and current is provided.

The frequency response of the circuits current magnitude above, relates to the “sharpness” of
the resonance in a series resonance circuit. The sharpness of the peak is measured
quantitatively andis called the Quality factor, Q of the circuit. The quality factor relates the
maximum or peak energy stored in the circuit (the reactance) to the energy dissipated (the
resistance) during each cycle of oscillation meaning that it is a ratio of resonant frequency to
bandwidth and the higher the circuit Q, the smaller the bandwidth, Q = ƒr /BW. As the
bandwidth is taken between the two -3dB points, the selectivity of the circuit is a measure of
its ability to reject any frequencies either side of these points. A more selective circuit will have
a narrower bandwidth whereas a less selective circuit will have a wide bandwidth. The
selectivity of a series resonance circuit can be controlled by adjusting the value of the
resistance only, keeping all other components the same, since Q=( XL or Xc)/R

Then the relationship between resonance, bandwidth, selectivity and quality factor for a series
resonance circuit being defined as:
1). Resonant Frequency, (ƒr)
 2). Current, (I)

3). Lower cut-off frequency, (ƒL )

4). Upper cut-off frequency, (ƒH)

5). Bandwidth, (BW)

6). Quality Factor, (Q)

2.24 Concept of Parallel RLC Circuit

Let us define what we already know about parallel RLC circuits.

A parallel circuit containing a resistance, R, an inductance, L and a capacitance, C will produce a
parallel resonance (also called anti-resonance) circuit when the resultant current through the
parallel combination is in phase with the supply voltage. At resonance there will be a large
circulating current between the inductor and the capacitor due to the energy of the oscillations,
then parallel circuits produce current resonance.
A parallel resonant circuit stores the circuit energy in the magnetic field of the inductor and the
electric field of the capacitor. This energy is constantly being transferred back and forth between
the inductor and the capacitor which results in zero current and energy being drawn from the
supply.
This is because the corresponding instantaneous values of I L and IC will always be equal and
opposite and therefore the current drawn from the supply is the vector addition of these two
currents and the current flowing in IR. In the solution of AC parallel resonance circuits we know
that the supply voltage is common for all branches, so this can be taken as our reference vector.
Each parallel branch must be treated separately as with series circuits so that the total supply
current taken by the parallel circuit is the vector addition of the individual branch currents. Then
there are two methods available to us in the analysis of parallel resonance circuits. We can
calculate the current in each branch and then add together or calculate the admittance of each
branch to find the total current. We know from the previous series resonance tutorial that
resonance takes place when VL = -VC and this situation occurs when the two reactance’s are
equal, XL = XC. The admittance of a parallel circuit is given as Resonance occurs when XL = XC and
the imaginary parts of Y become zero then

Notice that at resonance the parallel circuit produces the same equation as for the series
resonance circuit. Therefore, it makes no difference if the inductor or capacitor are connected in
parallel or series.
Also at resonance the parallel LC tank circuit acts like an open circuit with the circuit current
being determined by the resistor, R only. So the total impedance of a parallel resonance circuit
at resonance becomes just the value of the resistance in the circuit and Z = R as shown
 Thus at resonance, the impedance of the parallel circuit is at its maximum value and equal to
the resistance of the circuit creating a circuit condition of high resistance and low current. Also
at resonance, as the impedance of the circuit is now that of resistance only, the total circuit
current, I will be “in-phase” with the supply voltage, VS.
We can change the circuit’s frequency response by changing the value of this resistance.
Changing the value of R affects the amount of current that flows through the circuit at
resonance, if both L and C remain constant. Then the impedance of the circuit at
resonance Z = RMAX is called the “dynamic impedance” of the circuit.

2.24.1 Impedance in A Parallel Resonance Circuit

Note that if the parallel circuits impedance is at its maximum at resonance then consequently,
 the circuits admittance must be at its minimum and one of the characteristics of a parallel
resonance circuit is that admittance is very low limiting the circuits current. Unlike the series
resonance circuit, the resistor in a parallel resonance circuit has a damping effect on the
circuits bandwidth making the circuit less selective.

Also, since the circuit current is constant for any value of impedance, Z, the voltage across a
parallel resonance circuit will have the same shape as the total impedance and for a parallel
circuit the voltage waveform is generally taken from across the capacitor.

2.24.2 Susceptance at Resonance

We now know that at the resonant frequency, ƒr the admittance of the circuit is at its minimum
and is equal to the conductance, G given by 1/R because in a parallel resonance circuit the
imaginary part of admittance, i.e. the susceptance, B is zero because BL = BC as shown.
represented by the hyperbolic curve. The capacitive susceptance, B C is directly proportional to
the frequency and is therefore represented by a straight line. The final curve shows the plot of
total susceptance of the parallel resonance circuit versus the frequency and is the difference
between the two susceptance’s.
Then we can see that at the resonant frequency point were it crosses the horizontal axis the
total circuit susceptance is zero. Below the resonant frequency point, the inductive
susceptance dominates the circuit producing a “lagging” power factor, whereas above the
resonant frequency point the capacitive susceptance dominates producing a “leading” power
factor.
 So at the resonant frequency, ƒ r the current drawn from the supply must be “in-phase” with the
applied voltage as effectively there is only the resistance present in the parallel circuit, so the
power factor becomes one or unity, ( θ = 0o ).
Also as the impedance of a parallel circuit changes with frequency, this makes the circuit
impedance “dynamic” with the current at resonance being in-phase with the voltage since the
impedance of the circuit acts as a resistance. Then we have seen that the impedance of a
parallel circuit at resonance is equivalent to the value of the resistance and this value must,
therefore represent the maximum dynamic impedance (Z d) of the circuit as shown.

2.24.3 Current in A Parallel Resonance Circuit

As the total susceptance is zero at the resonant frequency, the admittance is at its minimum and
is equal to the conductance, G. Therefore at resonance the current flowing through the circuit
must also be at its minimum as the inductive and capacitive branch currents are equal ( IL = IC )
and are 1800 out of phase.
We remember that the total current flowing in a parallel RLC circuit is equal to the vector sum of
the individual branch currents and for a given frequency is calculated as:
At resonance, currents IL and IC are equal and cancelling giving a net reactive current equal to
zero. Then at resonance the above equation becomes.

Since the current flowing through a parallel resonance circuit is the product of voltage divided
by impedance, at resonance the impedance, Z is at its maximum value, ( =R ). Therefore, the
circuit current at this frequency will be at its minimum value of V/R and the graph of current
against frequency for a parallel resonance circuit is given as.
 Fig. 2.46 Graphical representation of parallel resonance
The frequency response curve of a parallel resonance circuit shows that the magnitude of the
current is a function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph shows us that the response
starts at its maximum value, reaches its minimum value at the resonance frequency when I MIN =
IR and then increases again to maximum as ƒ becomes infinite.
The result of this is that the magnitude of the current flowing through the inductor, L and the
capacitor, C tank circuit can become many times larger than the supply current, even at
resonance but as they are equal and at opposition ( 180 o out-of-phase ) they effectively cancel
each other out.
As a parallel resonance circuit only functions on resonant frequency, this type of circuit is also
known as an Rejecter Circuit because at resonance, the impedance of the circuit is at its
maximum thereby suppressing or rejecting the current whose frequency is equal to its
resonant frequency. The effect of resonance in a parallel circuit is also called “CURRENT
RESONANCE”.
The calculations and graphs used above for defining a parallel resonance circuit are similar to
those we used for a series circuit. However, the characteristics and graphs drawn for a parallel
circuit are exactly opposite to that of series circuits with the parallel circuits maximum
and minimum impedance, current and magnification being reversed. Which is why a parallel
 resonance circuit is also called an Anti-resonance circuit.

2.24.4 Bandwidth & Selectivity of A Parallel Resonance Circuit

The bandwidth of a parallel resonance circuit is defined in exactly the same way as for the series
resonance circuit. The upper and lower cut-off frequencies given as: ƒ upper and ƒlower
respectively denote the half-power frequencies where the power dissipated in the circuit is half of
the full power dissipated at the resonant frequency 0.5( I 2 R ) which gives us the same -3dB points
at a current value that is equal to 70.7% of its maximum resonant value, ( 0.707 x I )2 R As with the
series circuit, if the resonant frequency remains constant, an increase in the quality factor, Q will
cause a decrease in the bandwidth and likewise, a decrease in the quality factor will cause an
increase in the bandwidth as defined by:
BW = ƒr /Q or BW = ƒupper - ƒlower
Also changing the ratio between the inductor, L and the capacitor, C, or the value of the
resistance, R the bandwidth and therefore the frequency response of the circuit will be changed
for a fixed resonant frequency. This technique is used extensively in tuning circuits for radio and
television transmitters and receivers.

The selectivity or Q-factor for a parallel resonance circuit is generally defined as the ratio of the
circulating branch currents to the supply current and given as:

Note that the Q-factor of a parallel resonance circuit is the inverse of the expression for the Q -
factor of the series circuit. Also in series resonance circuits the Q-factor gives the voltage
magnification of the circuit, whereas in a parallel circuit it gives the current magnification.
2.24.5 Example of Parallel Resonance
A parallel resonance network consisting of a resistor of 60 Ω, a capacitor of 120 uF and an
inductor of 200 mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply voltage which has a constant output of
100 Volts at all frequencies. Calculate, the resonant frequency, the quality factor and the
bandwidth of the circuit, the circuit current at resonance and current magnification.

1. Resonant Frequency, ƒr
2. Inductive Reactance at Resonance, XL

3. Quality factor, Q

4. Bandwidth, BW

5. The upper and lower -3dB frequency points, ƒH and ƒL

6. Circuit Current at Resonance, IT at resonance the dynamic impedance of the circuit is equal to
R

7. Current Magnification, Imag

Note that the current drawn from the supply at resonance (the resistive current) is only 1.67
amps, while the current flowing around the LC tank circuit is larger at 2.45 amps. We can check
this value by calculating the current flowing through the inductor (or capacitor) at resonance.

2.24.6 Resonant Frequency in Parallel Circuit Using Impure Inductor

We have seen that Parallel Resonance circuits are similar to series resonance circuits.
Resonance occurs in a parallel RLC circuit when the total circuit current is “in-phase” with the
supply voltage as the two reactive components cancel each other out.
At resonance the admittance of the circuit is at its minimum and is equal to the conductance of
the circuit. Also at resonance the current drawn from the supply is also at its minimum and is
determined by the value of the parallel resistance.
The equation used to calculate the resonant frequency point is the same for the previous
series circuit. However, while the use of either pure or impure components in the series RLC
circuitdoes not affect the calculation of the resonance frequency, but in a parallel RLC circuit it
does. In above discussion about parallel resonance, we have assumed that the the two reactive
components are purely inductive and purely capacitive with zero impedance. However in reality,
the inductor will contain some amount resistance in series, RS with its inductive coil, since
inductors (and solenoids) are wound coils of wire, usually made from copper, wrapped around a
central core. Therefore the basic equation above for calculating the parallel resonant
frequency, ƒr of a pure parallel resonance circuit will need to be modified slightly to take
account of the impure inductor having a series resistance.

Where, L is the inductance of the coil, C is the parallel capacitance and RS is the DC resistive value
ofthe coil.
 Unit 3- Transformer

3.1 Magnetic Materials

All substances show some kind of magnetic behaviour. After all, they are made up of charged
particles: electrons and protons. It is the way in which electron clouds arrange themselves in atoms and
how groups of these atoms behave that determines the magnetic properties of the material. The atom
(or group of atoms) in effect becomes a magnetic dipole or a mini bar magnet that can align according
to the magnetic field applied. The net effect of all these dipoles determines the magnetic properties of
the Magnetic Materials.

3.1.1Types of Magnetic Materials

To study magnetic properties of Magnetic Materials, the material is usually placed in a uniform
magnetic field and then the magnetic field is varied. There are three major kinds of magnetic behaviour:
[Link] Diamagnetic Material
 These materials are barely magnetized when placed in a magnetic field. In fact, magnetic
dipoles in these substances tend to align in opposition to the applied field.
 In effect, they produce an internal magnetic field that opposes the applied field and the
substance tends to repel the external field around it.
 This opposing field disappears as soon as the external field is removed.
 Ex: Gold, water, mercury and even animals!

[Link] Paramagnetic materials

 In these materials the magnetic dipoles in the Magnetic Materials tend to align along the applied
magnetic field and thus reinforcing the applied magnetic field.
 Such substances are attracted by a magnet if it applies a sufficiently strong field. It must be noted
that such materials are still feeble magnetized and the magnetization disappears as soon as the
external field is removed.
 The magnetization (M) of such materials is dependent on the external magnetic field (B) and
temperature T as:
M−→ = CB→T
Where C= Curie Constant
 Ex: Liquid oxygen, sodium, platinum, salts of iron and nickel.

[Link] Ferromagnetic materials

 They exhibit the strongest magnetic behaviour. Magnetic dipoles in these materials are arranged
into domains where the arrangements of individual magnetic dipoles are essentially perfect that
can produce strong magnetic fields.
 Normally, these domains are usually randomly arranged and thus the magnetic field of each
domain is cancelled by another and the entire material does not show any magnetic behaviour.
 However when an external field is applied, the domains reorient themselves to reinforce the
 external field and produce a strong internal magnetic field that is along the external field.
Upon, removal of the external field, most of the domains stay put and continues to be aligned in
the direction of the (erstwhile) magnetic field. Thus, the magnetic field of the Magnetic Materials
persists even when the external field disappears. This property is used to produce Permanent
magnets that we use every day.
 Iron, cobalt, nickel, neodymium and their alloys are usually highly ferromagnetic and are used
to make permanent magnets.

[Link] List of Magnetic Materials

Now, to summarise the different types of magnetic materials, here we have given a list of magnetic
materials.

Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

Gold Liquid Oxygen Iron

Water Sodium Cobalt

Mercury Platinum Neodymium

Salts of Iron and Nickel Nickel

3.2 B-H Curve

 The B-H curve shows the characteristic of the
magnetic properties of a material or element or
alloy. It tells how the material responds to an
external magnetic field.
 This graphical curve showing the relation
between magnetic density B and magnetizing
force H for a magnetic material also known as
magnetization curve.
 Region OA: for zero current H=0 and B= 0. The
flux density B then increases gradually as the
value of H is increased. However B changes slowly
in this [Link] is non linear region
 Region AC: In this region B-H curve is almost
linear. This linearity comes to an end at point C
and BH curve starts bending. Point C is called knee
point.
 Region beyond C (Saturation region): After point C
the change in B is small even for large change in H.
B-H curve will tend to be parallel to X axis. This region is called saturation region which indicates
magnetic flux saturation in core. That means even if we change current I, there will be change in
H but no change in B.
3.3 Transformer

A transformer is a Static device that Transfers electrical energy from one ac circuit to another ac
circuit via magnetic medium. Its works on the basis of faraday’s law of mutual induction .It does
so without a change of frequency. The energy transfers takes place with desired change in
voltage and current level.

3.4 Transformer Types

Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid, distribution sector,
transmission and electric energy consumption. There are various types of transformers which
are classified based on the following factors;

Working voltage range.

The medium used in the core.
Winding arrangement.
Installation location.

Fig:3.1 Types of transformer

3.4.1 Based on Voltage Levels

Commonly used transformer type, depending upon voltage they are classified as:

 Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power generator and the power grid. The
secondaryoutput voltage is higher than the input voltage.
 Step down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high voltage primary supply to low
voltage secondary output.

3.4.2 Based on the Medium of Core Used

In a transformer, we will find different types of cores that are used.
  Air core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and secondary winding is through the air. The
coil or windings wound on the non-magnetic strip.
 Iron core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron plates stacked together, which provides a
perfect linkage path to generate flux.

3.4.3 Based on the Winding Arrangement

 Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a laminated core. The primary and secondary
share the same coil. Auto also means “self” in language Greek.

3.4.4 Based on Install Location

 Power Transformer: It is used at power generation stations as they are suitable for high voltage application
 Distribution Transformer: Mostly used at distribution lanes in domestic purposes. They are designed for
carrying low voltages. It is very easy to install and characterized by low magnetic losses.
 Measurement Transformers: These are further classified. They are mainly used for measuring voltage,
current, power.
 Protection Transformers: They are used for component protection purposes. In circuits some
componentsmust be protected from voltage fluctuation etc. protection transformers ensure component
protection.

3.5 Basic Construction

The major parts of a single-phase transformer consist of:

1. Core
The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It
also
provides a low reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux. The
winding is
wound on the core as shown in the picture. It is made up of a
laminated soft
iron core in order to reduce the losses in a transformer. The factors
such as operating voltage, current, power etc decide core
composition. The core diameter is directly proportional to copper
losses and inversely proportional to iron losses.
Fig:3.2 Two winding transformer 3.5.1 Windings
Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer
Copper wires are used due core.
to:
  High conductivity of copper. This minimizes the loss in a transformer. since conductivity increases,
resistance to current flow decreases.
 High ductility of copper. Ductility is the property of metals that they can be made into very thin
[Link] are mainly two types of windings. Primary windings and secondary windings.

 Primary winding: The set of turns of windings to which supply current is feed.
 Secondary winding: the set of turns of winding from which output is taken.
The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other using insulation coating agents.

3.5.2 Insulation Agents

Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from shorting the circuit and thus
facilitating the mutual induction. Insulation agents have influence in durability and the stability of a
transformer.
Following are used as an insulation medium in a transformer:
 Insulating oil
 Insulating tape
 Insulating paper
 Wood-based lamination

3.6 Working Principle of A Transformer:

The basic principle on which the transformer works is Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction or
mutual induction between the two coils. The working of the transformer is explained below.

 It works on the alternating current only because an alternating flux is required for
mutual induction between the two windings.

 When the AC supply is given to the primary winding with a

voltage of V 1, an alternating flux ϕ sets up in the core of the
transformer, which links with the secondary winding and as a result of
it, an emf is induced in it called Mutually Induced emf.
 The direction of this induced emf is opposite to the applied
voltage V 1 , this is because of the Lenz’s law shown in the figure below

Fig 3.3: Simple Transformer

 Physically, there is no electrical connection between the two windings, but they are magnetically
connected. Therefore, the electrical power is transferred from the primary circuit to the secondary
circuit through mutual inductance.
 The induced emf in the primary and secondary windings depends upon the rate of change of flux
linkage that is (N dϕ/dt).
 dϕ/dt is the change of flux and is same for both the primary and secondary windings. The induced
emf E1 in the primary winding is proportional to the number of turns N 1 of the primary windings (E1 ∞
N1 ).Similarly induced emf in the secondary winding is proportional to the number of turns on the
 secondary side. (E2 ∞ N2)

3.6.1 Transformer on DC supply:

 The transformer works on AC supply, and it cannot work on DC supply. If the rated DC voltage
is applied across the primary winding, a constant magnitude flux will set up in the core of the
transformer and hence there will not be any mutually-induced emf generation, as for emf
generation inthe secondary winding there must be an alternating flux required and not a
constant flux.

 According to Ohm’s Law

 The resistance of the primary winding is very low, and the primary current is high. So this current is
much higher than the rated full load primary winding current. Hence, as a result, the amount of heat
produced will be greater Because of this, the insulations of the primary windings will get burnt, and
the transformer will be damaged.

3.7 EMF Equation of A Transformer:

 When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, alternating flux ϕm sets
up in the iron core of the transformer. This sinusoidal flux links with both primary and secondary
winding.
 The function of flux is a sine function. The rate of change of flux with respect to time is
derivedmathematically.

 The derivation of EMF Equation of the transformer is shown below. Let

 ϕm be the maximum value of flux in Weber
 f be the supply frequency in Hz
 N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
 N2 is the number of turns in the secondary windingΦ is the flux per turn in Weber So the
induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

•As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from + ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f seconds.
By Faraday’s Law
•Let E1 is the emf induced in the primary winding

Where Ψ = N1 ϕ
Since ϕ is due to AC supply ϕ = ϕm Sinwt

Maximum valve of emf

But w = 2πf

Root mean square RMS value is

Putting the value of E1max in equation (6) we get

Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the equation (7) we will get the value of E1 as

Similarly

Now, equating the equation (8) and (9) we get

The above equation is called the turn ratio where K is known as transformation ratio.
The equation (8) and (9) can also be written as shown below using the relation
(ϕm = Bm x Ai ) where Ai is the iron area and Bm is the maximum value of flux density.

For a sinusoidal wave

3.7.1 Turn Ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of primary to secondary turns.

If N2 > N1 the transformer is called Step up transformer

If N2 < N1 the transformer is called Step down transformer

3.7.2 Transformation Ratio:

The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary voltage.
It is denoted by K.

3.8 Ideal Transformer and practical transformer

3.8.1 Ideal Transformer

Definition: The transformer which is free from all types of losses is known as an ideal
transformer. It is an imaginary transformer which has no core loss, no ohmic resistance and
no leakage flux. The ideal transformer has the following important characteristic.
1. The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes zero.
2. The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The infinite permeable means
lessmagnetising current requires for magnetising their core.
3. The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole of the flux induces in the core
of the transformer links with their primary and secondary winding.
4. The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the transformer is free from
hysteresisand eddy current loss.

The above mention properties are not possible in the practical transformer. In an ideal
transformer, there is no power loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input
power.
 Since El ∞ N2 and E1 ∞ N1, also E1 is similar to V1 and E2 is similar to

V2 Therefore, transformation ratio will be given by the equation

shownbelow

The primary and the secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.

3.8.2 Behaviour of Ideal Transformer:

Consider the ideal transformer shown in the figure below. The voltage source V1 is applied
across the primary winding of the transformer. Their secondary winding is kept open. The N 1
and N2 are the numbers of turns of their primary and secondary winding.

The current Im is the magnetizing current flows through the primary winding of the
transformer. The magnetizing current produces the flux φm in the core of the transformer. As
the permeability of the coreis infinite, the flux of the core link with both the primary and
secondary winding of the transformer.

The flux link with the primary winding induces the emf E 1 because of self-induction. The
direction of the induced emf is inversely proportional to the applied voltage V 1. The emf E2
induces in the secondary winding of the transformer because of mutual induction.

3.8.3 Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer:

The phasor diagram of the ideal transformer is shown in the figure below. As the coil of the
primary transformer is purely inductive the magnetising current induces in the transformer lag
90º by the input voltage V1. The E1 and E2 are the emf induced in the primary and secondary
winding of the transformer. The direction of the induces emf inversely proportional to the
applied voltage
 Fig 3.6:Phasor Diagram of an Ideal Transformer

[Link] Point to Remember

The input energy of the transformer is equal to their output energy. The power loss
in the idealtransformer becomes zero.

[Link] Magnetic Leakage flux:

In a transformer it is observed that, all the flux linked with primary winding does not get linked
with secondary winding. A small part of the flux completes its path through air rather than
through the core (as shown in the fig at right), and this small part of flux is called as leakage flux
or magnetic leakage in transformers. This leakage flux does not link with both the windings, and
hence it does not contribute to transfer of energy from primary winding to secondary winding.
But, it produces self induced emf in each winding. Hence, leakage flux produces an effect
equivalent to an inductive coil in series with each winding. And due to this there will be leakage
reactance.

3.9 Practical Transformer with Resistance and Leakage Reactance

In the following figure, leakage reactance and resistance of the primary winding as well as
secondary winding are taken out, representing a practical transformer.
 Fig3.8; Practical Transformer with Resistance And Leakage

Reactance Where, R1 and R2 = resistance of primary and secondary

winding respectively
X1 and X2 = leakage reactance of primary and secondary winding resp.Z1
and Z2 = Primary impedance and secondary impedance resp.

Z1 = R1 + jX1 ...and Z2 = R2 + jX 2 .

The impedance in each winding lead to some voltage drop in each winding. Considering this voltage
dropthe voltage equation of transformer can be given as –

V 1 = E1 + I1(R1 + jX1 ) ----------- primary side

V 2 = E2 - I2 (R2 + jX2 )----------- secondary side

where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding

V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding

E1 and E2 = induced emf in primary and secondary winding respectively.

3.9.1 Resistance and Reactance of the Transformer:

The Resistance of the transformer is defined as the internal resistance of both primary and
secondary windings. In an actual transformer, the primary and the secondary windings have
some resistance represented by R1 and R2 and the reactance’s by X1 and X2. Let K be the
transformation ratio. To make the calculations easy the resistances and reactance’s can be
transferred to either side that means either all the primary terms are referred to the secondary
side, or all the secondary terms are referred to the primary side.
The resistive and the reactive drops in the primary and secondary side are represented as follows
 Resistive drop in the secondary side = I2R2
 Reactive drop in the secondary side = I2X2
 Resistive drop in the primary side = I1R1
 Reactive drop in the primary side = I1X1
 Primary Side Referred to Secondary Side

Since the transformation ratio is K, primary resistive and reactive drop as referred to secondary
side will be K times, i.e., K I1R1 and K I1X1 respectively. If I1 is substituted equal to KI2 then we

have primary resistive and reactive drop referred to secondary side equal to K2I2R1 and K2I2X1
respectively.
Fig3.9: Transformer with primary referred to secondary

The Total resistive drop in a transformer

Total reactive drop in a transformer

The term

represent the equivalent resistance and reactance of the transformer referred to the secondary side.
3.9.2 Transformer on No-Load Condition:
When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding is open circuited, which
means there is no load on the secondary side of the transformer and, therefore, current in the
secondary will be zero, while primary winding carries a small current I 0 called no load current
which is 2 to 10% of the rated current. This current is responsible for supplying the iron losses
(hysteresis and eddy current losses) in the core and a very small amount of copper losses in the
primary winding. The angle of lag depends upon the losses in the transformer. The power factor
is very low and varies from 0.1 to 0.15.
 The no load current consists of two components
 Reactive or magnetizing component Im
(It is in quadrature with the applied voltage V1. It produces flux in the core and does not
consume any power)
 Active or power component Iw, also known as working component

(It is in phase with the applied voltage V 1. It supplies the iron losses and a small amount of primary
copper loss)

The following steps are given below to draw the phasor diagram
5. The function of the magnetizing component is to produce the magnetizing flux, and thus, it
will be in phase with the flux.
6. Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags the flux ϕ by 90 degrees.
7. The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary current losses are zero as I 2 = 0.
Therefore, the current I0 lags behind the voltage vector V 1 by an angle ϕ0 called no-load power
factor angle shown in the phasor diagram above.
8. The applied voltage V 1 is drawn equal and opposite to the induced emf E1 because the
difference between the two, at no load, is negligible.
9. Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied voltage V 1.
10. The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working current Iw gives the no load current I0 .

Fig3.11: Phasor diagram drawn

3.9.3 Transformer on Load Condition:

When the transformer is on loaded condition, the secondary of the transformer is connected to
load. The load can be resistive, inductive or capacitive. The current I 2 flows through the
secondary winding of the transformer. The magnitude of the secondary current depends on the
terminal voltage V2 and the load impedance. The phase angle between the secondary current
and voltage depends on the nature of the load.
3.9.4 Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition
The Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition is explained below
 When secondary of the transformer is kept open, it draws the no-load current from the main supply.
The no-load current induces the magneto motive force N 0I0 and this force set up the flux Φ in the core of
the transformer. The circuit of the transformer at no load condition is shown in the figure below.
 Fig3.12: Operation of the Transformer on NO Load Condition

 When the load is connected to the secondary of the transformer, the I2current flows through their
secondary winding. The secondary current induces the magnetomotive force N2I2 on the secondary
winding of the transformer. This force set up the flux φ2 in the transformer core. The flux φ2 op pose the
flux φ, according to Lenz’s law

Fig3.13: Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition

 As the flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, the resultant flux of the transformer decreases and this flux reduces
the induces EMF E1. Thus, the strength of the V1 is more than E1 and an additional primary
current I’1 drawn from the main supply. The additional current is used for restoring the original value of
the flux in the core of the transformer so that the V1 = E1. The primary current I’1 is in phase oppos ition
with the secondary current I2. Thus, it is called the primary counter balancing current.
 The additional current I’1 induces the magnetomotive force N1I’1. And this force set up the flux φ’1. The
direction of the flux is same as that of the φ and it cancels the flux φ2 which induces because of the
MMF N2I2

Now, N1I1 ’ = N2I2

Therefore,
 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the
transformer.
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer.
 If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will be lagging, and if the
load is capacitive, the power factor will be [Link] total primary current I1 is the vector sum of the
current I0 and I1’. i.e
 3.9.5 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load:
The phasor diagram of the actual transformer when it is loaded inductively is shown below

Fig3.14:Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Inductive Load

[Link] Steps to draw the phasor diagram

 Take flux ϕ a reference
 Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
 The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced emf in the
primarywinding. E1 is represented by V 1’.
 Current I0 lags the voltage V 1’ by 90 degrees.
 The power factor of the load is lagging. Therefore current I2 is drawn lagging V 2 by an angle ϕ2.

 The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence
secondaryterminal voltage V 2 is the phasor difference of E2and voltage drop.
V2 = E2 – voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.
 The total current flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1’ and I0.
 Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the primary winding.
 Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current
I2V 1 = V 1’ + voltage drop
I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.
 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of
 the transformer.
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer.
 If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will be lagging, and if
the load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading. Where I1R1 is the resistive drop in the primary
windings .I2X2 is the reactive drop in the secondary winding

3.9.6 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive Load

The Transformer on Capacitive load (leading power factor load) is shown below in the phasor diagram.

Fig 3.15:Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Capacitive Load

[Link] Steps to draw the phasor diagram at capacitive load

 Take flux ϕ a reference

 Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
 The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced emf in the
primarywinding. E1 is represented by V1’.
 Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by 90 degrees.
 The power factor of the load is leading. Therefore current I2 is drawn leading E2
 The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence
secondaryterminal voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2and voltage drop.
V2 = E2 – voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.
 Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2
 The total current I1 flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1’ and I0.
 Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the primary winding.
V1 = V1’ + voltage drop
I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.
 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of
the transformer.
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer.
3.10 Equivalent Circuit of A Transformer:
 The equivalent circuit diagram of any device can be quite helpful in predetermination of the
behaviour of the device under the various condition of operation. It is simply the circuit
representation of the equation describing the performance of the device.
 The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is drawn by representing all the parameters of the

transformer either on the secondary side or on the primary side. The equivalent circuit diagram of
thetransformer is shown below

Fig3.16: Equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer

Let the equivalent circuit of a transformer having the transformation ratio K = E2/E1
 The induced emf E1 is equal to the primary applied voltage V 1 less primary voltage [Link] voltage
causes current I 0 no load current in the primary winding of the transformer. The value of no-load
current is very small, and thus, it is neglected. Hence, I 1 = I1 ’. The no load current is further divided
into two components called magnetizing current (Im) and working current (Iw).

These two components of no-load current are due to the current drawn by a noninductive
resistance R0 and pure reactance X0 having voltage E1 or (V1 – primary voltage drop).

The secondary current I2 is

The terminal voltage V2 across the load is equal to the induced emf E2 in the secondary winding
less voltage drop in the secondary winding.
3.10.1 Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are referred to Primary side:
In this case to draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer all the quantities are to be referred
to the primary as shown in the figure belo
 Fig3.17: Circuit Diagram of Transformer when all the Secondary Quantities are Referred to Primary

Side The following are the values of resistance and reactance given below

Secondary resistance referred to primary side is given as

The equivalent resistance referred to primary side is given as

Secondary reactance referred to primary side is given as

The equivalent reactance referred to primary side is given as

3.10.2 Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are referred to Secondary side:

The equivalent circuit diagram of the transformer is shown below when all the quantities are referred to the
secondary side.

Fig3.18: Circuit Diagram of Transformer When All the Primary Quantities are Referred to Secondary Side

The following are the values of resistance and reactance given below Primary
resistance referred to secondary side is given as

The equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is given as Primary reactance referred to
secondary side is given as

The equivalent reactance referred to secondary side is given as

𝑉1
Iw = 𝑅0
𝑉1
Im =
𝑋0
 No load current I0 is hardly 3 to 5% of full load rated current, the parallel branch consisting of
resistance R0 and reactance X0 can be omitted without introducing any appreciable error in the
behavior of the transformer under the loaded condition.
Further simplification of the equivalent circuit of the transformer can be done by neglecting
the parallel branch consisting R0 and X0. The simplified circuit diagram of the transformer is
shown below

Fig3.19: Simplified Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Transformer

3.11 Losses and Efficiency of Transformer

3.11.1 Iron loss or Core loss

[Link] Hysteresis Losses

 Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core.
 For a given core material, the transformer losses are proportional to the frequency, and is a function of
the peak flux density to which it is subjected.
 We can find Hysteresis losses by this formula.

Wh = ηB1.6maxf.v watt
Where
 Ƞ is a proportionality constant which depends upon the volume and quality of the material of
the core used in the transformer,
f is the supply frequency,
Bmax is the maximum or peak value of the flux density.

 The iron or core losses can be minimized by using silicon steel material for the construction of the core
of the transformer.

[Link] Eddy Current Losses

 Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a core made from such a material also constitutes
a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length.
 Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for
resistive heating of the core material.
 The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the
material thickness.
 Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each
other, rather than a solid block i.e. The eddy current loss is minimized by making the core with thin
laminations.
 We can find Eddy currents losses by this formula.

Where,

K e – coefficient of eddy current. Its value depends upon the nature of magnetic material like
[Link] volume and resistivity of core material, the thickness of laminations
Bm – maximum value of flux density in wb/m2
T – thickness of lamination in meters
f – frequency of reversal of the magnetic field in Hz
V – the volume of magnetic material in m3

3.11.2 Copper Loss or Ohmic Loss

 These losses occur due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings.

 If I1 and I2 are the primary and the secondary current. R 1 and R2 are the resistance of primary and
secondary winding then the copper losses occurring in the primary and secondary winding will
beI12R1 and I22R2 respectively.

 Therefore, the total copper losses will be

 These losses varied according to the load and known hence it is also known as variable
[Link] losses vary as the square of the load current.
  Pcufl = I 12Re1 = I 2R2 e2 where Pcufl is copper loss at full load

PcuX L = x2 Pcufl where x is the fraction of load eg. ½, 1/4,1/3 etc

3.11.3 Transformer Efficiency

The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of useful output power to the input power. The
input and output power are measured in the same unit. Its unit is either in Watts (W) or
KW. Transformer efficiency is denoted by Ƞ.

Where,

V2 – Secondary terminal voltage

I2 – Full load secondary current
Cosϕ2 – power factor of the load
Pi – Iron losses = hysteresis losses + eddy current losses
Pc – Full load copper losses = I22Res

Consider, the x is the fraction of the full load. The efficiency of the transformer regarding x is expressed as
The copper losses vary according to the fraction of the load.

[Link] Maximum Efficiency Condition of a Transformer

The efficiency of the transformer along with the load and the power factor is expressed by the given
relation: The value of the terminal voltage V2 is approximately constant. Thus, for a given power
factor the Transformer efficiency depends upon the load current I 2. In equation (1), the numerator is
constant and the transformer efficiency will be maximum if the denominator with respect to the
variable I2 is equated to zero.

i.e Copperlosses = Iron losses

Thus, the transformer will give the maximum efficiency when their copper loss is equal to the iron
 loss .

From equation (2) the value of output current I2 at which the transformer efficiency will be maximum
is given as

If x is the fraction of full load KVA at which the efficiency of the transformer is
2
maximum then, Copper losses = x Pc (where Pc is the full load copper losses)
Iron losses = Pi
For maximum efficiency

x2 Pc = Pi

Therefore

Thus, output KVA corresponding to maximum

efficiency

Putting the value of x from the above equation (3) in equation (4) we will get,

The above equation (5) is the maximum efficiency condition of the transformer.
3.12 Voltage Regulation of A Transformer
Definition: The voltage regulation is defined as the change in the magnitude of receiving and
sending the voltage of the transformer. The voltage regulation determines the ability of the
transformer to provide the constant voltage for variable loads.

When the transformer is loaded with continuous supply voltage, the terminal voltage of the
transformer varies. The variation of voltage depends on the load and its power factor.
Mathematically, the voltage regulation is represented as
Where,
E2 – secondary terminal voltage at no
load V2 – secondary terminal voltage at
full load

The voltage regulation by considering the primary terminal voltage of the transformer is expressed as,

Let us understand the voltage regulation by taking an example explained below

If the secondary terminals of the transformer are open circuited or no load is connected to the
secondary terminals, the no-load current flows through it. If the no current flows through the
secondary terminals of the transformer, the voltage drops across their resistive and reactive
load become zero. The voltage drop across the primary side of the transformer is negligible.

If the transformer is fully loaded, i.e., the load is connected to their secondary terminal, the voltage drops
appear across it. The value of the voltage regulation should always be less for the better performance of
transformer.

Fig3.20: Equivalent Circuit of transformer

From the circuit diagram shown above, the following conclusions are made
The primary voltage of the transformer is always greater than the emf induces on the primary side. V1 >E1
The secondary terminal voltage at no load is always greater than the voltage at full load condition. E2 >V2
By considering the above circuit diagram, the following equations are drawn

The approximate expression for the no-load secondary voltage for the different types of load is
 3.12.1 For inductive load

Where

3.12.2 For Capacitive load:

3.13 Three Phase Transformer

3.13.1 Introduction

Three phase transformers are more economical for supplying large loads and large power
distribution. Even though most of the utilization equipments are connected by the single phase
transformers, these are not preferred for large power distribution in the aspect of economy.

Fig 3.21 Three Phase Treansformer

The three phase power is used in almost all fields of electrical power system such as power
generation, transmission and distribution sectors, also all the industrial sectors are supplied or
connected with three phase system. Therefore, to step-up (or increase) or step-down (or
decrease) the voltages in the three phase systems, three phase transformers are used. As compared
with the single phase transformer, there are numerous advantages with 3 phase transformer such as
smaller and lighter to construct for the same power handling capacity, better operating
characteristics, etc.
Three phase transformers are used to step-up or step-down the high voltages in various stages of
power transmission system. The power generated at various generating stations is in three phase
nature and the voltages are in the range of 13.2KV or 22KV. In order to reduce the power loss to the
distribution end, the power is transmitted at somewhat higher voltages like 132 or 400KV. Hence, for
transmission of the power at higher voltages, three phase step-up transformer is used to increase
the voltage. Also at the end of the transmission or distribution, these high voltages are step-down to
levels of 6600, 400, 230 volts, etc. For this, a three phase step down transformer is used.
A three phase transformer can be built in two ways; a bank of three single phase transformers or
single unit of three phase transformer.
The former one is built by suitably connecting three single phase transformers having same ratings
and operating characteristics. In this case if the fault occurs in any one of the transformers, the
system still retained at reduced capacity by other two transformers with open delta connection.
Hence, continuity of

the supply is maintained by this type of connection. These are used in mines because easier to
transport individual single phase transformers.

Fig3.22: Three phase transformer

Instead of using three single phase transformers, a three phase bank can be constructed with a single
three phase transformer consisting of six windings on a common multi-legged core. Due to this single
unit, weight as well as the cost is reduced as compared to three units of the same rating and also
windings, the amount of iron in the core and insulation materials are saved. Space required to install a
single unit is less compared with three unit bank. But the only disadvantage with single unit three
phase transformer is if the fault occurs in any one of the phase, then entire unit must be removed
from the service.

[Link] Working of Three Phase Transformers:

Consider the below figure in which the primary of the transformer is connected in star fashion on the
cores. For simplicity, only primary winding is shown in the figure which is connected across the three
phase AC supply. The three cores are arranged at an angle of 120 degrees to each other. The empty
leg of each core is combined in such that they form center leg as shown in figure.
 Fig3.33: Working of Three Phase Transformer

Working of a transformer:
When the primary is excited with the three phase supply source, the currents IR, IY and IB are starts
flowing through individual phase windings. These currents produce the magnetic fluxes ΦR, ΦY and
ΦB in the respective cores. Since the center leg is common for all the cores, the sum of all three fluxes
are carried by it. In three phase system, at any instant the vector sum of all the currents is zero. In
turn, at the instant the sum of all the fluxes is same. Hence, the center leg doesn’t carry any flux at
any instant. So even if the center leg is removed it makes no difference in other conditions of the
transformer.

Likewise, in three phase system where any two conductors acts as return for the current in third
conductor, any two legs acts as a return path of the flux for the third leg if the center leg is removed
in case of three phase transformer. Therefore, while designing the three phase transformer, this
principle is used.
These fluxes induce the secondary EMFs in respective phase such that they maintain their phase angle
between them. These EMFs drives the currents in the secondary and hence to the load. Depends on
the type of connection used and number of turns on each phase, the voltage induced will be varied
for obtaining step-up or step-down of voltages.

3.14 Three Phase Transformer Connections:

3.14.1 Three Phase Transformer Connections
Windings of a three phase transformer can be connected in various configurations as (i) star-star, (ii)
delta-delta, (iii) star-delta, (iv) delta-star, (v) open delta and (vi) Scott connection. These
configurations are explained below.
3.14.2 Star-Star (Y-Y)
 Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers. Because of star connection,
number of required turns/phase is reduced (as phase voltage in star connection is 1/√3 times of line
voltage only). Thus, the amount of insulation required is also reduced.
  The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio
of the transformers.
 Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other.
 This connection can be used only if the connected load is balanced.
3.14.3 Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ)
 This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers. Number of required
phase/turns is relatively greater than that for star-star connection.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio of the
transformers.
 This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading.
 Another advantage of this type of connection is that even if one transformer is disabled, system can
continue to operate in open delta connection but with reduced available capacity.
3.14.4 Star-Delta OR Wye-Delta (Y-Δ)
 The primary winding is star (Y) connected with grounded neutral and the secondary winding isdelta
connected.
 This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the substation end of the transmissionline.
 The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/√3 times the transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.
3.14.5 Delta-Star OR Delta-Wye (Δ-Y)
 The primary winding is connected in delta and the secondary winding is connected in star with
neutral grounded. Thus it can be used to provide 3-phase 4-wire service.
 This type of connection is mainly used in step-up transformer at the beginning of transmission line.
 The ratio of secodary to primary line voltage is √3 times the transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.
Above transformer connection configurations are shown in the following figure.
 Unit – 4 Electrical Machines

4.1 Dc Machines:
4.2Construction of a DC Machine:
The given figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC machine
consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are
described below.

Figure 4.1.1: constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine

1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke.

 It is made up of cast iron or steel.
 It provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly
 It provides low reluctance path to the flux produced by the field winding.

2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding.
 They carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them.
 Pole shoes serve two purposes
(i) They support field coils
(ii) They Spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.

Figure 4.1.2: Pole Core and Poles Shoes representation

3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper.
 Field coils are wound on each pole and are connected in series.
 They when energized, create magnetic field and form alternate North and South poles.

4. Rotor: It is cylindrical in shape with slots on its outer peripherry to carry armature winding.
 The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy current losses.
 It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes. Armature is
keyed to the shaft.

Figure 4.1.3: Armature of DC machine

5. Armature winding: It is copper coil distributed in rotor slots.

 The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
 Armature winding can be wound by one of the two
methodsi lap winding
ii wave winding.
 Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that
eacharmature slot will carry two different coils.

Figure 4.1.4: Armature Winding/coil of DC machine

6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a commutator-
brush arrangement.
 A commutator consists of a set of copper segments which are insulated from each other. The
 number of segments is equal to the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to
an armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the shaft.
 Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments and
slide on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or
supply the current.
 The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the alternating current
generatedin armature conductors and convert it in DC for load
 In dc motor, commutator helps in providing current to the armature conductors. It converts
DC supply in to ac for armature winding.

Figure 4.1.5: Commutator of DC machine

4.3 DC generator
4.3.1 Principle :

 It is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced e.m.f .Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic
flux, dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This
e.m.f. causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
 The direction of induced current can be determined by using Fleming’s right
hand rule.
 The basic essential parts of an electric generator are :

 A magnetic field which is produced by field winding wound on stator

poles
 A conductor or group of conductors which can so move as to cut the
flux. Group of conductors is called armature winding.
Fig4.1.6: Flemming Right hand rule

4.3.2 Working

 Let us consider an armature conductors (rotor) rotating clockwise

anda conductor at the left under North pole moving upwards. As per
Flemings right hand rule the direction of induced current is inwards.
 When the armature completes a half rotation and comes under South
Pole, the direction of motion of the conductor will be reversed
downward. Hence, the direction of the current in it is outwards.
 It means when armature conductor comes under the influence of other pole, the
direction of current reverses [Link] carries alternating current.
 But with commutator and brushes we get unidirectional current at the terminals.

4.3.3 Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator and Motor

Let,
P – Number of poles of the machine
ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.
Z – Total number of armature conductors.
N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).
A – Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
• A=2 For wave winding
• A= P For lap winding

As per the faraday’s law of EMI ,emf induced in conductor is rate of change in flux by it
i.e. e = 𝒅∅
𝒅𝒕
let,
 dØ is the flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the rotor
 dt is time taken to complete one revolution

dØ = P ϕ
60
dt = seconds
𝑁

 Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be

e= 𝒅∅ 𝑷ϕN
=
𝒅𝒕 volts
𝟔𝟎
 The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.

 Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path or the armature terminals is given by
the equation shown below.

𝑷ϕNZ
e=
𝟔𝟎𝑨

 For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A)
are constant. Hence, the above equation can be written as
 Therefore, the average induced emf equation can also be written as

 Where ω is the angular velocity in radians/second is represented as

Imp point
 The induced emf is directly proportional to the speed and flux per pole.
 The polarity of induced emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of rotation.
 If either of the two is reverse the polarity changes, but if two are reversed the polarity remains unchanged.
 If the machine DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced emf is given by the equation
shownbelow.

Where Eg is the Generated Emf

 If the machine DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is given by the equation shown below.

In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf (Eb) because it acts opposite to the supply voltage.
4.4 DC motor
4.4.1 Principle and working:

An electric motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy

into mechanical energy. The basic working principle of a DC motor is:
"whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force".
The direction of this force (motion) is given by Fleming's left-hand rule and
its magnitude is given by F = BIL. Where, B = magnetic flux density, I =
current and L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
Hence, the basic essential parts of an electric motor (same as in generator) are : Fig:4.1.8

 A magnetic field which is produced by field winding wound on stator poles

 A conductor or group of conductors which can so move as to cut the flux. Group of conductors is called
armature winding.
 When armature windings are connected to a DC supply, an electric current sets up in the winding.
 Magnetic field is created by giving dc supply to field winding on stator.
 In this case, current carrying armature conductors experience a force due to the magnetic field, according to
the principle stated above.
 Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque. Otherwise, the direction of force would have
reversed every time when the direction of movement of conductor is reversed in the magnetic field. This is how
a DC motor works
4.4.2 Armature torque (Ta)

The power developed in the armature can be given as, Pa = Ta × ω = Ta × 2πN/60

The mechanical power developed in the armature is converted from the electrical
power, Therefore, mechanical power = electrical power
That means, Ta × 2πN/60 =
[Link] know, Eb = PΦNZ /
60A
Therefore, Ta × 2πN/60 = (PΦNZ / 60A) ×
IaRearranging the above equation,
Ta = (PZ / 2πA) × Φ.Ia(N-m)
The term (PZ / 2πA) is practically constant for a DC machine. Thus, armature torque is directly proportional tothe
product of the flux and the armature current i.e. Ta 𝖺 Φ.Ia

4.5 Types of DC Machines (Generator and Motors) – Separately Excited and Self
Excited
 The magnetic flux in a DC machine is produced by the field windings carrying current.
 The process of giving supply to field winding to produce magnetic field is called Excitation.
 DC Machine is classified according to the methods of their field [Link] DC Machines are classified
as:-
 Separately excited DC Machines
 Self-excited DC Machines..
 The self-excited DC Machines are further classified as:-
 Shunt wound DC Machines
 Series wound DC Machines
 Compound wound DC Machines
 The Compound Wound DC Machines are further divided as:-
 long shunt wound DC Machines
 short shunt wound DC Machines
4.5.1 DC generator

[Link] Separately Excited DC Generator

 A DC generator whose field winding is energized by a separate or external DC source is called a separately
excited DC Generator.
 The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field current i.e. flux is directly proportional to the
fieldcurrent. But in the saturated region, the flux remains constant.
 The figure of self-excited DC Generator is shown below.

Fig:4.1.9. Separately Excited DC Generator

 Current Ia = IL
 Terminal voltage V = Eg- I a Ra- Brush drop
 Power developed EgI a
 Power output VI L

[Link] Self- Excited DC Generator

 Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field winding is supplied by the generator
itself.
 In self-excited DC generator, the field coils may be connected in parallel with the armature or in the
series,or it may be connected partly in series and partly in parallel with the armature windings.
 The self-excited DC Generator is further classified as

1. Shunt Wound Generator

2. Series Wound Generator
3. Compound Wound Generator
[Link].1 Shunt Wound Generator

 In a shunt wound generator, the field winding is connected across the armature winding
 Therefore, full terminal voltage is applied across it. A very small field current Ish, flows through it
because this winding has many turns of fine wire having very high resistance Rsh
 The connection diagram of shunt wound generator is shown below.

Fig:4.1.10. Shunt Wound DC Generator

𝑉
 Shunt field current Ish =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
 Armature current Ia = IL + Ish
 Terminal Voltage V = Eg- I a Ra- Brush drop
 Power developed EgI a
 Power output VI L
Where, Rsh is shunt field resistance IL is load current
Egis generated emf
Ra is armature winding resistance
V is voltage across load
The current field Ish is practically constant at all loads. Therefore, the DC shunt machine is consideredto be
a constant flux machine.

[Link].2 Series Wound Generator

 In series-wound generator the field coils are connected in series with the armature winding. The
seriesfield winding carries the armature current.
 The series field winding consists of a few turns of wire of thick wire having low resistance to keep the
armature current high.
 Its conventional diagram is shown below.
 Fig:[Link] Wound DC GeneratorSeries field current I L =I a =I s e
 Terminal Voltage V = Eg- I a Ra- IaRse - Brushdrop
V = Eg - I a (Ra+ I aRse) - Brushdrop
 Power developed EgI a
 Power output VI L
 The flux developed by the series field winding is directly proportional to the current flowing
through it. But after the saturation flux becomes constant even if the current flowing through it is
increased.

[Link].3 Compound Wound Generator

 The generator which has both shunt and series fields is called the compound wound generators.
 If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the flux produced by the shunt
winding,then the machine is said to be cumulative compounded.
 If the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, then the machine is called the differentially
compounded.
 It is connected in two ways.
i Long shunt compound generator,
ii Short shunt compound generator.
 If the shunt field is connected in parallel with the armature alone then the machine is
calledthe short compound generator.
 In long shunt compound generator, the shunt field is connected in series with the armature.

[Link].4 Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator

 In this the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with both armature and series field winding.
The connection diagram of long shunt wound generator is shown below.

𝑉
 Shunt field current Ish =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
  [Link].5 Armature current Ia = IL + Ish
 Terminal Voltage V = Eg- Ia (Ra + Rse ) - BD
 [Link].6 Power developedEgIa
 Power output VIL

[Link].7 Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator

 In this the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding only. The
connectiondiagram of short shunt wound generator is shown below.
𝑉
 Shunt field current Ish =
 Armature current Ia = IL + Ish
 Terminal Voltage V = Eg- I a Ra -ILRse - BD
 Power developed EgI a
 Power output VI L
4.5.2 Dc Motor

[Link] Separately Excited DC Motor

 Field windings are energized by a separate DC source as shown in the circuit diagram.

Fig: 4.1.14. Separately Excited DC Motor

[Link] Self-Excited DC Motor

 In this type of motor, the current in the windings is supplied by the machine or motor itself.

 Self-excited DC Motor is further divided into shunt wound, and series wound motor.

[Link].1 Shunt Wound Motor

 Here the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature as shown in the figure below.

𝑉
Shunt field current Ish =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
Armature current Ia = IL - Ish
Supply voltage V = Eb + I a Ra + Brushdrop

Fig:[Link] Wound DC Motor

[Link].2 Series Wound Motor

 In this, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding.

Armature current I L =I a =I s e
Supply Voltage V = Eb + Ia Ra + Ia Rse +BD
V = Eb + Ia (Ra + Ia Rse) +BD

Fig:4.1.16

[Link].3 Compound Wound Motor

 A DC Motor having both shunt and series field windings is called a Compound Motor. The
connection diagram of the compound motor is shown below.

Fig:4.1.17. Long shunt Compound Motor

  The compound motor is further subdivided as Cumulative Compound Motor and Differential Compound
Motor.
 In cumulative compound motor the flux produced by both the windings is in the same direction, i.e.

 In differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series field windings is opposite to the
flux produced by the shunt field winding, i.e.

[Link].4 Long Shunt Compound Wound motor

𝑉
 Shunt field current Ish =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
 Armature Current Ia = IL - Ish
 Supply voltage V = Eb + I a (Ra +Rse)+ Brushdrop

[Link].5 Short Shunt Compound Wound motor

𝑉
 Shunt field current Ish =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
 Armature Current Ia = IL - Ish
 Supply voltage V = Eb + I a Ra + I LRse + Brushdrop

4.6 Applications of DC generator

 The separately excited type DC generator is used for boosting as well as electroplating. It is used in power
and lighting purpose using field regulator
 The self-excited DC generator or shunt DC generator is used for power as well as ordinary lighting using the
regulator. It can be used for battery lighting.
 The series DC generator is used in arc lamps for lighting, stable current generator and booster.
 Compound DC generator is used to provide the power supply for DC welding machines.
 Level compound DC generator is used to provide a power supply for hostels, lodges, offices, etc.
 Over compound, DC generator is used to reimburse the voltage drop within Feeders.
4.7 Three Phase induction motor
 Three phase induction motor is the most popular type a.c. motor. it is very commonly used for industrial drives.
Itis cheap, robust, efficient and reliable. It has good speed regulation and high starting torque. It requires little
maintenance. It has a reasonable over load capacity.

4.7.1Construction
 A three Phase induction motor essentially consists of two part the Stator and the Rotor. Stator is the
stationarypart and rotor is the rotating part.

[Link] Stator :
 It is a hollow cylinder built up of high-grade alloy steel lamination to reduce eddy current losses. It has slots
onthe inner periphery
 The stator conductors are connected to form a three phase winding. the winding may be either star or delta.
Thiswinding is placed in the stator slots.
[Link] Rotor:
 The rotor is built up of thin laminations of the same material as stator. The laminated cylindrical core is
mountedon the shaft. The laminated rotor core is slotted on their outer periphery to place the rotor conductors.
 There are two types of induction motor rotors:
1. Squirrel cage rotor or simply cage rotor
2. Phase wound or wound rotor .Motors using this type of the rotor are also called slip ring motor.

[Link].1 Cage Rotor

 It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel skewed slots on its outer periphery. One copper or
aluminum bar is placed in each slot. All these bars are joined at each end by metal rings called end rings.
 This forms a permanently short circuited winding The entire construction (bars and end rings) resembles a
squirrel cage and hence the name is squirrel cage rotor..The rotor is not connected electrically to the supply but
has current induced in it by transformer action from the stator.
 Those induction motors which employ squirrel cage rotor are called squirrel cage induction motors
 However, it suffers from the disadvantage of a low starting torque. It is because the rotor bars are permanently
short-circuited and it is not possible to add any external resistance to the rotor circuit to have a l arge starting
torque.
 The skewing of cage rotor conductors offers the following advantages.
i More uniform torque is produce and noise is reduced during operation.
ii The locking tendency of the rotor is reduced. During the locking, the rotor and stator teeth attract each
other due to magnetic action.
 [Link].2 Wound Rotor or Slip Ring Rotor
 It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3-phase
winding, similar to the one on the stator
 The rotor winding is uniformly distributed in the slots and is usually
star-connected.
 The open ends of the rotor winding are brought out and joined to
three insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft with one brush
resting on each slip ring.
 The three brushes are connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat Fig:4.2.1.
 At starting, the external resistances are included in the rotor circuit to give a large starting torque.
 These resistances are gradually reduced to zero as the motor runs up to speed.
 The external resistances are used during starting period only. When the motor attains normal speed, the
three brushes are short-circuited so that the wound rotor runs like a squirrel cage rotor.
The wound rotors have the following merits
1. High starting torque and low starting current.
2. Additional resistance can be connected in the rotor circuit to control the speed.

Fig: 4.2.2
4.7.2 Working of three phase induction motor

 Three phase AC supply is given to stator winding, the revolving flux called as "Rotating Magnetic Field" (RMF)
develops which rotates at synchronous speed around the stator.
 The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor conductors causes an
induced emf in the rotor conductors, according to the Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. The rotor conductors are short circuited, and
hence rotor current is produced due to induced emf. That is why such
motors are called as induction motors. (This action is same as that occurs
in transformers, hence induction motors can be called as rotating
transformers.)
 The direction of induced rotor current, according to Lenz's law, is such that
it will tend to oppose the cause of its production.
 As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity between
rotating stator flux and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with the stator RMF. Fig:4.2.3
 Thus the rotor rotates in the same direction as that of stator flux to minimize the relative velocity. However, the
rotor never succeeds in catching up the synchronous speed. This is the basic working principle of induction
motor

[Link] Synchronous speed:

The rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field is called as synchronous speed.

where, f = frequency of the

supply P = number of poles

[Link] Can Induction motor run at synchronous speed?

No rotor never catches synchronous speed .If rotor catches up the synchronous speed, there won’t be
any relative speed between the stator flux and the rotor, hence no induced emf, no rotor current and
no torque production to maintain the rotation. However, this won't stop the motor, the rotor will slow
down due to lost of torque, the torque will again be exerted due to relative speed. That is why the rotor
rotates at speed which is always less the synchronous speed.

[Link] Slip:

 The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) of RMF and actual speed (Nr) of the rotor is called
asslip.
S = (Ns – Nr) / Ns
(Ns – Nr) X 100
S in percentage = 𝐍𝐬

When the Value of Slip is ‘0’

  When the rotor anyhow runs at synchronous speed then slip is zero .i.e
 If Rotor speed Nr = speed of RMF Ns

S = (Ns-Ns)/Ns = 0

When the Value of Slip is ‘1’

 If the slip value is ‘1’ then the rotor in the motor will be stationary i.e.
 If rotor speed Nr =0 then
S = (Ns-0)/Ns = 1

4.7.3 Torque of a three phase induction motor

Torque of a three phase induction motor is proportional to flux per stator pole, rotor current and the power
factor of the rotor.
T 𝖺 ɸ I2 cosɸ2 OR T = k ɸ I2
cosɸ2. Where, ɸ = flux per stator
pole,
I2 = rotor current at standstill,
ɸ2 = angle between rotor emf and rotor
current, k = a constant.
Now, let E2 = rotor emf at standstill
we know, rotor emf is directly proportional to flux per stator pole, i.e.
E2 𝖺 ɸ. therefore, T 𝖺 E2 I2 cosɸ2 OR T =k1 E2 I2 cosɸ2.

[Link] Starting torque:

The torque developed at the instant of starting of a motor is called as starting torque. Starting
torque may be greater than running torque in some cases, or it may be lesser.

We know, T =k1 E2 I2 cosɸ2.

let, R2 = rotor resistance per phase

X2 = rotor reactance per phase at standstill

then,
Therefore, starting torque can be given as,

The constant K1 = 3 / 2πns

ns is the speed in rotation per second

[Link] Condition for maximum starting torque

If supply voltage V is kept constant, then flux ɸ and E2 both remains constant. Hence,

Hence, it can be proved that maximum starting torque is obtained when rotor resistance is equal
to standstill rotor reactance.
2 2 i.e.2 R 2 + X 2 =2R 2 .

R2 = X2

[Link] Torque under running condition

T 𝖺 ɸ Ir cosɸ2 .
Where, Er = rotor emf per phase under running condition = sE 2.

(s=slip) Ir = rotor current per phase under running

condition

Reactance per phase under running condition will be = sX2

therefore,
 as, ɸ 𝖺 E2.

[Link] Maximum torque under running condition

In the equation of torque,

Now differentiate the above equation by using division rule of differentiation. On differentiating and
after putting the terms equal to zero we get,

Neglecting the negative value of slip we get

𝑅2
s=
𝑋2
So, when slip s = R2 / X2, the torque will be maximum and this slip is called maximum slip Sm and it is
defined as the ratio of rotor resistance to that of rotor reactance

7.3.5 Equation of Maximum Torque

The equation of torque is

The torque will be maximum when slip s = R2 / X2

Substituting the value of this slip in above equation we get the maximum value of torque as,
4.7.4 Torque slip characteristic

The torque slip characteristic curve is divided roughly into two regions. They are given below.

 Low slip region

 High slip region

The torque equation of the induction motor is given as.

 At the synchronous speed,

Nr = Ns, s = 0, therefore, the torque is zero.

 At Low Slip Region

When the speed is very near to synchronous speed. The slip is very low and (sX2)2 is
negligible in comparison with R2. Therefore,

𝐾𝑠𝐸2
T=

If R2 is kept constant

Tαs

From the equation shown above, it is clear that the torque is proportional to slip. Hence,
in the normal working region of the motor, the value of the slip is small. The torque slip
curve is a straight line.

 At s = 𝑹𝟐
𝑿𝟐

At this slip maximum torque is obtained

 [Link] High Slip Region

As the slip increases, the speed of the motor decreases with the increase in load. The term (sX2)2
becomes large. The term R 2 may be neglected in comparison with the term (sX )2 and the torque
equation becomes 2 2
as shown below.
 𝐾𝐸22𝑅2
T=
𝑠𝑋2

Tα𝟏
𝒔

From above equation it is clear that the torque is inversely proportional to the [Link] we we
will get rectangular hyperbolic characterisctis

 The curve shown below shows the Torque Slip Characteristic of the Induction Motor.

Fig 4.2.4

4.8 Single phase induction motor

4.8.1 Introduction

 A single phase induction motor consists of a single phase winding on the stator and a cage winding on the rotor.
When a 1 phase supply is connected to the stator winding, a pulsating magnetic field is produced. In the
pulsating field, the rotor does not rotate due to inertia. Therefore a single phase induction motor is not self-
starting and requires some particular starting means.
4.8.2 Types of single phase induction motors

 The single-phase induction motor is started by using some methods. Mechanical methods are not very
practical methods that are why the motor is started temporarily by converting it into a two-phase motor.
 Single-phase induction motors are classified according to the auxiliary means used to start the motor. They
 are classified as follows:
1. Split-phase motor
2. Capacitor-start motor
3. Capacitor-start capacitor-run motor
4. Shaded-pole motor

[Link] Split-phase induction motor:

 The split-phase induction motor is also known as a resistance-start motor. It consists of a single-cage rotor, and
its stator has two windings , the main winding and a starting (also known as an auxiliary) winding. Both the
windings are displaced by 90° in space like the windings in a two-phase induction motor. The main winding of
the induction motor has very low resistance and high inductive [Link] the auxillary winding has high
resistance and low reactance.

(a) (b)
Figure: [Link]-phase induction motor (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

Operation

 When the two stator windings are energized from a single-phase supply, the main winding carries current
Imwhile the starting winding carries current Is
 Since main winding is made highly inductive while the starting winding highly resistive, the currents Im and Is
have a reasonable phase angle a (25° to 30°) between them as shown in figure:
 Consequently, a weak revolving field approximating to that of a 2-phase machine is produced which starts
the motor.
 The starting torque is given by; Ts = k Im Is sinɸ Where k is a constant whose magnitude depends upon
the design of the motor .
 When the motor reaches about 75% of synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch opens the circuit of the
startingwinding.
 The motor then operates as a single-phase induction motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches the
normal speed.
 The normal speed of the motor is below the synchronous speed and depends upon the load on the motor.

Motor Characteristics:
 Due to their low cost, split-phase induction motors are most popular single phase motors in the market.
 Since the starting winding is made of fine wire, the current density is high and the winding heats up quickly. If
the starting period exceeds 5 seconds, the winding may burn out unless the motor is protected by built -in-
 thermal relay. This motor is, therefore, suitable where starting periods are not frequent.
 An important characteristic of these motors is that they are essentially constant-speed motors. The speed
variation is 2-5% from no-load to full-load
Applications:

 Split-phase motors are most suitable for easily started loads where the frequency of starting is limited, and
these are very cheap.

1. These motors are used in washing machines.

2. These are used in Air conditioning fans.
3. Used in food mixers, grinders, floor polishers, blowers, centrifugal pumps,
4. These are used in small drills, lathes, office machinery, etc.
5. Sometimes they are also used for drives requiring more than 1kW.

[Link] Capacitor motors:

 Capacitor motors are the motors that have a capacitor in the auxiliary winding circuit to produce a greater phase
difference between the current in the main and auxiliary windings. There are two types of capacitor motors.

[Link] Capacitor-start motor:

 The capacitor start motor is identical to a resistor split-phase motor except that the starting winding has as
many turns as the main winding. Moreover, a capacitor C is connected in series with the starting winding as
shown in figure
 The value of capacitor is so chosen that I s leads Im by about 80° (i.e., ɸ ~ 80°) which is considerably greater than
25° found in resistor split-phase motor
 Consequently, starting torque (Ts = k Im Is sinɸ) is much more than that of a split-phase motor
 Again, the starting winding is opened by the centrifugal switch when the motor attains about 75% of
synchronous speed.
 The motor then operates as a single-phase induction motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches the normal
speed.

Fig :4.3.2.

Characteristics
  Although starting characteristics of a capacitor-start motor are better than those of a resistor split-phase
motor,both machines possess the same running characteristics because the main windings are identical.
 The phase angle between the two currents is about 80° compared to about 25° in a resistor split-phase
motor. Consequently, for the same starting torque, the current in the starting winding is only about half that
in a resistor split-phase motor. Therefore, the starting winding of a capacitor start motor heats up less
quickly and is well suited to applications involving either frequent or prolonged starting periods.

Applications:

 Since the motors possess high-starting torque, these motors are used
forRefrigerators
Air-conditioners Compressors
Reciprocating pumps
Other loads requiring high-starting torques.
 The power rating of such motors lies between 120 W and 750W.

[Link] Capacitor-Start and Capacitor-Run motors:

 This motor is identical to a capacitor-start motor except that starting winding is not opened after
startingso that both the windings remain connected to the supply when running as well as at starting.
 A capacitor C is used for both starting and running
 This design eliminates the need of a centrifugal switch and at the same time improves the power
factorand efficiency of the motor.
Characteristics

 The starting winding and the capacitor can be designed for perfect 2-phase operation at any load.
 The motor then produces a constant torque and not a pulsating torque as in other single-phase motors
 Because of constant torque, the motor is vibration free.
Applications

 Hospitals
 Studios
 Other places where silence is important.
 The power rating of such motors lies between 100 to 400 watts

[Link] Shaded-Pole Motor

 The shaded-pole motor is very popular for ratings below 0.05 H.P. (~40 W) because of its extremely
simple construction.
 It has salient poles on the stator excited by single-phase supply and a squirrel cage rotor
 A portion of each pole is surrounded by a short-circuited turn of copper strip called shading coil.
 The operation of the motor can be understood by referring to figure which shows one pole of the motor
with a shading coil.
 During the portion OA of the alternating-current cycle the flux begins to increase and an e.m.f. is induced
in the shading coil. The resulting current in the shading coil will be in such a direction (Lenz’s law) so as to
oppose the change in flux. Thus the flux in the shaded portion of the pole is weakened while that in the
unshaded portion is strengthened
 the portion AB of the alternating-current cycle, the flux has reached almost maximum value and is not
changing. Consequently, the flux distribution across the pole is uniform since no current is flowing in the
 shading coil.
 As the flux decreases (portion BC of the alternating current cycle), current is induced in the shading coil so
as to oppose the decrease in current. Thus the flux in the shaded portion of the pole is strengthened while
that in the unshaded portion is weakened
 The effect of the shading coil is to cause the field flux to shift across the pole face from the unshaded to the
shaded portion.
 This shifting flux is like a rotating weak field moving in the direction from unshaded portion to the shaded
portion of the pole.
 The rotor is of the squirrel-cage type and is under the influence of this moving field. Consequently, a
small starting torque is developed. As soon as this torque starts to revolve the rotor, additional torque is
produced by single-phase induction-motor action. The motor accelerates to a speed slightly below the
synchronous speed and runs as a single-phase induction motor.

Characteristics
 The salient features of this motor are extremely simple construction and absence of centrifugal switch.
 Starting torque, efficiency and power factor are very low
Applications

 These motors are only suitable for low power applications e.g., to drive small fans , Toys, Hair driers,
Desk fans etc.
 The power rating of such motors is upto about 30 W.
4.9 Synchronous Machines
 These machines are called synchronous machines because they operate at constant speeds and constant
frequencies under steady state conditions.
 Synchronous machines are commonly used as generators especially for large power systems, such as turbine
generators and hydroelectric generators in the grid power supply.
 Because the rotor speed is equal to the synchronous speed of stator magnetic field, synchronous motors can be
used in situations where constant speed drive is required.
 Since the reactive power generated by a synchronous machine can be adjusted by controlling the magnitude of
the rotor field current, unloaded synchronous machines are also often installed in power systems for power
factor correction or for control of reactive kVA flow. Such machines, known as synchronous condensers, and
may be more economical in the large sizes than static capacitors.

4.9.1 Construction of synchronous machines

 The synchronous machine has 3 phase winding on the stator and a d.c. field winding on the rotor.

[Link] Stator :

 It is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of sheet-steel laminations having slots on its inner periphery.
 A 3-phase winding is placed in these slots.
 The armature winding is always connected in star and the neutral is connected to ground.

[Link] Rotor:

 The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current through two slip rings by a separate
[Link].
 Rotor construction is of two types, namely
i Salient (or projecting) pole type .
ii Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole type .

[Link].1 Salient pole type

 In this type, salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large circular steel frame which is fixed to the
shaft of the alternator
 The individual field pole windings are connected in series in such a way that when the field winding is
energized by the d.c. exciter, adjacent poles have opposite polarities.
 Low-speed alternators (120 - 400 r.p.m.) driven by water turbines have salient pole type rotors due to
the following reasons:
(a) The salient field poles would cause .an excessive windage loss if driven at high speed and
wouldtend to produce noise.
(b) Salient-pole construction cannot be made strong enough to withstand the mechanical stresses
towhich they may be subjected at higher speeds.
 Since a frequency of 50 Hz is required, we must use a large number of poles on the rotor of slow-
speedalternators.
 Low-speed rotors always possess a large diameter to provide the necessary space for the poles and
shortaxial lengths.
 [Link].2 Non-salient pole(cylindrical) type :

 The field windings are embedded in these slots and are connected in series to the slip rings through
whichthey are energized by the d.c. exciter.
 Cylindrical rotor High-speed alternators (1500 or 3000 r.p.m.) are driven by steam turbines and use
non-salient type rotors due to the following reasons:
(a) This type of construction has mechanical robustness and gives noiseless operation at
highspeeds.
(b) The flux distribution around the periphery is nearly a sine wave and hence a better
[Link] is obtained than in the case of salient-pole type.
 Since steam turbines run at high speed and a frequency of 50 Hz is required, we need a small number
of poles on the rotor of high-speed alternators (also called turbo alternators).
 Turbo alternators possess 2 or 4 poles and have small diameters and very long axial lengths.

[Link] Advantages of stationary armature

 It is easier to insulate stationary winding for high voltages for which the alternators are usually designed.
 The stationary 3-phase armature can be directly connected to load without going through large,
unreliableslip rings and brushes.
 Only two slip rings are required for d.c. supply to the field winding on the rotor. Since the exciting
currentis small, the slip rings and brush gear required are of light construction.
 Due to the simple and robust construction of the rotor, the higher speed of rotation is possible.

4.9.2 Synchronous generator (Alternator)

Working principle
 The working principle of alternator is Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction which says the an emf
is induced in the conductor inside a magnetic field when there is a relative motion between that
conductor and the magnetic field.
 The three phase star connected armature conductors are placed on stator slots and DC field winding is
placed on rotor.
 To create the magnetic field, the DC supply is given to the rotor winding through the slip rings and
brushes arrangement. The stationary magnetic field develops i.e north pole and south pole develops on
rotor which are stationary.
 The rotor of an alternator is mechanically coupled to the shaft or the turbine blades, which on
being made to rotate at synchronous speed Ns results in magnetic flux cutting of the stationary
armature conductors housed on the stator.
 As a consequence of this flux cutting an alternating emf is induced and current starts to flow through the
armature conductors on stator.

Fig 4.4.1
 Emf equation of an alternator

Let,
 P – Number of poles of the machine
 ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.
 Z – Total number of armature conductors in each phase
 Ns – Speed of alternator (r.p.m).

As per the faraday’s law of EMI ,emf induced in conductor is rate of change in flux by it
𝒅∅
i.e. e = 𝒅𝒕
let,

 dØ is the flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the rotor

 dt is time taken to complete one revolution

dØ = P ϕ
60
dt = 𝑁𝑠 seconds

 Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be

𝒅∅ 𝑷ϕNs
. Eav = 𝒅𝒕
= volts
𝟔𝟎

 The number of conductors connected in series Z

 Therefore, the average e.m.f induced per phase

𝑷ϕNsZ
Eav = where Ns = 120f/p
𝟔𝟎

𝑃ϕ120f Z
Eav = 60𝑃
= 2ϕfZ = 4f ϕ T where T is the no of turns T= Z/2
  As we know that
Form Factor= RMS Value / Average Value

 RMS value= Form factor x Average Value,

= 1.11 x 4 f Φ T = 4.44 f Φ T Volts.

 Erms = 4.44fΦT Volts assuming Kp=1 and Kd=1

Erms = 4.44 f Φ T Kp Kd

4.9.3 Synchronous Motor

Why Three Phase Synchronous Motor not Self Starting?

 When a three-phase supply is given to the stator of a three-phase wound synchronous motor, a rotating
field is set up in the air gap which rotates at synchronous speed (Ns = 120f/p).
 The synchronous motor works on the principle of magnetic locking. The operating principle can be
explained with the help of a 2-Pole synchronous machine with the following steps.
 The three-phase supply is provided to the stator which induces two poles i.e North pole and the South
pole on Stator. Since the supply in the stator is alternating in nature, therefore, its polarity changes in
every half cycle, thus the poles of stator also changes after every half cycle.
 The synchronous motor rotor is energized by the DC current. The field current (D.C Current) of the
motor produces a steady-state magnetic field. Since the polarity of D.C current is fixed therefore the
poles of rotor don’t vary.
 Therefore, there are two magnetic fields present in the machine. Stator poles changes in every half-
cycle whereas rotor poles remain the same.
Step 1. When a three-phase supply is given to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field is produced in the stator.

Fig: 4.4.2

Step 2.
 Due to the Rotating Magnetic field, let the stator poles i.e North poles (Ns) and South Poles (Ss)
rotate withsynchronous speed.
  At a particular time stator pole, Ns coincides with the rotor poles Nr and SS coincides with Sr i.e
like polesof the stator and rotor coincide with each other.
 As we know, like poles experience a repulsive force. So rotor poles experience a repulsive
force Fr. Letus assume that the rotor tends to rotate in the anti-clockwise direction as shown
in Fig. (i)
Step-3.
 After half cycle, the polarity of the stator pole is reversed, whereas the rotor poles cannot
change their polarity as shown in Fig. (ii).
 Now unlike poles of rotor and Stator coincide with each other and rotor experiences the
attractive force f a and the rotor tends to rotate in the clockwise direction.
 In brief, we can say, with the rotation of stator poles the rotor tends to drive in the
clockwise and anti-clockwise direction in every half cycle.
 Hence, to and fro motion is excited on the rotor and as a result, the rotor does not rotate. As a
result, the average torque on the rotor is zero. Hence the 3-phase synchronous motor is not a
self-starting motor.

 In order to develop a continuous torque, the two fields must be stationary with respect to
each other. This is possible when the rotor also rotates at synchronous speed. The basic
principle of synchronous motor operation isthat the rotor chases the stator magnetic field. In
other words, the stator rotating magnetic field tends to drag the rotor along as if the north
pole on the stator locks into the south pole of the rotor.

Step 4.
 If the rotor of the synchronous motor is rotated by some external means at the start so that it also
reverses its polarity as the polarity of the stator poles, there exists a continuous force of attraction
between stator and rotorpoles. This is called magnetic locking.
 Once the magnetic locking is obtained, the rotor poles are dragged by the stator revolving field (or
imaginary
poles) and a continuous torque is obtained. As the rotor poles are dragged by the stator
revolving field, hence the rotor rotates at the same speed as that of the stator revolving field,
 i.e., at synchronous speed.

Step 5.
 Due to this, the rotor continuously experiences a unidirectional torque in the direction of
the rotating magneticfield. Hence 3-phase synchronous motor must run at synchronous
speed.

4.9.4 Procedure to start synchronous motor:

A general procedure to start a synchronous motor can be stated as:

1. Give a three-phase ac supply to the three-phase winding. This will produce a rotating magnetic field
rotating atsynchronous speed NS RPM.
2. Then drive the rotor by some external means like the diesel engine in the direction of rotating the magnetic
field,at a speed very near or equal to synchronous speed.
3. Switch on the dc supply given to the r rotor which will produce rotor poles. Now there are two fields one is
the rotating magnetic field produced by stator while the other is produced by the rotor which is physically
rotated almost at the same speed as that of the rotating magnetic field. At a particular instant, both the
fields get magnetically locked. The stator field pulls the rotor field into synchronism. Then the external
device used to rotate the rotor can be removed. But rotor will continue to rotate at the same speed as that
of rotating magnetic field i.e., NS due to magnetic locking.
 Unit 5 Electrical Installations
5.1 FUSE:
A fuse is an electric / electronic or mechanical device, which is used to protect circuits from
overcurrent, overload and make sure the protection of the circuit. Electric fuse was invented by
Thomas Alva Edison in 1890. There are many types of fuses, but function of all these fuses is
same.
5.1.1 Construction & Working of A Fuse
A general Fuse consists of a low resistance metallic wire enclosed in a non-combustible
material. It is used to connect and install in series with a circuit and device which needs to be
protected from short circuit and over current, otherwise, electrical appliance may be damaged
in case of absence of the fuse and circuit breaker as they are unable to handle the excessive
current according to their rating limits.

The working principle of a fuse is based on the “Heating effect of Current” i.e. Whenever a
short circuit, over current or mismatched load connection occurs, then the thin wire inside the
fuse melts because of the heat generated by the heavy current flowing through it. Therefore, it
disconnects the power supply from the connected system. In normal operation of the circuit,
fuse wire is just a very low resistance component and does not affect the normal operation of
the system connected to the power supply.
 5.1.2How to Select Proper Rating Size of Fuse?
While selecting the proper fuse and its rated size for electrical appliances is based
on different
factors and environments, but the following basic formula shows that how to
choose the right size of fuse.

Fuse Rating = ( Power / Voltage ) x 1.25

For example, you have to find a right size of fuse for 10A

two pin socket.(1000W / 230V ) x 1.25 = 5.4A

In the above example, 1kW is the power rating which can be control through the
2 pin socket andthe main supply voltage is single phase 230V AC (120V AC in US).

5.1.3 HRC Fuse Unit

This type of fuse contains a fuse wire in it, which carries the short circuit current
safely for a given time period. During this period, if fault is removed, then it does
not blow off otherwise it will melt and remove the circuit from electrical supply
hence, the circuit remains safe.

The common material, which is used to make an HRC fuse is glass, but this, is not
always the case. Other chemical compounds are also used in HRC fuse
manufacturing and construction based on different factors. Its external enclosure
is made fully airtight in order to avoid the effect of atmosphere on the fuse
materials. The major objection on HRC fuse is low and uncertain breaking capacity
of semi-enclosed fuse.

[Link] Construction and Operations of HRC Fuse

HRC Fuse consists of highly heat resistant material (such as ceramic) body having
metal-end caps, which is welded by silver current carrying element. The fuse body
internal space is completely packed with a filling powder. The material, which has
filled the insider space, may be plaster of Paris, quartz, chalk, marble, dust and
cooling mediums etc. That’s why it carries normal current without overheating.
The heat being produced vaporizes the silver melted element. Chemical reaction
taking place between silver vapor and filling powder results in high resistance
substance, which helps in quenching the arc in fuse.
 [Link] Advantages of HRC Fuse:

 It clears high as well as low fault currents.

 Do not deteriorate with age.
 Having high-speed operation.
 Provides reliable discrimination.
 Require no maintenance.
 Cheaper than other circuit interrupting devices with same rating.
 Permit consistent performance
 Fusing operation is fast without Noise and Smoke
 Disadvantages of H.R.C Fuse:
 After each operation, they have to be replaced.
 Heat being produced by the arc may affect the associated switches.

5.1.4 Switch Fuse Unit (SFU)

The Rewirable Switch Fuse Units are used for distributing power and
protecting electrical devices and cables from damage due to fluctuations. This
fuse unit is housed in an enclosure made using

[Link] Salient Features :

 Pretreated or powder coated finish
 CR steel sheet enclosure deep drawn and fabricated
 For cable connections, knock outs are provided at bottom, top and rear side
 High conductivity due to nickel or silver plated contact
 Durable and rewirable

[Link] Applications :

Used in industrial, residential and commercial buildings for electrical fittings.

Ratings : 16, 32, 63,100 and 200 A , 240/415 V

Execution : SP, SPN, DP,TP, TPN

[Link].1 Rewirable Or Kit Kat Type

Porcelain Fuse Units (Kit Kat) are specifically utilized in industrial, commercial and
domestic electrical fittings for ensuring flawless power distribution. Designed and
manufactured using porcelain, these fuse units provide excellent damage
protection to electrical equipment and cables that is caused by fluctuation.

Salient Features :

 Excellent overload protection

 Shock proof
 Compact and sturdy design
 Cable is connected at both ends
 High conductivity
 Protection from short circuit
 Rewirable

Ratings : 16, 32, 63, 100, 200, 300 & 400 Amp., 240/415 V AC

[Link].2 Double Break Combination Sfu

 The Double Break Combination Fuse Switch Units are suitably utilized in electrical
fittings and ensure faultless supply of power to appliances, machines and
equipments. These fuse switch units also offer excellent protection from the
damage caused by short circuit or overload.

Salient Features :

 High safety to personnel with its full proof door interlocking arrangement.
 Housed in sturdy, pretreated and powder coated enclosure made up of CR sheet steel.
 Double brake isolation for connecting incoming/outgoing supply to bottom or top
terminal.
 Incoming/outgoing supply can be utilized with HRC fuse links/Wire fuse links.
 Silver/Nickel plated contacts ensure exceptional conductivity.
 Long service life.
 Block designed terminals are ideal for bottle type sockets in switches up to 100 Amp.
 Strip designed terminals are appropriate for cable lugs in switches from 200 Amp. to 500
Amp.
 Cable and boxes optional.
 Fire retardant shrouds are available with phenolic moulded bases.

Applications :

Used in electrical fittings of industries, homes, offices and other commercial

places to ensure highly protective distribution of power.

Rating : 63, 100, 200, 315, 400, 500 A., 415 V AC

[Link].3 Distribution Fuse Board With Rewirable Fuse Units

The Distribution Fuse Board With Rewirable Fuse Units is ideally used in the
electrical fittings of homes, offices, malls, industries and other commercial
buildings for accurate power distribution functioning. These fuse boards also
protect electrical equipments and machines from damage caused by overloading
and short circuit. The distribution system is designed using cutting-edge
technologies and premium grade material and is available in various capacities
and specifications to cater the variegated electrical requirements.

Salient Features :
 Accurate power distribution
  High durability
 Impeccable overload protection
 Shock resistant
 Exceptional conductivity
 Rewirable

Fig. 5.6 Distribution Fuse Board With Rewirable Fuse Unit

Type : 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10 ways

Rating : 16 & 32 A, 240/415 V AC

5.1.5 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

An MCB or miniature circuit breaker is an electromagnetic device that embodies

complete enclosure in a molded insulating material. The main function of an MCB is to
switch the circuit, i.e., to open the circuit (which has been connected to it)
automatically when the current passing through it (MCB) exceeds the value for which
it is set. It can be manually switched ON and OFF as similar to normal switch if
necessary.

Fig.5.7 MCB symbol

MCBs are of time delay tripping devices, to which the magnitude of overcurrent
controls the operating time. This means, these get operated whenever overload
exist long enough to create a danger to the circuit being protected. Therefore,
MCBs doesn’t respond to transient loads such as switches surges and motor
starting currents. Generally, these are designed to operate at less than
2.5 milliseconds during short circuit faults and 2 seconds to 2 minutes in case of
overloads (depending on the level of current).

[Link] Construction of MCB

An MCB embodies complete enclosure in a moulded insulating material. This

provides mechanically strong and insulated housing. The switching system
consists of a fixed and a
moving contact to which incoming and outgoing wires are connected. The metal
or current carrying parts are made up of electrolytic copper or silver alloy
depending on the rating of the circuit breaker.

Fig. 5.8 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) construction

 As the contacts are separated in the event of an overload or short circuit situation, an electric
arc is formed. All modern MCBs are designed to handle arc interruption process where arc
energy extraction and its cooling are provided by metallic arc splitter plates. These plates are
held in a proper position by an insulating material. Also, arc runner is provided to force the arc
that is produced between the main [Link] operating mechanism consists of both
magnetic tripping and thermal tripping arrangements.
5.1.6 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)

If any current leaks from any electrical installation, there must-be any insulation failure in the
electrical circuit, it must be properly detected and prevented otherwise there may be a high
chance of electrical shock if-anyone touches the installation. An earth leakage circuit breaker
does it efficiently. Means it detects the earth leakage current and makes the power supply off
by opening the associated circuit breaker. There are two types of earth leakage circuit breaker,
one is voltage ELCB and other is current ELCB.

[Link] Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

The working principle of voltage ELCB is quite simple. One terminal of the relay coil is connected to
the metal body of the equipment to be protected against earth leakage and other terminal is
connected to the earth directly. If any insulation failure occurs or live phase wire touches the metal
body, of the equipment, there must be a voltage difference appears across the terminal of the coil
connected to the equipment body and earth. This voltage difference produces a current to flow the
relay coil.

Fig. 5.9 Voltage ELCB

If the voltage difference crosses, a predetermined limit, the current through the relay becomes
sufficient to actuate the relay for tripping the associated circuit breaker to disconnect the
power supply to the equipment. The typicality of this device is, it can detect and protect only
that equipment or installation with which it is attached. It cannot detect any leakage of
insulation in other parts of the system

[Link] Current ELCB or RCCB or Residual Current Circuit Breaker

The working principle of current earth leakage circuit breaker or RCCB is also very simple as
voltage operated ELCB but the theory is entirely different and residual current circuit breaker is
more sensitive than ELCB. Actually, ELCBs are of two kinds, but it is general practice to refer
voltage based ELCB as simple ELCB. And current based ELCB is referred to as RCD or RCCB. Here
one CT (Current Transformer) core is energized from both phase wise and neutral wire.

Fig. 5.10 Single Phase Residual Current ELCB

The polarity of the phase winding and neutral winding on the core is so chosen that, in normal
condition mmf of one winding opposes that of another. As it is assumed that, in normal
operating conditions the current goes through the phase wire will be returned via neutral wire if
there’s no leakage in between. As both currents are same, the resultant mmf produced by
these two currents is also zero-ideally.

The relay coil is connected with another third winding wound on the CT core as secondary. The
terminals of this winding are connected to a relay system. In normal operating condition there
would not be any current circulating in the third winding as here is no flux in the core due to
equal phase and neutral current. When any earth leakage occurs in the equipment, there may
be part of phase current passes to the earth, through the leakage path instead of returning via
mental wire. Hence the magnitude of the neutral current passing through the RCCB is not equal
to phasecurrent passing through it.
 Fig. 5.11 Three Phase Residual Current Circuit Breaker (Current ELCB)

When this difference crosses a predetermined value, the current in the third secondary
winding of the core becomes sufficiently high to actuate the electromagnetic relay attached to
it. This relay causes tripping of the associated circuit breaker to disconnect the power supply to
the equipment under protection. Residual current circuit breaker is sometimes also referred as
residual current device (RCD) when we consider the device by disassociating the circuit breaker
attached to RCCB. That means, the entire parts of RCCB except circuit breaker are referred as
RCD.
5.1.7 MCCB

Moulded Case Circuit Breaker is an electromechanical device which protects a circuit from
overcurrent and short circuit. It provides overcurrent and short circuit protection for circuits
ranging from 63 Amps up to 3000 Amps. The primary function of an MCCB is to provide a
means to manually open a circuit and automatically open a circuit under overload or short
circuit conditions. The overcurrent, in an electrical circuit, may result from short circuit,
overload or faulty design.
It is generally installed on the secondary side of transformer stations (main switch or for
protecting individual branches). In industry, we can use it in switchgear or for protecting the
motors as well we have big requirements in shipbuilding. For building applications, it is used as
the main protection switch.

[Link] Construction of MCCB

A Moulded case circuit breaker (MCCB) generally have a thermal element for
overcurrent and a magnetic element for short circuit release which has to operate faster.
MCCBs are manufactured such that end user will not have access to internal workings of the
over-current protection device. Generally constructed of two pieces of heavy-duty electrically
insulated plastic, these two halves are riveted together to form the whole. Inside the plastic
shell is a series of thermal elements and a spring-loaded trigger. When the thermal element

gets too warm, from an overcurrent situation, the spring trips, which in turn will shut off the
electrical circuit.
Fig. 5.12 MCCB
When the thermal element gets too warm, from an overcurrent situation, the spring trips,
which in turn will shut off the electrical circuit. The major components of MCCB include a
mechanism which makes and breaks a contact through a toggle link mechanism having a spring
which can store tripping force, an overcurrent trip device which reacts with overcurrent and
short circuit current and trips MCCB, an arc extinguishing device which extinguishes the arc
generated upon current interruption, terminals for connecting wires and conductors, contacts
which open and close the circuit and a moulded case in which these components are integrated
and compactly contained. The larger moulded case circuit breaker has an adjustable range
setting on the face of the device. Moulded case circuit breakers can range in size from
32amperes up to 3000 amperes.
5.2 Types of Wires And Cables
Wires are of two groups- (i) ordinary wires and (ii) cables. For electric work conductors are
usually made of copper but aluminium conductors are also used mainly because of its low cost.
In India a large quantity of copper is imported from other countries. Presently the armature and
field coils of different machines and instruments are also made of aluminium wire.

However for fuse wires, use of lead-tin alloy or copper wire is the usual practise. Wires are used
for the manufacture of armature and field windings of generators, motors, electrical
instruments, etc., and also for house wiring and for drawing overhead transmission and
distribution lines. Wires used for house wiring and underground cables have various types of
insulation. According to insulation cables are of following types :-
5.2.1 Vulcanised Indian Rubber (VIR) Insulated Cables :

On the conductor one or more layers of vulcanised Indian Rubber (V.I.R.) i.e., rubber treated
with sulphur at high temperature, is applied. For removing the bad effect of sulphur on copper
or aluminium, the conductor is thoroughly tinned or a layer of pure rubber is applied on the
conductor.

Finally the rubber insulation is covered either by cotton tape impregnated with moisture
resisting compound like bitumen or wax, or covered with cotton tape. V.I.R. wires are single-
core type and usually used in conduit wiring, wood casing and cleat wiring, etc. In recent years,
however, single-core P.V.C. wires have largely replaced V.I.R. wires.
5.2.2 Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS) And Cab Tyre Sheathed (CTS)Cables :

Over the tinned copper or aluminium conductor a layer of pure rubber or rubber treated with
sulphur is used. As outer protective layer tough rubber sheath (T.R.S.) wires and cab tyre sheath
(C.T.S.) wires are provided. These may be used in damp places or in open atmosphere. T.R.S. or
C.T.S. wires are light in weight and cheaper in cost.
These wires are available in single-cores twin-core, three-core conductor. Single-core and twin-
core wires are mainly used in house wiring, and twin-core and three core wires are used for
giving supply to cranes, hoists, etc. and also for drawing service connections from the overhead
distribution lines or from one building to another.

The rubber insulation over each conductor has different colours for different cores. In recent
years for service connections and house wiring P.V.C. wires are preferred over T.R.S. or C.T.S.
wires.
5.2.3 Metal Sheathed or Lead Sheathed Cables :

In these wires V.I.R. types are provided with a continuous lead sheath covering which is
mechanically strong and moisture proof. Due to its high cost compared to C.T.S. wires, lead
sheathed wires are not used for internal wiring but used for service connections and for wiring
under abnormal climatic conditions with high moisture. Lead sheathed cables are available in
many forms like single-core, twin-core flat, three-core flat and twin-core flat with an earth
continuity conductor. In this type also rubber insulations over the conductor have different
colours for different cores.
5.2.4 Weather-Proof Cables :

Weather-proof wire is mainly used in outdoor work where the wire remains exposed to open
atmosphere. These wires are of V.I.R. insulated type suitably taped, braided and compounded
with weather-resisting material. The conductor is of tinned copper or aluminium over which a
layer of rubber treated with sulphur is applied. Weather-proof cables are useful is industries
and in outdoor wiring at low and medium voltages.
5.2.5 Wires With Thermo-Plastic Insulation (P.V.C. Cables) :

Here conductor is insulated with poly-vinyl chloride (P.V.C.), a thermo-plastic material. This type
of insulation is not affected by acid, alkali, ozone, humidity or the sun rays. Rubber insulation is
deteriorated shortly but P.V.C. remains unaffected as it is much harder than rubber. So
additional protection like cotton tapping or cotton braiding is not required against mechanical
injury. It is inflammable but when the source of flame is removed, it stops burning.

Hence proves that P.V.C. insulation does not help combustion. However, it becomes semi-
melted when excessively heated and becomes brittle under extreme cold condition. For that
reason P.V.C. wires cannot be used for giving connections to the heating appliances. It is also
not to be used for wiring in a place exposed to weather particularly where there is frequent
snowfall.
 Fig. 5.13 Different types of cables

5.2.6 Flexible Cord and Flexible Cable :

The wire whose cross-sectional area of each strand is less than 4.28 mm 2 is known as flexible
cord. Stranded wire with higher cross-sectional area of each strand is known as flexible cable. It
generally consists of two separately insulated flexible stranded conductors twisted together
and is called twin flexible. These wires are widely used for portable appliances like electric irons,
refrigerators, heaters, hand lamps, table fans, etc.
5.2.7 XLPE Cable :

XLPE is the recognized abbreviation for cross-linked polyethylene. This and other cross-linked
synthetic materials, of which EPR (ethylene propylene rubber) is a notable example, are being
increasingly used as cable insulants for a wide range of [Link] has good
electrical properties and in particular a low dielectric loss factor, which gives it potential for use
at much higher voltages than PVC. Polyethylene has been and still is used as a cable insulant,
but, as a thermoplastic material, its applications are limited by thermal constraints.

Cross-linking is the effect produced in the vulcanization of rubber and for materials like XLPE
the cross-linking process is often described as ‘vulcan- ization’ or ‘curing’. Small amounts of
chemical additives to the polymer enable the molecular chains to be cross-linked into a lattice
formation by appropriate treatment after [Link] effect of the cross -linking is to inhibit
the movement of molecules with respect to each other under the stimulation of heat and this
gives the improved stability at elevated temperatures compared with the thermoplastic
materials. This permits higher operating temperatures, both for normal loading and under
short-circuit conditions, so that an XLPE cable has a higher current rating than its equivalent
PVCCounterpart.
 The effects of ageing, accelerated by increased temperature, also have to be taken into
account, but in this respect also XLPE has favourable characteristics.
5.2.8 Multistrand Cables :

Multi-strand wires come with a bunch of small wires bunched together to form one thick
conductor. Multi-strand wires are more malleable than single strand wires with the same cross -
sectional surface. The multi-stranded wires come handy when you need a higher resistance to
metal fatigue.

Copper being a very good conductor of electricity is used extensively in electric

wires and cables. Hence, instead of single copper strand, a copper wire has numerous
multi-strands that increases its circumference dimension so that for the same amount of the
copper, a wire of higher rated current can be manufactured. These are more flexible and
durable. Skin effect is better as the conductors are tubular, specially in high frequency.
5.3 Electrical Earthing
The process of transferring the immediate discharge of the electrical energy directly to the
earth by the help of the low resistance wire is known as the electrical earthing. The electrical
earthing is done by connecting the non-current carrying part of the equipment or neutral of
supply system to the ground.

Mostly, the galvanised iron is used for the earthing. The earthing provides the simple path to
the leakage current. The shortcircuit current of the equipment passes to the earth which has
zero potential. Thus, protects the system and equipment from damage.
5.3.1 Types of Electrical Earthing

The electrical equipment mainly consists of two non-current carrying parts. These parts are
neutral of the system or frame of the electrical equipment. From the earthing of these two non-
current carrying parts of the electrical system earthing can be classified into two types :-

 Neutral Earthing
 Equipment Earthing.

[Link] Neutral Earthing

In neutral earthing, the neutral of the system is directly connected to earth by the help of the GI
wire. The neutral earthing is also called the system earthing. Such type of earthing is mostly
provided to the system which has star winding. For example, the neutral earthing is provided in
the generator, transformer, motor etc.
 [Link] Equipment Earthing

Such type of earthing is provided to the electrical equipment. The non-current carrying part of
the equipment like their metallic frame is connected to the earth by the help of the conducting
wire. If any fault occurs in the apparatus, the short-circuit current to pass the earth by the help
of wire. Thus, protect the system from damage.
5.3.2 Importance of Earthing

The earthing is essential because of the following reasons :-

 The earthing protects the personnel from the short circuit current.
 The earthing provides the easiest path to the flow of short circuit current even after
the failure of the insulation.
 The earthing protects the apparatus and personnel from the high voltage surges
andlightning discharge.

Earthing can be done by electrically connecting the respective parts in the installation to some
system of electrical conductors or electrodes placed near the soil or below the ground level.
The earthing mat or electrode under the ground level have flat iron riser through which all the
non- current-carrying metallic parts of the equipment are connected.

Fig. 5.14 Electrical system without earthing

When the fault occurs the fault current from the equipment flows through the earthing system
to the earth and thereby protect the equipment from the fault current. At the time of the fault,
the earth mat conductors rise to the voltage which is equal to the resistance of the earth mat
multiplied by a ground fault.
 Fig. 5.15 Electrical system with earthing

The contacting assembly is called earthing. The metallic conductors connecting the parts of the installation with
the earthing are called electrical connection. The earthing and the earthing connection together called the
earthing system

5.3.3 Methods of Earthing

The various methods of earthing are :-

[Link] Pipe Earthing

This is the most common and best system of earthing as compared to other systems suitable
for the same earth and moisture conditions. In this method the galvanized steel and perforated
pipe of approved length and diameter in place upright in a permanently wet soil, as shown
below. Thesize of the pipe depends upon the current to be carried and type of soil.

Fig. 5.16 Pipe Earthing

Normally, the size of the pipe uses for earthing is of diameter 40 mm and 2.5 meters in
length for ordinary soil or of greater length in case of dry and rocky soil. The depth at which
the pipe must be buried depends on the moistures of the ground. The pipe is placed at 3.75
 meters. The bottom of the pipe is surrounded by small pieces of coke or charcoal at a
distance of about 15 cm. Alternate layers of coke and salt are used to increase the effective
area of the earth and to decrease the earth resistance respectively. Another pipe of 19 mm
diameter and minimum length
1.25 meters is connected at the top of GI pipe through reducing socket.
During summer the moisture in the soil decreases, which causes an increase in earth
resistance. So a cement concrete work is done to keep the water arrangement accessible,
and in summer to have an effective earth, 3 or 4 buckets of water are put through the funnel
connected to 19 mm diameter pipe, which is further connected to GI pipe.
The earth wire either GI or a strip of GI wire of sufficient cross section to carry faul ty current
safely is carried in a GI pipe of diameter 12 mm at a depth of about 60cm from the ground.

[Link] Plate Earthing

In Plate Earthing an earthing plate either of copper of dimension 60cm×60cm×3m of galvanized

iron of dimensions 60 cm× 60 cm×6 mm is buried into the ground with its face vertical at a
depth of not less than 3 meters from ground level. A small masonry brick wall enclosure with a
cast iron cover on top or an RCC pipe round the earth plate is provided to facilitate its
identification and for carrying out periodical inspection and tests. The copper plate and copper
wire are usuallynot employed for grounding purposes because of their higher cost.

Fig. 5.17 Plate Earthing

[Link] Earthing Through Water Mains

Fig. 5.18 Earthing through water mains

The water pipe is made up of metal, and it is placed below the surface of the ground, i.e.
directly connected to earth. The fault current flow through the GI or copper wire is directly get
earthed through the water pipe.

[Link] Rod Earthing

This method is same as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm
(0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of length above
2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer.
The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired value.

Fig. 5.19 Rod Earthing

[Link] Strip or Wire Earthing:

In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less than 25mm x 1.6mm (1in x
0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a cross -
section of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized
iron or steel. If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too
small, say less than 6.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel. The length of the conductor buried
in the ground would give a sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less than
15m.

Fig. 5.20 Strip Earthing

5.4 Battery
A Battery is a device consisting of one or more electrical cells that convert chemical energy into
electrical energy. Every battery is basically a galvanic cell where redox reactions take place
between two electrodes which act as the source of the chemical energy.
5.4.1 Battery Types

Batteries can be broadly divided into two major types.

 Primary Cell / Primary battery
 Secondary Cell / Secondary battery

Based on the application of the battery, they can be classified again. They are:

Household Batteries :-

These are the types of batteries which are more likely to be known to the common man. They find uses
in a wide range of household appliances (such as torches, clocks, and cameras). These batteries can be
further classified into two subcategories:

Rechargeable batteries : Nickel-Cadmium batteries, Lithium-Ion etc.

Non-rechargeable batteries : Silver oxide, Alkaline & carbon zinc etc.

Industrial Batteries :-
These batteries are built to serve heavy-duty requirements. Some of their applications include
railroad, backup power and more for big companies. Some examples are Nickel-
Iron ,Wet Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cd)

Vehicle Batteries :

These are more user-friendly and a less complicated version of the industrial batteries. They are
specifically designed to power cars, motorcycles, boats & other vehicles. An important example
of a vehicle battery is the Lead-acid battery.

[Link] Primary Battery

Fig. 5.21 Primary cell

These are batteries where the redox reactions proceed in only one direction. The reactants in
these batteries are consumed after a certain period of time, rendering them dead. A primary
battery cannot be used once the chemicals inside it are exhausted.

An example of a primary battery is the dry cell – the household battery that commonly used to
power TV remotes, clocks, and other devices. In such cells, a zinc container acts as the anode
and a carbon rod acts as the cathode. A powdered mixture of manganese dioxide and carbon is
placed around the cathode. The space left in between the container and the rod is filled with a
moist paste of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride.

The redox reaction that takes place in these cells is:

At Anode

Zn(s) –> Zn++ + (aq) + 2e–

At Cathode

2e– + 2 NH4+ (aq) –> 2 NH3 (g) + H2 (g)

2 NH3 (g) +Zn2+ (aq) –> [Zn (NH3)2] 2+ (aq)H2

(g) + 2 MnO2 (S) –> Mn2O3 (S) + H2O (l)

Thus, the overall cell equation is:

Zn(s) + 2 NH4+ (aq) + 2 MnO2 (S) –> [Zn(NH3)2] 2+ (aq) + Mn2O3 (S) + H2O (l)

Another example of the primary cell is the mercury cell, where a zinc-mercury amalgam is used
as an anode and carbon is used as a cathode. A paste of HgO is used as an electrolyte. These cells
are used only in devices that require a relatively low supply of electric current (such as hearing
aids and watches).

[Link] Secondary Battery

These are batteries that can be recharged after use by passing current through the electrodes in
the opposite direction, i.e. from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.

[Link].1 Lead Acid Battery

The battery which uses sponge lead and lead peroxide for the conversion of the chemical energy
into electrical power, such type of battery is called a lead acid battery. The lead acid battery is
most commonly used in the power stations and substations because it has higher cell voltage and
lower cost.

The various parts of the lead acid battery are shown below. The container and the plates are
the
main part of the lead acid battery. The container stores chemical energy which is converted
into electrical energy by the help of the plates.

1. Container – The container of the lead acid battery is made of glass, lead lined wood, ebonite,
the hard rubber of bituminous compound, ceramic materials or moulded plastics and are
seated at the top to avoid the discharge of electrolyte. At the bottom of the container, there
are four ribs, on two of them rest the positive plate and the others support the negative plates.

The prism serves as the support for the plates and at the same time protect them from a short-
circuit. The material of which the battery containers are made should be resistant to sulfuric
acid,should not deform or porous, or contain impurities which damage the electrolyte.
2. Plate – The plate of the lead-acid cell is of diverse design and they all consist some form of a
grid which is made up of lead and the active material. The grid is essential for conducting
the electric current and for distributing the current equally on the active material. If the current
is not uniformly distributed, then the active material will loosen and fall out.

Fig. 5.22 Arrangement of plates in lead – acid battery

The grids are made up of an alloy of lead and antimony. These are usually made with the
transverse rib that crosses the places at a right angle or diagonally. The grid for the positive and
negative plates are of the same design, but the grids for the negative plates are made lighter
because they are not as essential for the uniform conduction of the current.

The plates of the battery are of two types. They are the formed plates or plante plates and
pasted or faure plates.

Plante’s plates are used largely for stationary batteries as these are heavier in weight and more
costly than the pasted plates. But the plates are more durable and less liable to lose active
material by rapid charging and discharging. The plantes plate has low capacity weight-ratio.

Faure process is much suitable for manufacturing of negative plates rather than positive plates.
The negative active material is quite tough, and it undergoes a comparatively low change from
charging and discharging.

3. Active Material – The material in a cell which takes active participation in a chemical
reaction (absorption or evolution of electrical energy) during charging or discharging is called
the active material of the cell. The active elements of the lead acid are

Lead peroxide (PbO2) – It forms the positive active material. The PbO2 are dark chocolate
brown in colour.

Sponge lead – Its form the negative active material. It is grey in colour.
Dilute Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) – It is used as an electrolyte. It contains 31% of sulfuric acid.

The lead peroxide and sponge lead, which form the negative and positive active materials have
the little mechanical strength and therefore can be used alone.

4. Separators – The separators are thin sheets of non-conducting material made up of

chemically treated leadwood, porous rubbers, or mats of glass fibre and are placed between the
positive and negative to insulate them from each other. Separators are grooved vertically on
one side and are smooth on the other side.

5. Battery Terminals – A battery has two terminals the positive and the negative. The positive
terminal with a diameter of 17.5 mm at the top is slightly larger than the negative terminal
which is 16 mm in diameter.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LEAD ACID BATTERY

When the sulfuric acid dissolves, its molecules break up into positive hydrogen ions (2H+) and
sulphate negative ions (SO 4--) and move freely. If the two electrodes are immersed in solutions
and connected to DC supply then the hydrogen ions being positively charged and moved towards
the electrodes and connected to the negative terminal of the supply. The SO 4-- ions being
negatively charged moved towards the electrodes connected to the positive terminal of the
supply main (i.e., anode).

Fig. 5.23

Each hydrogen ion takes one electron from the cathode, and each sulphates ions takes the
two negative ions from the anodes and react with water and form sulfuric and hydrogen acid.
The oxygen, produced from the reaction with lead oxide and form lead peroxide (PbO2.) Thus,
during charging the lead cathode remain as lead, but lead anode gets converted into lead
peroxide, chocolate in colour.

If the DC source of supply is disconnected and if the voltmeter connects between the
electrodes, it will show the potential difference between them. If wire connects the electrodes,
then current will flow from the positive plate to the negative plate through external circuit i.e.
the cell is capable of supplying electrical energy.
CHEMICAL ACTION DURING DISCHARGING

When the cell is full discharge, then the anode is of lead peroxide (PbO 2) and a cathode is of
metallic sponge lead (Pb). When the electrodes are connected through a resistance, the cell
discharge and electrons flow in a direction opposite to that during charging. The hydrogen ions
move to the anode and reaching the anodes receive one electron from the anode and become
hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom comes in contacts with a PbO2, so it attacks and forms lead
sulphate (PbSO4), whitish in colour and water according to the chemical equation.

Fig. 5.24

The each sulphate ion (SO4—) moves towards the cathode and reaching there gives up two
electrons becomes radical SO4, attack the metallic lead cathode and form lead sulphate
whitish in colour according to the chemical equation.
CHEMICALACTIONDURINGRECHARGING

For recharging, the anode and cathode are connected to the positive and the negative terminal
of the DC supply mains. The molecules of the sulfuric acid break up into ions of 2H+ and SO 4--.
The hydrogen ions being positively charged moved towards the cathodes and receive two
electrons from there and form a hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom reacts with lead sulphate
cathode forming lead and sulfuric acid according to the chemical equation.

Fig. 5.25

SO4-- ion moves to the anode, gives up its two additional electrons becomes radical SO 4, react
with the lead sulphate anode and form leads peroxide and lead sulphuric acid according to the
chemical equation-

The charging and discharging are represented by a single reversible equation given below.

Fig. 5.26 Reversible reaction

The equation should read downward for discharge and upward for recharge.

There are currently three types of batteries commonly used for laptops: Nickel Cadmium, Nickel
Metal Hydride, and Lithium Ion.
[Link].2 Nickel Cadmium Batteries (Ni-Cd)

Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries were the standard technology for years, but today they are
out of date and new laptops don't use them anymore. They are heavy and very prone to the
"memory effect". When recharging a Ni-Cd battery that has not been fully discharged, it
"remembers" the old charge and continues there the next time you use it. The memory effect is
caused by crystallization of the battery's substances and can permanently reduce your
battery's lifetime, even make it useless. To avoid it, you should completely discharge the
battery and then fully recharge it again at least once every few weeks. As this battery contains
cadmium, a toxic material, it should always be recycled or disposed of properly.

Ni-Cad batteries, and to a some degree Ni-MH batteries, suffer from what's called the memory
effect. Memory Effect means that if a battery is repeatedly only partially discharged before
recharging, the battery will forget that it can further discharge. The best way to prevent this
situation is to fully charge and discharge your battery on a regular basis.

[Link].3 Nickel Metal Hydride (Ni-Mh)

Nickel Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) batteries are the cadmium-free replacement for Ni-Cad. They are
less affected by the memory effect than Ni-Cd and thus require less maintenance and
conditioning. However, they have problems at very high or low room temperatures. And even
though they use less hazardous materials (i.e., they do not contain heavy metals), they cannot
be fully recycled yet. Another main difference between NiCad and NiMH is that NiMH battery
offers higher energy density than NiCads. In other words, the capacity of a NiMH is
approximately twice the capacity of its NiCad counterpart. What this means for you is increased
run-time from the battery with no additional bulk or weight.

[Link].5 Lithium Ion (Li-Ion)

Lithium Ion (Li-ion) are the new standard for portable power. Li-ion batteries produce the same
energy as NiMH but weighs approximately 20%-35% less. They do not suffer significantly from
the memory effect unlike their NiMH and Ni-Cd counterparts. Their substances are non-
hazardous to the 0. Because lithium ignites very easily, they require special handling.
Unfortunately, few consumer recycling programs have been established for Li-ion batteries at
this point in time.

[Link].6 Smart Batteries

Smart batteries are not really a different type of battery, but they do deserve special mention.
Smart batteries have internal circuit boards with chips which allow them to communicate with
the laptop and monitor battery performance, output voltage and temperature. Smart batteries
will generally run 15% longer due to their increased efficiency and also give the computer
much more accurate "fuel gauge" capabilities to determine how much battery run time is left
before the next recharge is required.
a) General Battery Care

Even if the battery case looks the same, you cannot just upgrade to another battery technology
unless your laptop has been pre-configured from the manufacturer to accept more than one
type of battery type, since the recharging process is different for each of the three types of
batteries.

A battery that is not used for a long time will slowly discharge itself. Even with the best of care,
a battery needs to be replaced after 500 to 1000 recharges. But still it is not recommended to
run a laptop without the battery while on ac power -- the battery often serves as a big capacitor
to protect against voltage peaks from your ac outlet.

As the manufacturers change the shapes of their batteries every few months, you might have
problems to find a new battery for your laptop in a few years from now. This is somewhat of a
concern only if you anticipate using the same laptop several years from now. If in doubt, buy a
spare battery now - before it's out of stock.
New batteries come in a discharged condition and must be fully charged before use. It is
recommended that you fully charge and discharge the new battery two to four times to allow it
to reach its maximum rated capacity. It is generally recommend that you perform an overnight
charge (approximately twelve hours) for this. Note: It is normal for a battery to become warm
to the touch during charging and discharging. When charging the battery for the first time, the
device may indicate that charging is complete after just 10 or 15 minutes. This is a normal with
rechargeable batteries. New batteries are hard for the device to charge; they have never been
fully charged and are not broken in. Sometimes the device's charger will stop charging a new
battery before it is fully charged. If this happens, remove the battery from the device and then
reinsert it. The charge cycle should begin again. This may happen several times during the first
battery charge. Don't worry; it's perfectly normal. Keep the battery healthy by fully charging
and then fully discharging it at least once every two to three weeks. Exceptions to the rule are
Li-Ion batteries which do not suffer from the memory effect.

Batteries should be stored in a discharged state since they can self-discharge and may become
inactive after a long storage period. They should not be stored for any length of time while
connected to the laptop. High humidity and temperatures can cause the battery to deteriorate,
so these should be avoided during storage.

Do not remove and carry a battery pack in your pocket, purse, or other container where metal
objects (such as car keys or paper clips) could short-circuit the battery terminals. The resulting
excessive current flow can cause extremely high temperatures and may result in damage to the
battery pack or cause fire or burns.
[Link].7 Nickel Iron Battery (Edison Batteries)

Which battery is becoming more popular day by day as there is a huge scope of development to
turn the battery into high energy density battery for an electric vehicle? The answer would be
Nickel Iron Battery or Edison Battery. In a single word, a Ni-Fe battery is a very robust battery.
This battery has a very high tolerance for overcharging, over discharging, short-circuiting, etc.
This battery can perform equally well even we do not charge the battery for a long period. Due
to its heavy weight, this battery is used in those applications where the weight of the battery
does not matter, for example, in the solar energy system, in wind energy system etc. as a
backup. Durability and lifespan of a nickel-iron cell are much higher than that of a lead acid
battery, but still, the nickel-iron battery has lost its popularity because of its high manufacturing
cost.

Let’s have a look at some specific features of nickel-iron (Ni-Fe) or Edison battery.

This battery can have 30 to 50 kW energy delivery capacity per kg of its weight. Charging
efficiency of this battery is about 65%. That means 65% of input electrical energy gets stored in
this battery as chemical energy during its charging process. Discharging efficiency is about 85%.
That means the battery can deliver 85% of stored energy to the load as electrical energy and
the rest gets discharged due to self-discharging of the battery. If the battery is kept unused for
30 days, it will lose only 10% to 15 % of its stored energy due to self-discharging. Nickel
Iron battery has a significantly longer lifespan, and it is about 30 to 100 years. This period is
much longer than the normal lifespan of a lead acid battery which is about ten years. Nominal
voltage rating per nickel iron cell is 1.4V. The basic components used in Nickel iron battery are
nickel(III) hydroxide as the cathode, iron as anode and potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte.
We add Nickel sulfate and Ferrous sulfide to the active material.

a) Construction

The capacity of Ni-Fe cell depends upon size and number of positive and negative plates. The
appearance of both positive and negative plates in this type of battery cells is same. Both of the
plates consist of the rectangular grid made of nickel-plated iron. Each of the grid holes is filled
with shallow and finely perforated nickel-plated steel box. Although both of the plates are
appeared to be same, they contain different active materials. Perforated nickel-plated steel
boxes of positive plates contain a mixture of an oxide of nickel andpulverized carbon, and some
of the negative plates contain fine grains of the oxide of iron with the fine dust of carbon. In
both the plates, the fine dust of carbon, mixed with active materials, helps to increase electrical
conductivity. We use 20% diluted caustic potash as an electrolyte.
 Fig. 5.27 Ni-Fe battery construction

Nickel plated iron gets used to make the vessel containing electrolyte and electrodes. Ebonite
sticks are placed between the plates of different polarities to prevent them from coming into
direct contact and causing a short circuit. There is another specialty in the construction of
Edison battery or nickel iron battery, which the number of negative plates is one more than that
of the number of positive plates, and we electrically connect the last negative plate to the
container. Plates of same polarities are welded to a common strap, and they make a cell, and
combining several cells, the battery gets constructed.

b) Operation of Nickel Iron Batteries

We already know that the main operation of the nickel-iron battery is the chemical reaction
within the battery which is known as electrolysis. Electrolysis is nothing but the chemical
reaction taking place when there is current flow, it can be both cause and result of the chemical
reaction. The chemistry of nickel-iron cell is very much complicated because the exact formula
for the positive active material is not well established yet. But if we can assume that the
material to be Ni(OH)3, then we can explain it to some extent. During charging, nickel
compound at the positive plates gets oxidized to nickel peroxide. Charging process changes iron
compound to spongy iron in negative plates.

In the fully charged condition, the active material of the positive plates is nickel hydroxide
[Ni(OH)3], while that in pockets of the negative plate is iron, Fe. When the cell delivers current
to load, the active material of the positive plate changes from Ni(OH)3 to Ni(OH)2 and that of
the negative plate changes from iron to Ferrous hydroxide (Fe(OH)2). The electrochemical
process in the Edison battery can be expressed by the equation-

The equation expresses both the phenomenon of charging and discharging. The right side flow
of the equation is the reaction of the discharging phenomenon, and the left side flow of the
equation expresses the charging phenomenon. The reaction occurs by transfer of electrons
through the external circuit to the positive plate during discharge. There is a provision for giving
off the corrosive fume which is generated during the electrolysis inside the battery so that no
special care is needed in mounting the cell.

c) Characteristics of Nickel Iron Batteries

The emf of a fully charged Edison battery is 1.4 V. The average discharge voltage is about 1.2 V
and the average charging voltage is about 1.7 V per cell. The characteristics of this type of
battery are shown below in the figure.

Fig. 5.28 characteristics of Ni-Iron battery

The voltage characteristics of the Nickel Iron battery are similar to that of the lead-acid cell. As
the fully charged emf 1.4 V and it slowly decreases to 1.3 V and then very slowly to 1.1 or 1.0 V
during discharge. From the graph, we can see that there is no lower limit for discharging emf
beyond which the output of the battery will be zero. That’s why after a certain period the
battery stop to any output. The emf of a battery is directly proportional to the temperature,
which means the emf of the battery increases with increase in temperature.

The average time of charging of a battery is 7 hours and discharging time is 5 hours. Another
characteristic of Edison battery is that continuous operation at higher temperature decreases
the life of the battery, the same thing happens if the battery is charged for more than the
average time of charging.

The ampere-hour and watt-hour efficiency of this nickel-iron battery is 85 % and 60 %

respectively. At 4oC temperature, the capacity of Edison battery falls to zero, that’s why the
battery should be heated up before operation though during operation the I 2R loss keeps the
battery hot and running.

d) Advantages of Nickel Iron Batteries

 There are various Advantages of Edison battery , these are listed below.
 The weight of this battery is lower than other types of battery because they need
less amount of electrolytes and plates are also lighter.
 The service life of the battery is much higher because of various provisions made.
 These types of battery are stronger, have rugged construction because of the steel
body. For this reason, they are not affected by vibrations, jolts or shocks, heavy currents
and do not suffer during short circuits.

e) Disadvantages of Nickel Iron Batteries

There are certain disadvantages of Edison battery, like the initial cost needed for making these
batteries are pretty high as the materials used are highly priced. Another drawback of these
type of battery is the low efficiency. For this few reasons the use of these batteries is restricted,
they are mainly used in the areas where high mechanical strength, lightness, freedom from acid
fumes are needed.

f) Application of Nickel Iron Batteries

From the above discussions, we already know that the said battery is mainly used in extreme
conditions or it can be said that where there is no other way than using Edison battery. These
batteries are mainly used in industrial trucks for propulsion purpose. They are also used in mine
locomotives and for railways, car lighting, and air conditioning because they have pretty high
mechanical strength.

g) Maintenance and Care Of Nickel Iron Batteries

We already know that these batteries need lower maintenance than other types of battery. The
main precaution taken for these types of battery is to maintain the level of electrolyte present
inside the battery. Because, if the level of the electrolyte becomes lower than the plates inside,
the battery get damaged very quickly, and the battery suffers irreversible damage. To prevent
this, the battery should get filled with distilled water at least once in a week. Another
maintenance which is needed for this battery is to change the electrolyte solution time to time,
whenever the specific gravity of the solution falls below 1.16 the electrolyte gets changed.
Lastly, it is important to consider that the battery should be discharged to zero volts before
taking it out for servicing for a long period.
h) Important Characteristics of A Lead-Acid Cell

Terminal Voltage - When the battery delivers current, the voltage terminal voltage is less than
its EMF due to its internal resistance. Lead acid cell has less lead sulphate that will clogged the
pores of the battery once there is continous flow of current.

EMF- The emf of a fully charged L-A cell is relatively higher, its open circuit voltage will reach as
high as 2.2 Volts while other has 1.2 Volts only.

Capacity - The capacity of the cell is defined as the quantity of electricity which it can give out
during single discharge until its terminal voltage falls to 1.8 V. Battery capacity is measured by
Ampere-hours and the capacity of lead-acid cell is not permitted to discharged beyond 1.8 V,
thus it has high capacity.

Efficiency - There are two ways which we can measure the efficiency of the lead-acid cell that is
ampere-hour efficiency and watt-hour efficiency. The L-A cell has 90% Ampere-hour efficiency
and 75% Watt-hour efficiency. These data is relatively higher compare to other secondary cells.

Ampere-hour efficiency = (Amp-hr provided on discharge / Amp-hr of charge) x 100

Watt-hour efficiency = (Energy given on discharge / Energy input of charge ) x 100

[Link] Sample Battery Problems

1. A lead-acid cell maintains a constant current of 1.5 A for 30 hours before its terminal
voltage falls to 1.8 volts. What is the capacity of the cell?

Solution:
Capacity = Id x Td = 1.5 A x 30 h = 45 Ampere-hours

2. A lead acid cell is charged at the rate of 18 A for 10 hours at an average voltage of 2.26
Volts. It is discharge in the same time at the rate of 17.2 A; the average voltage during
discharge being 1.98 V. Calculate the Ampere-hour eff of the cell?

Solution:
Ampere-hour efficiency = Id x Td / Ic x Tc = (17.2 * 10) / (18 * 10) x 100 = 95.5%

[Link] Battery Back Up

A backup battery provides power to a system when the primary source of power is
unavailable. Backup batteries range from small single cells to retain clock time and date in
computers, up to large battery room facilities that power uninterruptible power supply
systems for large data centers.
[Link].1 Amp-Hour Application To Measure The Battery’s Capacity

A battery with a capacity of 1 amp-hour should be able to continuously supply current

of 1 amp to a load for exactly 1 hour, or 2 amps for 1/2 hour, or 1/3 amp for 3 hours,
etc., before becoming completely discharged. In an ideal battery, this relationship
between continuous current and discharge time is stable and absolute, but real
batteries don’t behave exactly as this simple linear formula would indicate. Therefore,
when amp-hour capacity is given for a battery, it is specified at either a given current,
given time, or assumed to be rated for a time period of 8 hours (if no limiting factor is
given).

The amp-hour is a unit of battery energy capacity, equal to the amount of continuous
current multiplied by the discharge time, that a battery can supply before exhausting
its internal store of chemical energy.

An amp-hour battery rating is only an approximation of the battery’s charge capacity

and should be trusted only at the current level or time specified by the manufacturer.
Such a rating cannot be extrapolated for very high currents or very long times with any
accuracy. Discharged batteries lose voltage and increase in resistance. The best check
for a dead battery is a voltage test under load.
6. Question Bank

6.1 Question Bank of Unit 1

1) Write short notes on :

(a) Active and passive elements
(b) Unilateral and bilateral elements
(c) Linear and non-linear circuit.
(d) Ideal and practical source.
2) Derive the transformation between delta to star and star to delta.
3) Define: (a) Thevenin’s theorem (b) Norton’s theorem (c) Superposition theorem.
4) Find current through 2Ω resistance using (a) superposition theorem (b)
Thevenin’s theorem (c) Norton’s theorem

5) Find current through 5 Ω using (a) Nodal analysis (b) Mesh analysis.
6) Derive the transformation between delta to star and star to delta.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

7) Using Thevenin's theorem obtain current in 13 Ω resistance in fig.1 and convert it into
Norton’s Equivalent circuit.
8) What are the limitations of Superposition theorem? Using Superposition theorem
find
the current flowing through resistor 4 Ω in fig.2.
9) Find the equivalent resistance between point A and B using star
delta conversion.
10) What do you mean by Energy sources, explain source transformation in detail

6.2 Question Bank of Unit 2

1) The instantaneous value of two alternating voltages are represented by 𝑉1 = 60 sin 𝜃

and 𝑉2 = sin( 𝜃 – 𝜋/3). Derive the expression for the instantaneous values of (i) The sum
and (ii) the difference of these voltages
2) Two ac currents one represented as i1 = 25 sin (314 t + 200) & i2 = 35 sin (314 t +
450). Draw the phasor & show the resultant when they are connected in parallel.
3) A capacitor of 35 µF is connected in series with a variable resistor. The circuit is
connected across a 50 Hz main. Find the value of the resistor for a particular condition
when the voltage across the capacitor is half the supply voltage.
4) Derive expression of resonance frequency for series RLC circuit. A series circuit
consists of a resistance of 10 Ω, and inductance of 50mH and a variable capacitance in
series across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate: (a) The value of capacitance to produce
resonance. (b) Voltage across the capacitance (c) Q-factor.
5) Derive the relation between line current & phase current in case of three phase delta
connected balanced load. Three identical coils of resistance 8Ω and inductive reactance
6Ω are connected in delta across 400V mains. Determine power, power factor and line
current. Draw phasor diagram.
6) Explain power factor. What are the causes of low power factor? Explain methods of
power factor improvement.
7)Derive the relation between line current & phase current in case of three phase delta
connected balanced load. Three identical coils of resistance 8Ω and inductive reactance
6Ω are connected in delta across 400V mains. Determine power, power factor and line
current. Draw phasor diagram.
8)Derive expression of resonance frequency for series RLC circuit. A coil having a 5 Ω
resistor is connected in series with a 50 µF capacitor. The circuit resonates at 100 Hz and
connected to 200 V 100 Hz ac source, Calculate (a) The value of inductance to produce
resonance. (b) Voltage across the capacitance and the coil (c) Q-factor (d) bandwidth of
the circuit.
9)Derive expression of resonance frequency for parallel circuit consisting of two branch.
One branch having RL & L connected in series and in another branch RC & C connected
in series. Determine the frequency of resonance for this value of element RL = 6 Ω, L= 1
mH and RC = 4 Ω and C = 20 µF.

6.3 Question Bank of Unit 3

1)Discuss the principle of operation of a single phase transformer. Derive EMF equation
for a single phase transformer.
2)Explain the different types of magnetic materials with examples.
3)Draw and explain the no load and full load phasor diagram for a single phase
transformer.
4)Explain single phase auto transformer and give its application.
5)In a 25 KVA, 2000/200 V transformer, the constant and variable losses are 350 W and
400 W respectively. Calculate the efficiency on unity power factor at (i) Full load (ii) Half
load
6)What is voltage Regulation in a single Phase Transformer? What should be its value for
an ideal transformer?
7)Explain eddy current and B-H curve?
8)What are the advantages of auto-transformer over two winding transformer?
9) In a 25 KVA, 2000/200 V transformer, the constant and variable losses are 350 W and
400 W respectively. Calculate the efficiency on unity power factor at (i) Full load (ii) Half
load
10) What is voltage Regulation in a single Phase Transformer? What should be its value
for an ideal transformer?
11) The maximum efficiency of a 100 KVA, 1100/440 V, 50 Hz transformer is 96%, This
occurs at 75% of full load at 0.8 p.f. lagging. Find the efficiency of transformer at 3.4 Full
Load at 0.6 p.f. leading.
12)The efficiency of a 400kVA, single phase transformer is 98.77% at full load 0.8 power
factor and 99.13% at half full load unity power factor. Find : (i) Iron loss at full and full -
half loads (ii)Cu losses at full and half full loads.
6.4 Question Bank of Unit 4

1)Explain double field revolving theory for single phase induction motor.
2)Describe any one method of starting single phase induction motor with neat diagram.
3)Why synchronous motor is not self-starting?
4)An 8 pole alternator runs at 750 rpm. It supplies power to a 6 pole, 3 phase induction
motor, which has a full load slip of 3 %. Find the full load speed of the induction motor
and the frequency of its rotor emf.
5) Derive the emf equation of dc generator. A 4-pole shunt generator with lap-
connected armature has field and armature resistance of 50Ω and 0.1Ω respectively. If
supplying power to 100W lamp loads for 100 V. Calculate the armature current and the
generated emf. Consider a contact drop of 1V per brush.
6)Derive the expression of torque for dc motor. Also discuss the application of it.
7)A short shunt compound generator supplies 200 A at 100 V. The resistance of
armature, series field and shunt field is respectively 0.04, 0.03 and 60 ohm. Find the emf
generated.
8)Describe any one method of starting single phase induction motor with neat diagram.
9)An 8 pole alternator runs at 750 rpm. It supplies power to a 6 pole, 3 phase induction
motor, which has a full load slip of 3 %. Find the full load s peed of the induction motor
and the frequency of its rotor emf.
10) A 25kVA, 250V dc shunt generator has armature and field resistances of 0.06Ω and
100Ω respectively. Determine the total armature power developed when working (i) as
generator delivering 25kW output and (ii) as a motor taking 25 kW input.
11) A 4-pole shunt generator with lap-connected armature has field and armature
resistance of 50Ω and 0.1Ω respectively. If supplying power to 100W lamp load for 100
V. Calculate the armature current and the generated emf. Consider a contact drop of 1V
per brush.
12) What is the relation between frequencies of stator & rotor currents? A 3-phase,
50Hz induction motor has 6 poles and operates with a slip of 5% at a certain load.
Determine: (a) The speed of rotor with respect to the stator. (b) The frequency of the
rotor current. (c) The speed of the rotor magnetic field with respect to the stator.
6.5 Question Bank of Unit 5

1)Draw the characteristics of battery.

2)What are the factors that affect the battery capacity?
3)Calculate the backup of battery of 100AH connected to load of 100 watts and supply
voltage is 12V.
4)Write full form of (i) MCB (ii) MCCB (iii) ELCB (vi) SFU
5)What do mean by earthing? Explain any methods of earthing.
6)Write short notes on the following: (a) MCB (b) MCCB (c) Fuse (d) Types of wires
7)Why Earth pin is made thicker and bigger than line and neutral?
8)Calculate the energy consumption per day in a house using 5 CFLs of 20 W each, 3 fans
of 60 W each for 3 hrs a day.
9)Explain the Requirement of earthing for electrical equipment. What is the difference
between neutral and earthing?
10) Name the various cables used in electrical system based on insulation. Explain any
two. What are the features of good conductor in electrical circuit?
7. Multiple choice Questions (MCQ’s)

7.1 MCQ’s of Unit 1

1- Effective capacitance of capacitors connected in
series, is a) C = C 1 + C 2 + C3 + C4 +……
b) 1/C = 1/C 1 +1/C 2 + 1/C 3 + 1/C4 +……
c) C = 1/C 1 + 1/C 2 + 1/C 3 + 1/C 4 +……
d) C = 1/C 1 – 1/C 2 + 1/C 3 – 1/C 4 +……

2- Which is active component?

a) Capacitor
b) Transistor
c) Inductor
d) Resistor

3- Which has negative temperature coefficient resistance?

a) Copper
b) Aluminium
c) Iron
d) Carbon

4- Electric charge is equal to:

a) It
b) I/t
c) I2t
d) I2/t

5- Two current carrying conductors placed side by side, experience a force of attraction:
a) When current direction of both conductors are same
b) When current direction of both conductors are opposite
c) Independent of the direction of currents
d) Only when one conductor is carrying current

6- When two resistors are connected in series total resistance is 8Ω and when
connected in parallel, equivalent resistance is 2Ω. Values of resistances are:
a) 5Ω and 3Ω
b) 6Ω and 2Ω
c) 4Ω and 4Ω
d) 7Ω and 1Ω
 7. Find the value of I1, I2 and I3.

a) -0.566A, 1.29A, -1.91A

b) -1.29A, -0.566A, 1.91A
c) 1.29A, -0.566A, -1.91A
d) 1.91A, 0.566A, 1.29A

8. Find the value of V1 if the current through the 1 ohm resistor=0A.

a) 83.33V
b) 78.89V
c) 87.87V
d) 33.33V

9. Mesh analysis can be used for

a) Planar circuits
b) Non-planar circuits
c) Both planar and non-planar circuits
d) Neither planar nor non-planar circuits
10. Calculate the node voltages V1 and V2.

a) 12V, 13V
b) 26.67V, 11.33V
c) 11.33V, 26.67V
d) 13V, 12V
 11. If there are 10 nodes in a circuit, how many equations do we get?
a) 10
b) 9
c) 8
d) 7

12. How many nodes are taken as reference nodes in a nodal analysis?
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4

13. In superposition theorem, when we consider the effect of one voltage source, all the
other voltage sources are
a) Shorted
b) Opened
c) Removed
d) Undisturbed

14. In superposition theorem, when we consider the effect of one voltage source, all the
other current sources are
a) Shorted
b) Opened
c) Removed
d) Undisturbed
15. Superposition theorem does not work for
a) Current
b) Voltage
c) Power
d) Works for all: current, voltage and power

16. Calculate the Thevenin resistance across the terminal AB for the following circuit.

a) 4.34 ohm
b) 3.67 ohm
c) 3.43 ohm
d) 2.32 ohm

17. The Thevenin voltage is the

 a) Open circuit voltage
b) Short circuit voltage
c) Open circuit and short circuit voltage
d) Neither open circuit nor short circuit voltage

18. Thevenin resistance is found by

a) Shorting all voltage sources
b) Opening all current sources
c) Shorting all voltage sources and opening all current sources
d) Opening all voltage sources and shorting all current sources

19. Which of the following is also known as the dual of Thevenin’s theorem?
a) Norton’s theorem
b) Superposition theorem
c) Maximum power transfer theorem
d) Millman’s theorem

20. Can we use Thevenin’s theorem on a circuit containing a BJT?

a) Yes
b) No
c) Depends on the BJT
d) Insufficient data provided
21. The Norton current is the
a) Short circuit current
b) Open circuit current
c) Open circuit and short circuit current
d) Neither open circuit nor short circuit current

22. Norton’s theorem is true for

a) Linear networks
b) Non-Linear networks
c) Both linear networks and nonlinear networks
d) Neither linear networks nor non-linear networks

23. Calculate the Norton resistance for the following circuit if 5 ohm is the load resistance.

a) 10 ohm
b) 11 ohm
 c) 12 ohm
d) 13 ohm

24. A voltage source connected in series with a resistor can be converted to a?

a) Current source in series with a resistor
b) Current source in parallel with a resistor
c) Voltage source in parallel with a resistor
d) Cannot be modified

25. A source transformation is

a) Unilateral
b) Bilateral
c) Unique
d) Cannot be determined
26. The value of the 3 resistances when connected in star connection is

a) 2.32ohm,1.22ohm, 4.54ohm
b) 3.55ohm, 4.33ohm, 5.67ohm
c) 2.78ohm, 1.67ohm, 0.83ohm
d) 4.53ohm, 6.66ohm, 1.23ohm

27. Star connection is also known as

a) Y-connection
b) Mesh connection
c) Either Y-connection or mesh connection
d) Neither Y-connection nor mesh connection

28. Delta connection is also known as

a) Y-connection
b) Mesh connection
c) Either Y-connection or mesh connection
d) Neither Y-connection nor mesh connection

29. If an 8/9ohm, 4/3ohm and 2/3ohm resistor is connected in star, find its delta equivalent.
a) 4ohm, 3ohm, 2ohm
b) 1ohm, 3ohm, 2ohm
c) 4ohm, 1ohm, 2ohm
d) 4ohm, 3ohm, 1ohm
 30. Find the equivalent resistance between A and B.

a) 32ohm
b) 31ohm
c) 30ohm
d) 29ohm

7.2 MCQ’s of Unit 2

1- Active power in 3 phase circuit is:

A. √3 VLIL Cosφ
B. 3 VLIL Cosφ
C. √2 VLIL Cosφ
D. 2 VLIL Cosφ

2- Energy stored in inductor

is:A. W = (1/4)LI2
B. W = (1/2)LI2
C. W = (1/2)L2I
D. W = (1/2)L2I2

3- The power factor of pure resistive circuit is

A. Zero
B. Leading
C. Lagging
D. Unity

4- The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle:

A. Time period
B. Frequency
C. Angular velocity
D. Time constant

5- Inductive reactance of a coil having inductance H:

A. 796 x 10-6 Ω
B. 1256 Ω
C. 314 Ω
D. 628 Ω

6- Form factor =
A. rms value / average value
B. average value / rms value
C. rms value / peak value
D. peak value / rms value

7- Admittance is the of conductance and suspectance.

A. Arithmetic mean
 B. Arithmetic difference
C. Vector sum
D. Reciprocal

8- Resonant frequency of an ac series circuit

is:A. 1/2π(LC)1/2
B. 1/4π(LC)1/2
C. 1/4πLC
D. 1/2πLC
9- RMS value = x Maximum valueA.
0.636
B. 0.85
C. 0.607
D. 0.707

10. The power factor of an AC circuit is equal to

A. Cosine of the phase angle
B. Sine of the phase angle
C. Unity for a resistive circuit
D. Unity for a reactive circuit

11. The power factor of an AC circuit lies between

A. 0 and 1
B. -1 and 1
C. 0 and -1
D. None of these

12. In a circuit containing R, L and C, power loss can take place in

A. C only
B. L only
C. R only
D. All of the above

13. In any AC circuit always

A. Apparent power is more than actual power
B. Reactive power is more than apparent power
C. Actual power is more than reactive power
D. Reactive power is more than actual power

14. In an AC circuit ( sine wave ) with R and L in series

A. Voltage across R and L 180o out of face
B. The voltage across R lags the voltage across L by 90o
C. The voltage across R leads the voltage across L by 90o
D. Voltage across R and L are in phase

15. A parallel AC circuit in resonance will

A. Have current in each section equal to the line current
B. Have a high-voltage developed across each inductive and capacitive section
C. Act like a resister of low value
D. Have a high impedance
16. The power factor of practical inductor is
A. Unity
B. Zero
C. Lagging
D. Leading
17. Unit of reactive power is
A. VA
B. Watt
C. VAR
D. Ohm

18. Unit of inductive reactance is

A. Henry
B. Millihenry
C. Wb
D. Ohm

19. The r.m.s. value of a sine wave is 100 A. Its peak value is
A. 70.7 A
B. 141 A
C. 150 A
D. 282.8 A

20. A circuit with a resistor, inductor and capacitor in series is resonant of f o Hz. If the all
the component of values are now doubled the new resonant frequency is
A. 2fo
B. Still fo
C. fo/4
D. fo/2

21. Which of the following will not be affected due to change in R ?

A. Bandwidth
B. Q
C. Resonant frequency
D. None

22. An alternator is delivering power to a balanced load at unity power factor. The phase
anglebetween the line voltages and the line current is
A. 80o
B. 60o
C. 30o
D. 0o

23. A small capacitance is added to a highly inductive circuit,

A. The angle voltage and current will increase
B. The power factor will increase
C. The power factor will decrease
D. The power drawn will decrease

24. In a purely inductive circuit if the supply frequency is reduced to 1/2, the current will
A. Be reduced by half
 B. Be doubled
C. Be four times as high
D. Be reduced to ¼

25. The power factor at resonance in R-L-C parallel circuit is

A. Zero
B. 0.08 lagging
C. 0.8 leading
D. Unity

26. Magnitude of current at resonance in Series R-L-C circuit

A. Depends upon the magnitude of R
B. Depends upon the magnitude of L
C. Depends upon the magnitude of C
D. Depends upon the magnitude of R, L and C

27. The quality factor of R-L-C circuit will increase if

A. R increases
B. R decreases
C. Impedance increases
D. Voltage increases

28. The dynamic impedance of an R-L and C parallel circuit at resonance is ........ ohm.
A. R/LC
B. C/LR
C. LC/ R
D. L/ CR

29. A pure capacitance is connected across 50 HZ, 230 V supply consumes 0.04 W. This
consumption is attributed to
A. Ohmic loss due to ohmic resistance of plates
B. Loss of energy in dielectric
C. Capacitive reactance in ohms
D. Both A and B

30. Capacitive reactance is more when

A. Capacitance is less and frequency of supply is less
B. Capacitance is less and frequency of supply is more
C. Capacitance is more and frequency of supply is less
D. Capacitance is more and the frequency of supply is more

7.3 MCQ’s of Unit 3

1- Unit of reluctance:
a) Ampere Turns/Weber
b) Weber Turns
c) Henry
d) Weber Turns/Ampere

2- Absolute permeability of free space µ0 =

 a) 4π x 10-7 H/m
b) 2π x 10-7 H/m
c) 4π x 10-14 H/m
d) 2π x 10-14 H/m

3- Which of the following losses varies with the load in the transformer?
a) Core loss
b) Copper loss
c) Both core & copper loss
d) None of the above

4- A transformer transform
a) Current
b) Voltage & current
c) Frequency
d) Voltage

5- Transformer core are laminated in order to

a) reduce hysteresis loss
b) reduce hysteresis & eddy current loss
c) minimize eddy current loss
d) Copper loss

6- Which of the following loss in a transformer is zero even at full load

a) Eddy current loss
b) Core loss
c) Copper loss
d) Friction loss

7- The transformer ratings are usually expressed in terms of

a) KW
b) KVAR
c) KVA
d) Volt

8- Which winding in a transformer has more number of turns?

a) Secondary winding
b) primary winding
c) High voltage winding
d) Low voltage winding
9- The path of magnetic flux in a transformer should have
a) Low resistance
b) Low reluctance
c) High Resistance
d) High Reluctance

10- What would happen if a transformer is connected to a DC supply?

a) No effect
 b) Operate with high efficiency
c) Damage the transformer
d) Operate with low frequency

11. transformer can have zero voltage regulation closer to zero

a) On full load
b) On overload
c) On leading power factor
d) On zero power factor

12- If the supply frequency of a transformer increases, the secondary output

voltage of the transformer
a) Increase
b) Decrease
c) Remain the same
d) Any of the above

13. An electro-mechanical energy conversion device is one which converts ___ __

a) Electrical energy to mechanical energy only
b) Mechanical energy to electrical energy only
c) Electrical to mechanical and mechanical to electrical
d) None of the mentioned

14. Which is the most widely used material in the core of the transformer?
a) cold rolled grain oriented sheet steel
b) cold rolled grain steel
c) soft iron
d) steel

15. A step-up transformer increases........

a) Voltage
b) Current
c) Power
d) Frequency

16. Which of the following is not a basic element of transformer?........

a) Core
b) Primary Winding
c) Secondary Winding
d) Mutual Flux
17. The no-load current drawn by transformer is usually........
a) 0.2% to 0.5%
b) 2% to 5%
c) 12% to 15%
d) 20% to 30%

18. Efficiency of a power transformer is of the order of........

a) 100%
 b) 98%
c) 50%
d) 25%

19. The voltage induced at the end of primary terminals of a two winding transformer
consisting of N turns is?
a) -N*dϕ/dt
b) N*dϕ/dt
c) -dϕ/dt
d) -N*dt/dϕ

20. A single phase transformer has emf per turn having 2310/220 V, 50Hz transformer
as 13 V. Then the estimated primary turns will be?
a) 189 turns
b) 179 turns
c) 176 turns
d) 190 turns

21. The flux involved in the emf equation of a transformer has _______ _
a) rms value
b) average value
c) total value
d) maximum value

22. The voltage regulation for transformer is given by _____ _ _

a) (E2-V2)/E2
b) (E2-V2)/V2
c) (V2-E2)/E2
d) (V2-E2)/V2

23. While estimating voltage regulation of a transformer, keeping ______ __

a) primary voltage constant
b) secondary voltage constant
c) voltage changes constant at primary
d) all of the mentioned

24. It is possible to attain maximum efficiency in a transformer when the ______

a) core losses are equal to rated full load copper losses
b) core losses are more than rated full load copper losses
c) core losses and full load copper losses are constant
d) copper loss also becomes constant
25. The efficiency of a 20 KVA, 2000/200 V, single phase transformer at unity pf is 98%. The
total losses at this condition is?
a) 408W
b) 4.08kW
c) 204W
d) 2.04kW

26. Three units of single phase transformers and one single three-phase transformer
 rating
___ _ _
a) will be same for one rating
b) can never be made same
c) may be same
d) none of the mentioned

27. While comparing potential transformer to an auto transformer, a potential

transformer transfers power _____ _
a) conductively
b) inductively
c) both conductively as well as inductively
d) electromagnetic induction

28. Harmonics in transformer result in........

a) Increased core losses
b) Increased I2R losses
c) Magnetic interference with communication circuits
d) All of the above

29. The power transformer is a constant........

a) Voltage device
b) Current device
c) Power device
d) Main flux device

30. The total number of magnetic field lines passing through an area is termed as?
a) Voltage
b) EMF
c) Magnetic flux
d) Magnetic flux density

7.4MCQ’s of Unit 4

1-Which of the following motors is used in ceiling fan?

(A) Universal motor
(B) Synchronous motor
(C) Series motor
(D) Induction motor
2-Number of parallel path in wave winding is:
(A) 2
(B) 3
(C) 4
(D) 6
3-Speed of dc motor is directly proportional to and inversely proportional to:
(A) flux, back emf
(B) current, back emf
(C) back emf, flux
(D) back emf, voltage
 4-Generator efficiency is maximum when
(A) Variable loss is minimum
(B) Constant loss = Variable loss
(C) Constant loss is minimum
(D) Constant loss is half of the variable loss
5-Resultant flux of 3 phase induction motor is:
(A) (√3/2)φm
(B) (3/2)φm
(C) 3 φm
(D) 2 φm
6-Syncronous speed of a 3 phase, 4 pole, 50Hz induction motor is
(A) 1500 rpm
(B) 1440 rpm
(C) 3000 rpm
(D) 2880 rpm
7 helps to find out the direction of current in the conductor of a generator
(A) Cork screw rule
(B) Right hand thumb rule
(C) Fleming’s left hand rule
(D) Fleming’s right hand rule

8. The induced e.m.f. in d.c. generator is proportional to:

A. Field flux
B. Armature current
C. Speed of armature
D. all of these

9. Hoists, cranes and battery powered vehicles use motors in the locomotive.

A. dc series
B. dc shunt
C. induction
D. reluctance

10. Centrifugal pumps, fans-blowers use

A. shunt as well as induction motor

B. only shunt motors
C. only induction motor
D. none of the mentioned

11. Which DC motor is preferred for Elevator?

A. Differentially compound motor

B. Series motor
C. Shunt Motor
D. Cumulative compound motor

12. Which DC motor is preferred for constant speed?

A. Compound motor
B. Series motor
C. Shunt motor
D. Differential motor

13. Why is the speed of DC shunt motor dependent on Back EMF?

A. Because flux is proportional to the armature current

B. Because armature drop is negligible
C. Because Back EMF is equal to armature current
D. Because flux is constant in DC shunt motor

14. What will happen when the field of a DC shunt motor gets opened while the motor is
running?
A. Continue to run at the same speed
B. Speed of motor will be reduced
C. The motor will attain dangerous high speed
D. Armature current will be reduced

15. According to Fleming’s left-hand rule if the forefinger points in the direction of the
field thanthe middle finger will point in the direction of
A. Current in the conductor
B. Resultant force on the conductor
C. Movement of the conductor
D. None of the above

16. Which of the following rule is used to determine the direction of rotation of
[Link]?
A. Columb’s Law
B. Lenz’s Law
C. Fleming’s Right-hand Rule
D. Fleming’s Left-hand Rule

17. The speed of a d.c. motor is

A. Directly proportional to flux per pole
B. Inversely proportional to flux per pole
C. Inversely proportional to the applied voltage
D. None of the above
18. The torque developed by a d.c motor is directlyproportional to
A. Flux per pole × Armature current
B. Armature resistance × Applied voltage
C. Armature Resistance × Armature current
D. Square of armature resistance

19. An 8-pole dc machine has 800 lap woundconductors. The flux per pole of the machine
is 36mWb. If a no-load induced voltage of 280V isrequired. What should be the speed of
rotation ofthe machine?
A. 843 rpm
B. 2332 rpm
C. 292 rpm
D. 583 rpm

20. An induction Motor is

A. Self-starting with high torque
B. Self-starting with zero torque
C. Self-starting with low torque
D. Not self-starting

21. In three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors

A. Rotor conductors are kept open
B. Rotor conductor ends are short-circuitedthrough slip rings
C. Rotor conductors are short-circuited throughend rings
D. Rotor conductors are connected to theinsulation

22. At standstill condition the value of slip is

A. 0
B. Infinity
C. One
D. None of the above
23. A single-phase induction motor is:
A. Inherently self-starting motor
B. Inherently self-starting with low torque
C. Inherently not-self-starting motor
D. none of these

24. In a single phase motor the centrifugal switch;

A. Disconnects auxiliary winding of the motor
B. Disconnects main winding of the motor
C. Reconnects the main winding the motor
D. reconnects the auxiliary winding of the motor

25. In a split phase motor, the running windingshould have

A. High resistance and low inductance
B. low resistance and high inductance
C. High resistance as well as high inductance
D. low resistance as well as low inductance

26. Synchronous motors are;

A. Not-self starting
B. self-starting
C. essentially self-starting
D. None of the above

27. A synchronous motor will always stop when:

A. Supply voltage fluctuates
B. load in motor varies
C. excitation winding gets disconnected
D. Supply voltage frequency changes

28. Mostly, synchronous motors are of

A. alternator type machines
B. induction type machines
C. salient pole type machines
D. smooth cylinderical type machines

29. In which of the following motors the stator androtor magnetic field rotate at the
same speed?
A. Universal motor
B. Synchronous motor
C. Induction motor
D. Reluctance motor

30. Rotor resistance speed control method is notapplicable in

A. Slip Ring induction motor
B. Squirrel cage induction motor
C. Synchronous motor
D. None of the above

7.5MCQ’s of Unit 4
1- Which of the following is secondary cell?
a) Dry cell
b) Leclanche cell
c) Voltaic cell
d) Lead acid cell

2- Specific gravity of a fully charged lead acid cell is approximately: a)

1.18
b) 1.21
c) 1.17
d) 1.16

3- Negative plate of lead acid cell is made of

a) Carbon
b) Spongy lead
c) Lead peroxide
d) Cadmium

4. Fuse wire should possess

a) High specific resistance and high melting point

b) High specific resistance and low melting point
c) Low specific resistance and low melting point
d) Low specific resistance and high melting point

5. H.R.C. fuses has

a) High rating of current

 b) High rupturing capacity
c) High resistance capacity
d) None of these

6. Best practicable material for a fuse wires is

a) Aluminium
b) Copper
c) Iron
d) Tin

7. The storage battery generally used in electric power station is

a) Nickel-cadmium battery
b) Zinc carbon battery
c) Lead-acid battery
d) None of the above
8. The capacity of a battery is expressed in terms of

a) Current rating
b) Voltage rating
c) Ampere hour rating
d) None of the above

9. If the length of cable is doubled, its capacitance

a) Becomes one-fourth
b) Becomes one-half
c) Becomes double
d) Remains unchanged

10. Earthing is necessary to give protection against

a) Danger of electric shock

b) Voltage fluctuation
c) Overloading
d) High temperature of the conductors

11. Earth wire or ground wire is made up of

a) Copper
b) Tin
c) Aluminium
d) Galvanized steel

12. Average resistance of human body is

a) 500 ohms
 b) 1000 ohms
c) 1500 ohms
d) 2000 ohms

13. Which one of the following is used in earth pit

a) Aluminum and Iron

b) Graphite and Silver
c) Graphite and magnesium
d) Salt and charcoal
14. Batteries are charged by

a) Rectifiers
b) Engine generator sets
c) Motor generator sets
d) Any of the above

15. Following will happen if battery charging rate is too high

a) Excessive gassing will occur

b) Temperature rise will occur
c) Bulging and buckling of plates we occur
d) All of the above

16. Which of the following battery is used for aircraft?

a) Lead acid battery

b) Nickel-iron battery
c) Dry cell battery
d) Silver oxide battery

17. When two batteries are connected in parallel, it should be ensured that

a) They have same emf

b) They have same make
c) They have same ampere hour capacity
d) They have identical internal resistance

18. The electrode for a battery must be

a) A semi conductor
b) An insulator
c) A good conductor of electricity
d) A bad conductor of electricity

19. Five 2 V cells are connected in parallel. The output voltage is

a) 1 V
b) 1.5 V
c) 1.75 V
 d) 2 V

20. The fuse rating is expressed in terms of

a) Current
b) Voltage
c) VAR
d) KVA

21. On which off the following effects of electric current a fuse operates?

a) Photoelectric effect
b) Electrostatic effect
c) Heating effect
d) Magnetic effect

22. In HRC fuse the time between cut-off and final current zero is called the

a) Pre-arcing time
b) Arcing time
c) Total operating time
d) None of the above

23. HRC fuse as compared to a rewireable fuse has

a) No ageing effect
b) High speed of operation
c) High rupturing capacity
d) All of the above

24. A fuse is normally a

a) Power limiting device

b) Voltage limiting device
c) Current limiting device
d) Power factor correcting device

25. The advantage of neutral earthing is

a) Freedom from persistent arcing grounds

b) Over voltages due to lightning can be discharged to earth
c) Simplified design earth fault protection
d) All of the above
26. The earthing rod orientation in the pit should be

a) 45 degree
b) Horizontal
c) Vertival
d) 80 degree

27. Which type of earthing is used by Transmission lines

 a) Rod earthing
b) Strip earthing
c) Plate earthing
d) All of the above

28. How is the condition of an earth electrode measured?

a) by measuring the voltage
b) by measuring the current
c) by measuring the power
d) by measuring resistance

29. In a three phase system, the neutral is

a) earthed
b) connected to low voltage
c) connected to high voltage
d) not connected

30. After earthing, the different parts of an electrical machinery are at

a) infinite potential
b) intermediate potential
c) zero potential
d) undefined potential
8. Previous Year Question Papers
8.1 2017-18
8.2 2018-19
8.3 2019-20
8.4 2020-21
9. Virtual Lab Link
Experiment 1 - Kirchhoff‟s laws.

Virtual lab link: [Link]

Experiment 2 - Thevenin Theorem.

Virtual lab link: [Link]

Experiment 3 - RLC series resonance.

Virtual lab link: [Link]

Experiment 4 - Measurement of power in 3- phase circuit

Measurement of power in three phase circuit by two wattmeter method and
determination of its power factor for star as well as delta connected load.

Virtual lab link: [Link]

Experiment 5 -Determination of parameters of ac single phase series RLC

circuit.

Virtual lab link: [Link]

Experiment 6-To observe the B-H loop of a ferromagnetic material in CRO.

Virtual lab link: [Link]

Experiment 7- Determination of the efficiency of a dc motor by loss

summation method(Swinburne's test).

Virtual lab link: [Link]

10. NPTEL Lecture Link

Link 1. Basic Electrical Technology [Link]

Link 2. Passive Components [Link]

Link 3. Sources [Link]

Link 4. Kirchoff's Law [Link]

Link 5. The Sinusoid [Link]

Link 6. Phasor Analysis Part 1 [Link]

Link 7. Phasor Analysis Part 2 [Link]

Link 8. Power Factor [Link]

Link 9. Transformer Basics Part 1 [Link]

Link [Link] Basic Part 2 [Link]

Link [Link] Basics Part 3 [Link]

Link [Link] Practical Transformer Part 1 [Link]

Link [Link] Part 2 [Link]

Link [Link] Practical Transformer Part [Link]

Link [Link] Machines Part 1 [Link]

Link [Link] Machines Part 2 [Link]

Link [Link] Generators Part 1 [Link]

Link [Link] Generators Part 2 [Link]

Link [Link] Motors Part 1 [Link]

Link [Link] Motors Part 2 [Link]

Link [Link] Motor Part 3 [Link]

Link [Link] Phase System Part 1 [Link]

Link [Link] Phase System Part 2 [Link]

Link [Link] Phase System Part 3 [Link]

Link [Link] Phase System Part 4 [Link]

Link [Link] Phase Transformer Part 1 [Link]

Link [Link] Phase Transformer Part 2 [Link]

Link [Link] Motor Part 1 [Link]

Link [Link] Motor Part 2 [Link]

Link [Link] Motor Part 3 [Link]

Link [Link] Motor Part 4 [Link]

Link [Link] Machine [Link]