Power supply Quality and reliability EPCE Dept

Power Supply Quality and Reliability

(PCE6444)

3. HARMONIC DISTORTION AND SOLUTIONS

Voltage vs. Current Distortion - Harmonics vs. Transients - Power System Quantities under Non
sinusoidal Conditions - Harmonic Indices – Sources of harmonics - Locating Sources of
Harmonics – System Response Characteristics - Effects of Harmonic Distortion –
Interharmonics. Harmonic Solutions Harmonic Distortion Evaluation - Devices for Controlling
Harmonic Distortion - Harmonic Filter Design - Standards on Harmonics .

3.1 INTRODUCTION

• Harmonics are defined as sinusoidal voltage and currents having frequencies that are multiples
of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (i.e) (50HZ or 60HZ). The
sources of harmonics are Power system equipment, industrial loads and residential loads.
Harmonic currents arc generated at low distortion level by generation, transmission and
distribution equipment and to a larger extent by the industrial and domestic loads.
• High Power equipments using phase—angle control and uncontrolled rectification using
capacitive smoothing are the major harmonic contributors.
• Saturation of transformer core during energization and Flexible AC Transmission Systems
(FACTS) are the main source of harmonics.
• Static power converters using power electronic switching, Induction furnaces and are furnaces
are also contributors of harmonics.
• The main harmonic producing residential loads are those powered by rectifiers with high
smoothing capacitors such as PCs and TV receivers.
3.2 HARMONIC DISTORTION

• Harmonic distortion is produced by non linear devices. A non linear device is one in which the
current is not proportional to the supply voltage.
• Figure 4.1 shows current distortion caused by non linear resistance. In the figure, even though
the applied Voltage is perfectly sinusoidal, the output current is distorted.
• Increasing the voltage by a few percent may cause the current to double and take on a different
wave shape. This is the source of harmonic distortion in a power system.

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Figure 4.1 Current distortion caused by nonlinear resistance.

• Figure 4.2 illustrates that any periodic, distorted waveform can be expressed as a sum of
sinusoids. When a waveform is identical from one cycle to the next, it can be represented as a
sum of pure sine waves in which the frequency of each sinusoid is an integer multiple of the
fundamental frequency of the distorted wave. This multiple is called a harmonic of the
fundamental, hence the name of this subject matter. The sum of sinusoids is referred to as a
Fourier series, named after the great mathematician who discovered the concept.

Figure 4.2 Fourier series representation of a distorted waveform.

3.3 VOLTAGE VERSUS CURRENT DISTORTION

• An adjustable speed drive or an induction furnace cannot operate properly because of

harmonics.

• These harmonics are due to the following reasons.

1. The harmonic voltages are too distorted for the control of firing angles.

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2. The harmonic currents are too distorted in the power supply system such as a transformer.
3. The harmonic voltages are too distorted due to the distorted harmonic currents for the system
condition.
• Non linear loads inject harmonic currents into the power system.

• For nearly all analyses, it is sufficient to treat these harmonic producing loads simply as current
sources.

• Figure 4.3 shows the harmonic voltages in a system.

Figure 4.3 Harmonic currents flowing through the system impedance result in harmonic voltages at the load.

• The source bus has a pure sinusoidal voltage. But the non linear load draws a distorted current
and this harmonic current passes through the impedance of the system and causes voltage drop
for each harmonic. This results in voltage harmonics appearing at the load bus.

• The amount of voltage distortion depends on the impedance and the current.

• While the load current harmonics cause the voltage distortion, the load has, no control over the
voltage distortion.

• The same load put in two different locations on the power system will result in two different
voltage distortion values.

• The control of harmonic current injected into the system takes place at the end—user
application.

3.4 HARMONICS VERSUS TRANSIENTS

• Although transient disturbances contain high—frequency components, transients and harmonic

are different phenomena and are analyzed differently.

• Transient waveforms produce the high frequencies only after an abrupt change in the power
system.

• They are the natural frequencies of the system at the time of the switching operation.

• Harmonics occur in steady state and are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.

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• The harmonics are present continuously or at least for several seconds. Where as transients are
dissipated within a few cycles.

Transients are associated with changes in the system such as switching of a capacitor bank. But
harmonics are associated with the continuing operation of a load.

3.5 HARMONIC INDICES

• The given two are the indices for measuring harmonic content of a waveform.

i) Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) ii) Total Demand Distortion (TDD)

3.5.1 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

• The Total Harmonic Distortion is a measure of the effective values of the harmonic
components of a distorted waveform. It is the potential heating value of the harmonics relative to
the fundamental,

• This index can be calculated for either voltage or current.

Where Mn is the rms value of harmonic component h of the quantity M.

• The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is related to the rms value of the waveform as follows.

• THD can provide a good idea of how much extra heat is realized when a distorted voltage is
applied across a resistive load.
• Also it can indicate the additional losses caused by the current flowing through a conductor.
But it won't indicate the voltage stress with in a capacitor because it is related with peak value of
the voltage waveform, and not its heating value.

• The THD index is used to describe voltage harmonic distortion.

• Variations in the THD over a period of time represents nonlinear load activities in the system.

• Figure 4.4 shows the voltage THD variation over a 1—week period, and it was taken at a 13.2
K.V distribution substation.

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Figure 4.4 Variation of the voltage THD over a 1-week period.

• High voltage THD occurs at night and during the early morning hours since the non linear
loads are relatively high compared to the amount of linear load during these hours.

3.5.2 Total Demand Distortion (TDD)

• THD is deals with evaluating the current distortion caused by harmonic current in the end user
facilities.

• A small current may have a high THD but it does not produce significant threat to the system.
For example many adjustable speed drives will exhibit high THD values for the input current at
very light loads. (i.e) the harmonic current magnitude is low for relative current distortion is
high.

• To avoid this difficulty, THD is referred to the fundamental of the peak demand load current
rather than the fundamental of the present sample. This is called Total Demand Distortion.

Where IL is the peak or maximum demand load current at the fundamental frequency component
measured at the point of common coupling (PCC)
Ih = rms lead current at the harmonic order h, h= Hormonic order (1,2,3,..etc)

• There are two ways to measure IL.

1) IL can be calculated as the average of the maximum demand current for the preceding twelve
months.
2) It can be calculated by simply averaging the twelve month peak demand readings.

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3.6 HARMONIC SOURCES FROM COMMERCIAL LOADS

• The commercial facilities like office complexes, department stores, hospitals and interne data
centres are equipped with high efficiency fluorescent lighting with electronic ballasts, adjustable
speed drives for heating, ventilation and air conditioning loads, elevator drives and sensitive
electronic equipment supplied by single—phase. Switch mode power supplies.

• Commercial loads are characterized by a large number of small harmonic producing loads.

• The voltage distortion level depend on both the circuit impedances and the harmonic current
distortion.

• The followings are the typical non—linear typical loads.

3.6.1 Single—phase Power Supplies

• The Power supplies 'or single—phase electronic equipments in commercial buildings will
produce too much harmonic current for wiring.

• DC Power for modern electronic and microprocessor based equipments are obtained from
single—phase full wave diode bridge rectifiers.

• Older technologies us.. ac—side voltage control methods, such as transformers to reduce
voltages to II e level required for the dc bus. The inductance of the transformer provides
beneficial side effect by smoothing the input current waveform, thus reduces the harmonic
contents.

Figure 4.5 Switch Mode Power Supply

• But newer technology switch—mode power supplies (figure 4.5) use dc—to—dc converters to
achieve; a smooth dc output with small, light weight components.
• Personal computers. printers, copiers and most other single—phase electronic equipment emply
switch mode Power Supplies.

• SMPS can tolerate large variations in input voltage.

• Since there is no large ac side inductance, the input current to the power supply comes in very
short pulses as the capacitor C1 regains its charge on each half cycle.

• Figure 4.5 illustrates the SMPS current and harmonic spectrum.

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Figure 4.5 SMPS current and harmonic spectrum.

• SMPS has very high third—harmonic content in the current.

• Since third—harmonic current components are additive in. the neutral of a three phase system,
there is also a concern for transfotmer overheating due tt a combination of harmonic content of
the current in neutral;stray flux and high neutral currents.

3.6.2 Fluorescent lighting

• Lighting accounts for 40 to 60 percent of a commercial building load.

• Fluorescent lights are a popular choice for energy savings

• Fluorescent lights are discharge lamps, thus they require a ballast to provide a high initial
voltage to initiate the discharge for the electric current to flow between two electrodes in the
fluorescent tube.

• Here, a ballast is required to reduce the current to a level to maintain the specified lumen
output. Thus, a ballast is also a current-limiting device in lighting applications.

• Magnetic ballast and electronic ballast are the two types of ballasts.

➢ Magnetic ballast

• Magnetic ballast is made up of an iron core transformer with a capacitor. A single magnetic
ballast, can drive one or two fluorescent lamps and it operates at the line fundamental frequency
(i.e) 50 or 60 HZ.

• The magnetic ballast producer additional heat losses and it makes the ballast inefficient
compared to an electronic ballast.

• Figure 4.6 shows fluorescent lamp current and harmonic spectrum using magnetic ballasts.

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Figure 4.6 Fluorescent lamp with (a) magnetic ballast current waveform and (b) its harmonic spectrum.

➢ Electronic ballast

•An electronic ballast employs a Switch-Mode Power-Supply to convert the incoming

fundamental frequency voltage to a higher frequency voltage in the range of 54 to 40 KHZ.

• A single electronic ballast can drive upto four fluorescent lamps.

• Standard magnetic ballasts are the sources of additional harmonics themselves since the
harmonic distortion comes from the behavior of the arc.

• Electronic ballasts are designed to minimize harmonics and they produce less harmonic
distortion than magnetic ballast lamps.

• Most electronic ballasts are equipped with passive filtering to reduce input current harmonic
distortion to less than 20 percent.

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Figure 4.7 Fluorescent lamp with (a) electronic ballast current waveform and (b) its harmonic spectrum.

• Figure 4.7 shows fluorescent lamp current and harmonic spectrum using electronic ballasts.

• Since fluorescent lamps are a significant source of harmonics in commercial buildings, they are
distributed among the phases in a balanced manner.

3.6.3 Adjustable—speed drives for HVAC and elevators

• Applications of adjustable speed drives (ASDs) in commercial loads are in elevator motors, in
pumps and fans and in HVAC systems.

• An ASD consists of an electronic power converter that converts ac voltage and frequency into
variable voltage and frequency.

• The variable voltage and frequency allows the ASD to control motor speed to match the
application requirements.

3.7 HARMONIC SOURCES FROM INDUSTRIAL LOADS

• Modern industrial facilities have many non linear loads. These loads inject harmonic currents
into the power system, causing harmonic distortion in the voltage.

• This harmonic problem is combined with low power factor of non linear loads. Industrial
facilities utilize capacitor banks to improve the power factor to avoid penalty charges.

• These Power factor correction Capacitors can magnify harmonic currents from the non linear
load and create resonance conditions with in the facility.

These Resonance conditions cause motor and transformer over heating and misoperation of
sensitive electronic equipment.

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• Non linear loads are classified into three groups.

1. Three phase Power Converters.

2. Arcing devices.

3. Saturable devices,

3.7.1 Three Phase Power Converters

• Three phase converters differ from single phase converters such that three phase power
converters do not generate third harmonic currents. This is the advantage of three phase
converters because the third—harmonic current is the largest component of harmonics.

Figure 4.8 Current and harmonic spectrum for CSI-type ASD.

Figure 4.9 Current and harmonic spectrum for PWM-type ASD

• Fig. 4.8. This is a typical current source type of adjustable-speed drive. The harmonic spectrum
given in Fig. 4.8 would also be typical of a dc motor drive input current.
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Voltage source inverter drives (such as PWM-type drives) can have much higher distortion
levels as shown in Fig. 4.9.
• The input to the PWM drive is generally designed like a three-phase version of the switch-
mode power supply in computers. The rectifier feeds directly from the ac bus to a large capacitor
on the dc bus. With little intentional inductance, the capacitor is charged in very short pulses,
creating the distinctive “rabbit ear” ac-side current waveform with very high distortion.
➢ DC drives
• Rectification is the only step required for dc drives. Therefore they have advantage of simple
control systems.

Figure 4.10 Six-pulse dc ASD.

• DC drives are used for wider speed range and higher starting torque.
• The purchase and maintenance costs of dc motors are high while the cost of Power electronic
devices are getting reduced now—a—days.
• Most dc drives use six—pulse rectifier as shown in figure 4.10.
• This rectifier reduces thyistor current duties and also reduces some of the larger ac current
harmonics. The two main harmonics produced in the thyrister rectifier are fifth and seventh order
harmonics.
• These 5th and 7th order harmonics can be eliminated by using 12 pulse rectifier which reduces
90 percent' of fifth and seventh harmonics.
➢ AC drives
In ac drives, the rectifier output is inverted to produce a variable frequency ac voltage for the
motor. Voltage Source Inverters (VSIs) and Current Source Inverters CSIs) are the two types of
Inverters.
• VSI requires a constant dc voltage input to the inverter stage and it is achieved with a capacitor
or LC filter in dc link.
• CSI requires a constant current input, hence a series inductor is placed in the de link.

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• A VSI with PWM technique produces a train of variable width dc pulses as shown in figure
4.11.

Figure 4.11 PWM ASD.

• This inverter uses either SCRs, GTOs or power transistors.

• PWM VSI drives offer the best energy efficiency for applications over wide speed ranges for
drives up to at least 500 hp.
• VSI drives (12—pulse) as shown in figure 4.12(a) are limited to applications that do not require
rapid changes in speed.

Figure 4.12 Large ac ASDs

• CSI drives (12—pulse) as shown in figure 6.12(b) have good acceleration/deceleration

characteristics but require a motor with a leading power factor (synchronous or induction with
capacitors) or added control circuitry to commutate the inverter thyristors.

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➢ Impact of Operating Condition

Figure 4.13 Effect of PWM ASD speed on ac current harmonics.

• The harmonic current distortion in adjustable—speed drives is not constant. The waveform
changes significantly for different speed and torque values.
• Figure 4.13 shows two operating conditions for a PWM adjustable speed drive.
• The waveform at 42 percent speed is mire distorted; the drive injects higher magnitude
harmonic currents at rated need.
3.7.2 Arcing Devices
• Arcing devices are arc furnaces, arc welders and discharge—type lighting (fluorescent, sodium
vapor, mercury vapor) with magnetic ballasts.
• The voltage—current characteristics of electric arcs are non linear. The voltage decreases as the
arc current increases and the arc ignition is limited only by the impedance of the power system.
• The electric arc itself is a source of voltage harmonics.
• If a probe is connected across the arc, a trapezoidal waveform will be observed.
• The impedance of ballasts or furnace leads acts as a buffer so that the supply voltage is only
moderately distorted.
• The arcing load will be a stable harmonic current source.
• The harmonic content of an arc furnace load and other arcing devices is similar to that of the
magnetic ballast.
• Three phase arcing devices can be arranged to cancel the triplen harmonics through the
transformer connection.

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Figure 4.14. Equivalent circuit for an arcing device.

3.7.3 Saturable devices

• Equipments in this category include transformers and other electromagnetic devices with a steel
core, including motes.
• Harmonics are generated due to the non linear magnetizing characteristics of the steel.
• Figure 4.15 shows transformer magnetizing characteristic.

Figure 4.15. Transformer magnetizing characteristic.

• Power transformers are designed to normally operate just below the 'Knee' point of the
magnetizing saturation characteristic.
• The operating flux density of a transformer is selected based on optimum cost of steel, selected
based on optimum cost of steel, no—load losses, noise and numerous other factors.
• A high—cost penalty on the no—load losses or noise will result in more steel in the core and a
higher saturation curve that yields lower harmonic currents.
• Although transformer exciting current is rich in harmonics at normal operating voltage it is less
than 1 percent of rated full load current.
• Triplen harmonic currents occur during the early morning hours when the load is low and the
voltage rises.
• Harmonic voltage distortion from transformer over excitation is generally only apparent under
these light load conditions.
• Triplen transformers used to generate 180 HZ for induction furnaces are purposefully operated
in the saturated region.
• Motors exhibit distortion in current when they are over excited.

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Figure 4.16 Transformer magnetizing current and harmonic spectrum.

• Figure 4.16 shows transformer magnetizing current and harmonic spectrum.

• The above waveform is for single—phase or wye—grounded three—phase transformers;
• The current obviously contains third harmonic.
• Delta connections' and ungrounded—wye connections prevent the flow of zero—sequence
harmonics.

3.8 EFFECTS OF HARMONIC DISTORTION

• Harmonic currents due to non linear loads are injected back into the supply systems.
• These currents can interact with the power system equipments, most notably capacitors,
transformers and motors, causing additional losses, over heating and overloading.
• These harmonic currents can also cause interface with telecommunication lines and errors in
power metering.
• The followings are the impacts of harmonic distortion on various power system components.
3.8.1 Impact on Capacitors
• During resonance the voltage across a Capacitor bank is distorted and also the current
following in the capacitor bank is also large.
• Figure 4.17 shows a current waveform of a capacitor bank in resonance at the 11th harmonic

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Figure 4.17 Typical capacitor current from a system in 11th-harmonic resonance.

• In such resonance condition, the rms current is higher than the capacitor rms current rating.
• The followings are the harmonic current through a capacitor bank.
i) 135 percent of KVa (name plate value)
ii) 110% of rated rms voltage (excluding transients)
iii) 180% of rated rms current (including fundamental and harmonic current)
iv) 120% of peak voltage (including harmonics)
• The Capacitor is subjected to two harmonics (i.e) 5th and 7th harmonics.
• The voltage distortion consists of 4% of 5th harmonic and 3% of 7th harmonics.
• The harmonic current is 20% of 5th harmonic and 21% of 7th harmonic.
3.8.2 Impact on Transformer
• Transformers are normally designed to deliver the required power to the loads with minimum
losses at fundamental frequency.
• But the current due to harmonic distortion will produce additional heating.
• To tolerate higher frequencies, the transformers are designed with continuously transposed
cable instead of solid conductor and putting in more cooling ducts.
• The following three effects are due to increased transformer heating
1. RMS Current
• The increased RMS current of transformer due to harmonic currents will increase the conductor
losses.
2. Eddy Current losses
• Eddy current loss is due to magnetic fluxes in a transformer.

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• The induced current due to these fluxes will flow in the windings, core and in other conducting
bodes and cause additional heating.
• This components will the increase with the square of frequency of current causing eddy
currents.
3. Core losses
• The increase in core loss depends on the effect of harmonics and design of transformer core.
• Increase in voltage distortion may increase the eddy currents in the core laminations.
• For transformer derating common K factor is used in the power quality filed.
• The load loss PLL can be determined as below,
PLL = I2R + PECW
Where I2R – Loss due to resistance
PEC -- Eddy current loss.
• Since eddy current loss is proportional to square of the current and frequency,
P EC = KEC x I2x h2
where K EC — Proportionality constant.
• The per unit full load loss under harmonic current condition is given by
PLL = ∑ Ih2 (∑Ih2 x h2) • P EC -R
where P EC –R -It is the eddy current loss factor under rated conditions.

the rms of the distorted current is given by

where, PEC-R = Eddy current loss factor

h = Harmonic number

Ih = Harmonic current

3.8.3 Impact on Motors

• Harmonic voltage distortion at the motor terminals is converted into harmonic fluxes within the
motor.
• Due to these harmonic fluxes there will be a high frequency current in the motor and the motor
rotates at a frequency different than the refer synchronous frequency.

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• These additional fluxes induce some additional losses also.

• Therefore, decreased efficiency of motor along with heating, vibration and high–pitched noises
are the indicators of harmonic voltage distortion.
• The lower order harmonics have larger, magnitude and therefore the motor impedance will
become low.
• At harmonic frequencies, the motors can be represented by the blocked refer reactance
connected across the line.
• The excessive heating problems of motor occur when the voltage distortion reaches 8 to 10
percent of THI) (Total Harmonic Distortion) and higher.
• Motors appear to be in parallel with the power system impedance with respect to the harmonic
current flow and the system resonance will be high and the net inductance will become low.
3.8.4 Impact on Telecommunications
• High current flowing on distribution system can interface with communication circuits.
• Because, the voltage induced due to the harmoniC currents are within the bandwidth of normal
voice communications.
• The Triplen harmonics (3rd,10th,l5th) are especially trouble some in four—wire systems
because they are in phase in all conductors of a three—phase circuit and therefore, add directly
in the neutral circuit which is hereby the communications circuit.
• Harmonic currents on the power system are coupled into communication circuits by either
induction or direct conduction.
• Figure 4.18 illustrates the inductive coupling of power system residual current to telephone
circuit.

Figure 4.18 Inductive coupling of power system residual current to telephone circuit.

• The direct inductive coupling is equal in both conductors and the net voltage will be zero in the
loop formed by the conductor as shown.
• To avoid this problem the conductors are shielded. The twisted—pair conductors for telephone
circuits are also used to avoid the above said problem. But these are not that much effective.

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• Current flowing in the shield causes an IR drop (Figure 4.19) which results in a potential
difference in the ground references at the ends of the telephone cable.

Figure 4.19 (a) IR drop in cable shield resulting in potential differences in ground references at ends of cable.
(b) Conductive coupling through a common ground path.

• Shield currents can also be caused by direct conduction. As illustrated in Fig. 4.20, the shield is
in parallel with the power system ground path.
• If local ground conditions are such that a relatively large amount of current flows in the shield,
high shield IR drop will again cause a potential difference in the ground references at the ends of
the telephone cable.
3.8.5 Impact on energy and demand metering
• The energy consumption is measured in two ways (i.e) the total cumulative energy consumed
and the maximum power used for a given period.
• Thus, for larger industrial customer, there are two charges (i.e) energy charges and demand
charges,
• The energy charge represents the costs of producing and supplying the total energy consumed
over a billing period and is measured in kilowatt—hours. The residential customers are charged
for only this energy consumption only.
• The demand charge represents the utility costs to maintain adequate electrical capacity at all
times to meet each customer’s peak demand for energy use.
• The demand change reflects the utility's fixed cost in providing peak power requirements.
• Both energy and demand charges are measured using watt hour and demand meters
respectively.
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• A demand meter is usually integrated to watt hour meter with a timing device to register the
peak power use and returns the demand pointer to zero at the end of each timing interval
(typically 15 or 30 min.)
• Harmonic currents from non linear loads can impact the accuracy of watt hour and demand
meters adversely.
• Conventional magnetic disk watt hour meters tend to have a negative error at harmonic
frequencies.
• This error increases with increasing frequency. In general, the non linear loads tend to inject
harmonic power back onto the supply system and linear loads absorb harmonic power due to the
distortion in the voltage.
• This is illustrated in figure 4.20.

Figure 4.20 Nominal direction of harmonic currents in (a) nonlinear load and (b) linear load (voltage is distorted).

• Thus for non linear load, the meter will read

Where a3, et. And 'a7 are multiplying factors and it represents the inaccuracy of the meter at
harmonic frequency.
• These’s powers simply go to feed the line and transformer losses. That is, the customer
injecting the harmonic currents should pay something addition for the increased losses in the
power delivery system.
In the case of linear load, the measured power is,

The linear load absorbs the additional energy but the meter does not register as much energy as is
actually consumed.
• If the voltage distortion is within the electricity supply recommended limits, the error will be
very small (less than 1 percent).
• Metering error occurs in demand meters when the portion of the apparent power due to
harmonic distortion is ignored.
• Even some electronic meters do not measure for the total apparent power properly. Thus, the
errors for this metering scheme are such that the measured KVA demand is less than the actual.

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• The worst errors occur when the total current at the metering site is greatly distorted. The total
KVA demand can be off by 10 to 15 percent.

3.9 INTERHARMONICS
• A frequency that is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency is called a harmonic
frequency (i.e) fh = hfo where fo and h are the fundamental frequency and an integer number
respectively.
• The non integer multiple of the fundamental frequency is commonly known as an
interharmonic frequency (i.e) fih = hifo where hi is a non integer number larger than unity. In
practical terms, interharmonic frequencies are frequencies between two adjacent harmonic
frequencies.
• The primary source of interharmonics is the use of electronic power converter loads capable of
producing current distortion over a whole range of frequencies (i.e) characteristic and non
characteristic frequencies.
• Examples of these loads are adjustable speed drives in industrial applications and PWM
inverters in UPS applications, active filters, and custom power conditioning equipment.
• The inverter can produce interharmonics in the current especially when the inverter employs an
asynchronous switching scheme.
• If the harmonic current passes through the dc link incase of Rectifier—inverter set in
adjustable—speed drive, it propagates into the supply system, inter harmonic related problems
may arise.
• The rapid fluctuation of load current causes side—band frequencies to appear around the
fundamental or harmonic frequencies.
• Figure 4.21 shows the block diagram of a modern induction furnace with a current source
Inverter.

Figure 4.21 Block diagram of a modern induction furnace with a current source inverter

• The furnace coil and capacitor form a resonant circuit and the dc—to—ac inverter drives the
circuit to keep it in resonance. The inductance of the coil varies depending on the type,
temperature and amount of material as the furnace completes one cycle to another snohas from a
melt to pour cycle.

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• This situation results in varying operating frequency for the furnace. The typical range of
frequencies for induction furnaces is 150 to 1200 HZ.
• There are also currents at non integer frequencies due to the interaction with the inverter output
frequency as the furnace goes from one cycle to another
• The interharmonics appear in pairs at the following frequencies.

where fo and fs are the furnace operating frequency and the fundamental of the ac main
frequency respectively.
• The interharmonic frequencies move slowly, from several seconds to several minutes through a
wide frequ mcy range as the furnace completes its melt and pour cycle.
• The wide range of the resulting interharmonics can excite resonances in the power supply
system.
• Impacts of interharmonics are similar to these of harmonics such as filter overloading
overheating, power line carrier interference, ripple voltage fluctuation and flicker.
• Broadband filters are usually used to mitigate interharmonics problems.

5.2 HARMONIC DISTORTION EVALUATIONS. ***

• To limit both voltage and current harmonic distortion in the Power system, Harmonic distortion
evaluation is required.

• This approach requires participation from both end users and utilities.

• For individual end users, IEEE standard limits the level of harmonic current injection at the
point of common coupling (PCC).

• The concept of PCC is illustrated in figure 5.1.

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Figure 5.1 PCC selection depends on where multiple customers are served. (a) PCC at the transformer
primary where multiple customers are served. (b) PCC at the transformer secondary where multiple
customers are served.

• The limits are given for the maximum individual harmonic components and for the Total
Harmonic Distortion (THD).

• End users and utilities share responsibility for limiting harmonic current injections and voltage
distortion at the PCC.

• The evaluation of harmonic distortion is divided into two parts:

i) Measurements of the currents being injected by the load and leaker

ii) Calculations of the frequency response of the system impedance.

• Measurements should be taken continuously over a sufficient period of time. The minimum
measurement period is usually one week.

5.2.1 Concept of Point of common coupling

• Evaluation of harmonic distortion are usually performed at a point between the end user or
customer and the utility system where another customer can be served. This point is known as
the point of common coupling.

• If multiple customeare served from the primary of the transformer, the PCC is then located at
the primary.

• On the other hand, if multiple customers are served from the secondary of the transformer, the
PCC is located at the secondary. The figure (6.29) illustrates the two possibilities.

• When the primary of the transformer is the PCC, the current measurements for verification can
be performed at the transformer secondary. The measurement results should be referred to the
transformer high side and the effect of transformer connection on the zero—sequente
components must be taken into account.

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5.2.2Harmonic Evaluation on Utility system

• IEE standard provides the guidelines for acceptable levels of voltage distortion on the utility
system.
• These are given in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 : Harmonic voltage distortion limits in percent of nominal fundamental frequency voltage.

• The recommended limits are specified fir the maximum individual harmonic component and
for the THD.

• The THD value in this table is expressed as a function of the nominal system rms voltage rather
than of fundamental frequency voltage magnitude at the time of measurements.

• These are two important components for limiting voltage distortion levels on the utility system.

1. Harmonic currents injected from individual end users on the system must be limited.

2. The highest voltage distortion will occur at a capacitor bank that participates in the resonance.
This location can be located remote from the point of injection.

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5.3 VOLTAGE LIMIT EVALUATION PROCEDURE. ***

• Figure 5.2 shows a flow chart of the voltage limit evaluation procedure.

Figure 5.2 Voltage limit evaluation procedure.

• The procedure follows the following five evaluations.

1. Characterization of harmonic sources

• Characteristics of harmonic sources on the system are determined with measurements for
existing installations.

• The duration of measurements is at least one week so that all cyclical load variations can be
captured.
• For new or Planned installation harmonic characteristics are provided by the manufacturers.

2. System Modeling:
The system response to the harmonic currents injected at end user locations or by non linear
devices on the power system is determined by developing a computer model of the system.

3. System Frequency response:

• System resonances should be determined by a frequency, scan of the entire. power delivery
system.
• Frequency scans are performed for all capacitor bank configurations.

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4. Evaluate expected distortion levels:

The estimated harmonic sources are used with the system configuration yielding the worst-case
frequency response characteristics to compute the highest expected harmonic distortion.

5. Evaluate harmonic control scheme:

Harmonic control options consists of controlling the harmonic injection from non linear loads,
changing the system frequency response characteristics or blocking the flow of harmonic
currents by applying harmonic filters.

5.4 HARMONIC EVALUATION FOR END-USER FACILITIES.

• Harmonic problems are more common at end user facilities than on the utility supply system.
• Most non linear loads are located with in end user facilities and the highest voltage distortion
levels occur close to harmonic sources.
• The most significant problems occur when there are non linear loads and power factor
correction capacitors that result in resonant conditions.
• IEEE standard establisher harmonic current distortion limits at the PCC. The limits are
summarized in Table 5.2

Table 5.2 : Harmonic current distortion limits (Ih) in percent of IL

• To compute short-circuit current at PCC, the normal system conditions that result in minimum
short-circuit capacity at the PCC should be used.

A procedure to determine short—circuit ratio is as follows.

1. Determine three—phase short—circuit duty Isc at the PCC.

• If the short—circuit duty is given in megavoltamperes, convert it to an ampere value using the
following formula.

where MVA and KV represents the three—phase short circuit capacity in megavoltamperes and
line to line voltage at PCC in KV respectively.

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2. Find the load average kilowatt demand Pp over the most recent twelve months. This can be
found from billing information.

3. Convert the average kilowatt demand to the average demand current in amperes.

where `PF' is the average billed power factor.

4. Ilhe short—circuit ratio is determined by

• This Short Circuit Ratio is used to determine the limits on harmonic currents in IEEE std.

5.5 CURRENT LIMIT EVALUATION PROCEDURE

1. Define the PCC for industrial and commercial end users the PCC is at the primary side of a
service transformer.
2. Calculate SCR at PCC and also find the corresponding limits on individual harmonics and on
the TDD.
3. Characterize the harmonic sources. The best way to characterize harmonic current in an
existing facility is to perform measurements at the PCC over a period of time (at least one week).
4. Evaluate harmonic current levels with respect to current limits using Table (6.2). If there
values exceed the limit then the facility may require mitigation techniques.

5.6. PRINCIPLES FOR CONTROLLING HARMONICS. ***

• Harmonic distortions normally exist on all power system.

• If they become a problem then only controlling of harmonics is required.

• When a problem occurs, the basic options for controlling harmonics are:
1. Reduce the harmonic currents produced by the load.
2. Add filters to reduce harmonic currents in the system block the currents from entering
the system or supply the harmonic currents locally.
3. Modify the frequency response of the system by filters, inductors or capacitors.

1. Reducing harmonic currents in loads

• When an overexcited transformer is brought back into normal operation, the arcing devices and
electronic power converters which are fed from those transformers are locked into their designed
characteristics.
• Adding a line reactor or transformer in series in a power system will significantly reduce
harmonics as well as provide transient protection benefits.
• Transformer connections can he employed to reduce harmonic currents in three phase system.
• Delta—connected transformers can block the flow of zero—sequence harmonics from the line.
• ZigZag and grounding transformers can eliminate those triplen harmonics (zero—sequence
harmonics) from the line.

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2. Filtering
• The shunt filter keeps the currents out of the supply system.
• This is the most common type of filtering applied because of its cheap cost and also in tends to
correct the load power factor as well as remove the harmonic current.
• Another approach is to apply a series filter that blocks the harmonic currents. Since this is a
parallel tuned circuit it offers a high impedance to the harmonic current.

3. Modifying the system frequency response

The following are the methods to modify the system responses to harmonics.
1. Add a shunt filter. If not only reduce a harmonic current in the system, but it completely
changes the system response.
2. Add a reactor to detune the system.
• Harmful resonances occur between the system inductance and power factor correction
capacitors.
• The reactor must be added between the capacitor and the supply system source.
• One method is to simply put a reactor in series with the capacitor to move the system resonance
without tuning the capacitor. Another is to add reactance in the line.
3. Change the capacitor size. This is one of the least expensive options for both utilities and
industrial customers.
4. Move a capacitor to a point on the system with a different short circuit impedance or higher
losses.
5. Remove the capacitor and simply accept the losses, lower voltage and power factor penalty. If
technically feasible, this is occasionally the best economic choice.

5.7 DEVICES FOR CONTROLLING HARMONIC DISTORTION. ***

• There are many number of devices available to control harmonic distortion. They can be as
simple as a capacitor bank or a line reactor or as complex as an active filter. Here we are going
to discuss passive filters and active filters.
• A simple mitigation action such as adding, resizing, or relocating a shunt capacitor bank can
effectively modify an unfavorable system frequency response, and thus bring the harmonic
distortion to an acceptable level. Similarly, a reactor can perform the same function by detuning
the system off harmful resonances.
• The effectiveness of such simple solutions in controlling harmonic distortion should be
explored prior to considering a more complex device.
• The following material first discusses the effectiveness of a simple inline reactor, or choke, in
mitigating harmonic distortion. Then, two general classes of harmonic filters, i.e., passive and
active filters, are discussed. The former are based on passive elements, while the latter are based
on power electronic devices.

5.7.1 In-line reactors or chokes. ****

• A simple, but often successful, method to control harmonic distortion generated by adjustable-
speed drives involves a relatively small reactor, or choke, inserted at the line input side of the
drive. This is particularly effective for PWM-type drives.
• The inductance slows the rate at which the capacitor on the dc bus can be charged and forces
the drive to draw current over a longer time period. The net effect is a lower-magnitude current
with much less harmonic content while still delivering the same energy.
• A typical 3 percent input choke can reduce the harmonic current distortion for a PWM-type
drive from approximately 80 to 40 percent. This impressive harmonic reduction is illustrated in

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Fig. 5.3. Additional harmonic reduction is rather limited when the choke size is increased beyond
3 percent. The choke size is computed on the drive kVA base.

Figure 5.3 Harmonic reduction for a PWM-type ASD as a function of input choke size.

• Figure 5.4 shows typical line chokes used in 480-V ASD applications.

Figure 5.4 Three-phase line chokes for ASD applications. (Courtesy of MTE Corp.)

• Figure 5.5 compares the effectiveness of a 3 percent choke in reducing harmonic current
distortion to the condition without a choke for various ASD sizes (ASD sizes are normalized to
the service transformer kVA).

• Representative waveforms for each end of the range are shown. The larger waveform is without
the choke. As is clear from Fig. 5.5 a substantial improvement is achieved by inserting a choke in
the ASD line. The current THD drops from the 80 to 120 percent range down to approximately
40 percent. Better reduction is obtained when the size of the ASD is significantly smaller than
the service transformer. When the size of the ASD is 5 percent of the transformer, the current
THD drops from 125 to 40 percent.
• It is also important to note that there are other advantages of the choke in ASD applications.
The effect of slowing the dc capacitor charging rate also makes the choke very effective in
blocking some high-frequency transients. This helps avoid nuisance drive tripping during
capacitor energization operations on the utility system.

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• Isolation transformers can provide the same benefit as a choke but may be more costly.
However, isolation transformers with multiple drives offer the advantage of creating effective
12-pulse operation.

• A 12-pulse configuration can be achieved by supplying one drive through a delta-wye

connected transformer, and another drive through a delta-delta connected transformer. Figure 5.6
shows the current waveforms for two separate six-pulse ASDs.

• When the two waveforms are added together on the primary, the resulting waveform injected
onto the utility system has much lower distortion, primarily because the fifth and seventh
harmonics are cancelled out. These two harmonics are responsible for most of the distortion for
six-pulse drives.

Figure 5.5. Effect of ac line chokes on ASD current harmonics.

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Figure 5.6 A 12-pulse configuration as a method to control harmonics from two ASDs.

5.7.2. Zigzag transformers

• Zigzag transformers are often applied in commercial facilities to control zero-sequence

harmonic components. A zigzag transformer acts like a filter to the zero-sequence current by
offering a low-impedance path to neutral.

• This reduces the amount of current that flows in the neutral back toward the supply by
providing a shorter path for the current. To be effective, the transformer must be located near the
load on the circuit that is being protected.

• The two most important problems in commercial facilities are overloaded neutral conductors
and transformer heating. Both of these problems can be solved with proper zigzag transformer
placement.

• Some new commercial buildings include zigzag transformers on the 480/208- V supply
transformer secondaries to prevent transformer overheating.

• A zigzag transformer located at the supply transformer secondary does not provide any benefit
for neutral conductors supplying the loads.

• Typical results with a zigzag transformer show that it can shunt about 50 percent of the third-
harmonic current away from the main circuit neutral conductors. Thus, the zigzag transformer
can almost always reduce neutral currents due to zero-sequence harmonics to acceptable levels.
The largest zero-sequence harmonic will nearly always be the third harmonic in office buildings
with many computers and related equipment.

• Zigzag transformers are an excellent choice for existing facilities where neutral conductor
problems and possible transformer heating are concerns, assuming that there is a convenient
place to install the transformer between the neutral circuit of concern and the actual loads.
In new facilities, it may be better to simply design the circuits with sufficient current-carrying
capacity in the neutrals and with higher-capacity transformers.
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5.7.3 Passive filters

• In passive filters, Resistance, Capacitance and inductance elements are configured and tuned to
control harmonics.
• They are commonly used and are relatively inexpensive compared with other means for
eliminating harmonic distortion.
• Figure 5.7 shows should types of common filter arrangements.

Figure 5.7 Common passive filter configurations.

Shunt passive filters:

• The most economical and common type of passive filtei is the single—tuned `notch' filter.
• The notch filter is series—tuned to present a low impedance to a particular harmonic current
and is connected in shunt with the power system.
• Thus, the harmonic currents are directed from their normal flow path on the line through the
filter.
• Notch filters can provide power factor correction in addition to harmonic suppression.
• Figure 5.8 shows example of a single tuned filter designed for medium voltage applications.

Figure 5.8 creating a fifth-harmonic notch filter and its effect on system response.

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• The dry—type iron—core reactor is positioned on the top Of the Capacitor.

• Figure 5.9 shows another design for industrial site applications. Here the reactors are placed on
the top of the cabinet housing the capacitors and switch gear.

Figure 5.9 Filter for industrial power system applications. (Courtesy of Gilbert Electrical Systems.)

• An example of a common 480V filters arrangement is shown in figure 5.10.

Figure 5.10 filter

• It consists of a delta —connected low—voltage capacitor bank converted into a filter by adding
an inductance in series with the phases.
In this case, the notch harmonic h notch is determined as,

Where Xc is the reactance of one leg of delta connection.

• It's disadvantage is that it creates a sharp parallel resonance point at a frequency below the
notch frequency.
• Filters are commonly tuned slightly lower than the harmonic to be filtered to provide a margin
of safety.

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• If they are tuned exactly to the harmonic, the parallel resonance will be higher into the
harmonic being filtered.
• The filter configuration of figure 6.36 does not eliminate zero sequence currents because the
capacitor is delta connected.
• The capacitors on utility distribution systems are wye—connected. Therefore it controls the
zero sequence tripl'en harmonics by changing the neutral connection.
• Placing a reactor in neutral of capacitor is used to filter only zero—sequence harmonics: This
technique is employed to eliminate telephone interference.
• Passive filters should be placed on a bus where short—circuit reactance Xsc remains constant.
Series passive filters:
• A series passive filter is connected in series with the load.
• The inductance and capacitance are connected in parallel and are tuned to provide high
impedance at a selected harmonic frequency. The high impedance blocks the flow of harmonic
currents at the tuned frequency only.

• Figure 5.11 shows a typical series filter arrangement.

Figure 5.11

• Series filters are used to block a single harmonic current (such as third harmonic) and are
especially useful in a single phase circuit.
• Series filters cannot be used for blocking multiple harmonic currents.
• Therefore, each harmonic current requires a series filter tuned to that harmonic. Thus, series
filters are much less commonly applied than shunt filters.

5.7.4 Low—pass broadband filters

• In numerous power systeip conditions, harmonics are generated not only in a single frequency
but can'spread over a wide range of frequencies.

• A six—pulse converter generates harmonics of 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc, and electronic power
converters can generate interharmonics covering a wide range of frequencies.

• A low—pass broadband filter is used to block multiple or widespread harmonic frequencies.

• Therefore, current with frequency components below the filter cutoff frequency can pass
through the system and current with frequency components, above the cutoff frequency is
filtered out.

• Since, the low—pass filter is designed to achieve a low cutoff frequency, it is called a low—
pass broadband filter.

• Figure 5.12 shows a low—pass broadband filter.

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Figure 5.12 A low-pass broadband filter configuration.

• In distribution system applications, the effect of low—pass broadband filters can be obtained
by installing a capacitor bank on the low—voltage side of a transformer as shown in figure 5.13.

Figure 5.13 A low-pass broadband filter application in power service for industrial systems. Filter
arrangement in a substation with (a) dedicated and (b) multiple feeders.

• It is capable of preventing harmonics ab oN the cuttoff frequency from penetrating the high—
voltage side of the transformer.

• If the voltage remains high, a voltage regulator or transformer load tap changer (LIC) must be
used to lower the voltage to an acceptable level.

• The combination of the transformer leakage inductance, the line reactor, the voltage regulator,
and the capacitor bank yields the desired cut—off frequency.

• Figure 5.14 shows a low—pass broadband filter application in an industrial system.

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Figure 5.14

• A line reactor installed in series with the main ac line is used to provide an electrical separation
between the ac system and the nonlinear load. A capacitor bank is installed in shunt to form a
low—pass broadband filter configuration.
• In ASD applications, this filter can reduce the overall current harmonic distortion from the 90-
100 percent range down to 9-12% range under rated load conditions.
• The cutoff frequency for a low—pass broadband filter for ASD applications is typically
designed at a low harmonic frequency, such as at 100-200 HZ on a 60 HZ system.

5.7.5. C Filters

• C filters can also be used to eliminate multiple harmonic frequencies in industrial and utility
systems.
• They can alterate a wide range of steady state and time varying harmonic and interharmonic
frequencies generated by electronic converters, induction furnaces, cycloconverters, etc.
• The configuration of a C filter is nearly identical to that of second—order high— pass filter as
shown earlier in figure 5.15
• The main difference between the two configurations•is.that C filter poseesees an auxiliary
capacitor C. in series with the inductor LM. Atypical configuration of a c filter is shown figure
5.15.

Figure 5.15 A typical C-filter configuration and its impedance frequency response (solid line).

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• The auxiliary capacitor Ca size is chosen such that its capacitive reactance cancels out LM at
the fundamental frequency, bypassing the damping resistance R. For this reason, the loses
associated with R are practiclly eliminated, allowing a C filter to be tuned to a low frequency.
• If the notch filter is tuned below the c filter the size of Ca would be larger, making the C filter
impractical.

5.7.6 Active Filters

• Active filters are based on power electronics and are more expensive than passive filters.
• However, its advantage is that active filters do not resonate with the system.

Figure 5.16

• Active filters can be used in difficult circumstances where passive filters cal lot operate
successfully because of mrallel resonance problems.

• The main concept is to replace the portion of the sine wave that is missing in the current in a
nonlinear load.

• Figure 5.16 shows an application of an active filter at a load.

• An electronic control monitors the line voltage & current, switching the power electronics very
precisely to track the load current or voltage and force it to be sinusoidal.

• There are two fundamental approaches: One is that, using an inductor to store current to be
injected into the system at the appropriate instant and the other is that using a capacitor.

• Therefore, while the load current is distorted by the nonlinear load, the system current is much
more sinusoidal as shown.

• Active filters can be programmed to correct the power factor as well as harmonics.

5.8 STANDARDS ON HARMONICS

• There are various organizations on the national and international levels working in concert with
engineers, equipment manufacturers, and research organizations with standards governing
guidelines, recommended practices and harmonic limits.
• The primary objective of the standard is to provide a common ground for all involved parties to
work together to ensure compatibility between end—use equipment and the system equipment is
applied.

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IEEE STANDARD 519-1992

• The philosophy behind this standard is to limit the harmonic injection from individual
customers so that they do not create unacceptable voltage distortion under normal system
characteristics and to limit the overall harmonic distortion in the voltage supplied by the utility.

• The limits on harmonic voltage and current based on IEEE standard 519-1992 are described in
Table 5.3.

• This standard divides the responsibility for limiting harmonics between both and users and the
utility.
• End users will be responsible for limiting the harmonic current injections, while the utility will
be primarily responsible for limiting voltage distortion in the supply system.

• The harmonic current and voltage limits are applied at the PCC. This is the point where other
customers share the same bus or where new customers may be connected in the future.

• The standard allocates current injection limits based on the size of the load with respect to the
size of the power system, which is defined by its short—circuit capacity.

• The Short—Circuit ratio is defined as the ratio of the current at the PCC to the maximum
demand load current at the PCC as well.

• Thus, the current limits are developed so that the total harmonic injections from an individual
customer do not exceed the maximum voltage distortion shown in Table 5.3.

TABLE 5.3 Basics for Harmonics current Limits

• The above table shows harmonic current limits for various system voltages.

• By controlling system impedance the voltage distortion is controlled.

• If the system impedance is high and if the system is in resonance then voltage distortion will be
more.

• The resonance is the common factor for voltage distortion.

• Therefore, keeping the voltage distortion low usually means keeping the system out of
resonance.

• IEEE standard 519-1992 represents recommended practices by the utilities and their customers
in minimizing and controlling the impact of harmonics generated by non linear loads.

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IEC Standard on Harmonics

• The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), currently with headquarters in Geneva,
Switzerland, has defined a category of electro magnetic compatibility (EMC) standards that deal
with power quality issues.
• The term Electro Magnetic Compatibility includes concerns for both radiated and conducted
interference with end—use equipment.
• The IEC standards are broken down into six parts.

Part 1: General
• These standards deal with general considerations such as introduction, fundamental principles,
rationale, definitions and terminologies.
• Their designation number is IEC 61000-1—x.
Part 2: Environment
• These standards define characteristics of the environment where equipment will be applied, the
classification of such environment, and its compatibility levels.
• Their designation number is IEC 6100-2—x.
Part 3: Limits
• These standards define the permissible levels of emissions that can be generated by equipment
connected to the environment.
• Their designation number is IEC 6100-3—x.
Part 4: Testing and measurement techniques
• These standards provide detailed guidelines for measurement equipment and test procedures to
ensure compliance with the other parts, of the standards.
• Their designation number is IEC 6100-4—x.
Part 5: Installation and mitigation guidelines
• These standards provide guidelines in application of equipment such as earthing and cabling of
electrical and electronic systems for ensuring electromagnetic compatibility among electrical and
electronic apparatus or systems.
• They are designated with IEC 61000-5—x.
Part 6: Miscellaneous
• These standards are generic standards defining immunity and emission levels required for
equipment in general categories or too specific types of equipment.
• Their designation number is IEC 61000-6—x.

• IEC standard also have some Key Standards as follows.

IEC 61000-2-2 (1993): Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
IEC 61000-3-2 (2000): Electromagnetic Compatibility
IEC 61000-3-4 (1998): Electromagnetic Compatibility
IEC 61000-3-6 (1996): Electromagnetic Compatibility
6.22.2 IEEE 1159: Guide for power quality monitoring

IEEE Standard 115915 was developed to provide general guidelines for power quality
measurements and to provide standard definitions for the different categories of power quality
problems. These definitions were provided previously in Chap. 2 and provide the basis for a
common language in describing power quality phenomena. Power quality monitoring equipment
can use this language to correctly differentiate between different power quality variatiOns•and
disturbances.
After publication of the basic monitoring guidelines, working group's : were established for
developMent Of more advanced guides for power quality monitoring. Three working groups
were established. Progress can be tracked at the IEEE 1159 website:
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/1159/.

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The IEEE 1159.1 Working Group is developing guidelines for instrumentation requirements
associated with .,different types of power quality phenomena. These requirements address issues
like sampling rate requirements, synchronization, A/D sampling accuracy, and number Of cycles
to sample.
The IEEE 1159.2 Working Group is developing guidelines for characterizing different power
quality phenomena. This includes definition of important characteristics that may relate to the
impacts of the power quality variations (such as minimum magnitude, duration, phase shift, and
number of phases for voltage sags). Example waveforms have been collected illustrating the
importance of different characteristics of the power quality variations.
Recently, the work of the IEEE 1:159.1 and 1159.2 Working Groups has been combined into a
single task force and is being coordinated with the development on an international standatd for
characterizing.,
The IEEE 1159.3 Working Group is defining an interchange format that can be used to exchange
power quality monitoring information between different applications.
IEEE developed the COMTRADE:format for exchanging waveform data between fault recorders
and other applications, such as relay testing equipment. A more complete data interchatige
format is needed for power quality data, which can include harmonic spectra, rms envelopes,
characterized power quality data, and statistical power quality data, as well as steady-state and
disturbance waveforms. The new Power Quality Data Interchange Format (PQDIF) has been
defined, and the standard is being balloted at the time of this writing.l7 The common data
interchange format will allow software developers to develop applications for analyzing power
quality events and problems
independently from the manufacturers of the actual power quality monitoring equipment.

5.9 Harmonic Studies

Harmonic studies play an important role in characterizing and understanding the extent of
harmonic problems. Harmonic studies are often performed when
1. Finding a solution to an existing harmonic problem
2. Installing large capacitor banks on utility distribution systems or industrial power systems
3. Installing large nonlinear devices or loads
4. Designing a harmonic filter
5. Converting a power factor capacitor bank to a harmonic filter

Harmonic studies provide a means to evaluate various possible solutions and their effectiveness
under a wide range of conditions before implementing a final solution. In this section, methods
for carrying out harmonic studies are presented.

5.9.1 Harmonic study procedure

The ideal procedure for performing a power systems harmonics study can be summarized as
follows:
1. Determine the objectives of the study. This is important to keep the investigation on track. For
example, the objective might be to identify what is causing an existing problem and solve it.
Another might be to determine if a new plant expansion containing equipment such as
adjustable-speed drives and capacitors is likely to have problems.

2. If the system is complex, make a premeasurement computer simulation based on the best
information available. Measurements are expensive in terms of labor, equipment, and possible
disruption to plant operations. It will generally be economical to have a good idea what to look
for and where to look before beginning the measurements.
3. Make measurements of the existing harmonic conditions, characterizing sources of harmonic
currents and system bus voltage distortion.
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4. Calibrate the computer model using the measurements.

5. Study the new circuit condition or existing problem.
6. Develop solutions (filter, etc.) and investigate possible adverse system interactions. Also,
check the sensitivity of the results to important variables.
7. After the installation of proposed solutions, perform monitoring to verify the correct operation
of the system.
Admittedly, it is not always possible to perform each of these steps ideally.
The most often omitted steps are one, or both, measurement steps due to the cost of engineering
time, travel, and equipment charges. An experienced analyst may be able to solve a problem
without measurements, but it is strongly recommended that the initial measurements be made if
at all possible because there are many unpleasant surprises lurking in the shadows of harmonics
analysis.
5.9.2 Modeling harmonic sources
Most harmonic flow analysis on power systems is performed using steady-state, linear circuit
solution techniques. Harmonic sources, which are nonlinear elements, are generally considered
to be injection sources into the linear network models. They can be represented as current
injection sources or voltage sources.
For most harmonic flow studies, it is suitable to treat harmonic sources as simple sources of
harmonic currents. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.17 where an electronic power converter is replaced
with a current source in the equivalent circuit. The voltage distortion at the service bus is
generally relatively low, less than 5 percent. Therefore, the current distortion for many nonlinear
devices is relatively constant and independent of distortion in the supply system.

Figure 5.17 representing a nonlinear load with a harmonic current source for analysis.

Values of injected current should be determined by measurement. In the absence of

measurements and published data, it is common to assume that the harmonic content is inversely
proportional to the harmonic number. That is, the fifth-harmonic current is one-fifth, or 20
percent, of the fundamental, etc. This is derived from the Fourier series for a square wave, which
is at the foundation of many nonlinear devices. However, it does not apply very well to the
newer technology PWM drives and switch-mode power supplies, which have a much higher
harmonic content. Table 5.4 shows typical values to assume for analysis of several types of
devices.

TABLE 5.4 Typical Percent Harmonic Distortion of Common Harmonic Sources: Odd Harmonics, 1 through
13

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When the system is near resonance, a simple current source model will give an excessively high
prediction of voltage distortion. The model tries to inject a constant current into a high
impedance, which is not a valid representation of reality. The harmonic current will not remain
constant at a high voltage distortion. Often, this is inconsequential because the most important
thing is to know that the system cannot be successfully operated in resonance, which is readily
observable from the simple model. Once the resonance is eliminated by, for example, adding a
filter, the model will give a realistic answer.
For the cases where a more accurate answer is required during resonant conditions, a more
sophisticated model must be used. For many power system devices, a Thevenin or Norton
equivalent is adequate (see Fig. 5.18). The additional impedance moderates the response of the
parallel resonant circuit.
A Thevenin equivalent is obtained in a straightforward manner for many nonlinear loads. For
example, an arc furnace is well represented by a square-wave voltage of peak magnitude
approximately 50 percent of the nominal ac system voltage. The series impedance is simply the
short-circuit impedance of the furnace transformer and leads (the lead

Figure 5.18 Replacing the simple current source model with a Thevenin or Norton equivalent for better
source models of resonant conditions.

impedance is the larger of the two). Unfortunately, it is difficult to determine clear-cut equivalent
impedances for many nonlinear devices. In these cases, a detailed simulation of the internals of
the harmonic-producing load is necessary. This can be done with computer programs that iterate
on the solution or through detailed time-domain analysis.
Fortunately, it is seldom essential to obtain such great accuracy during resonant conditions and
analysts do not often have to take these measures. However, modeling arcing devices with a
Thevenin model is recommended regardless of need.
5.9.3 Computer tools for harmonics Analysis

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The preceding discussion has given the reader an idea of the types of functions that must be
performed for harmonics analysis of power systems. It should be rather obvious that for anything
but the simplest of circuits, a sophisticated computer program is required. The characteristics of
such programs and the heritage of some popular analysis tools are described here.
First, it should be noted that one circuit appears frequently in simple industrial systems that does
lend itself to manual calculations (Fig. 5.1`9). It is basically a one-bus circuit with one capacitor.
Two things may be done relatively easily:
1. Determine the resonant frequency. If the resonant frequency is near a potentially damaging
harmonic, either the capacitor must be changed or a filter designed.

Figure 5.19 A simple circuit that may be analyzed manually.

2. Determine an estimate of the voltage distortion due to the current Ih.The voltages Vh are
given by

Given that the resonant frequency is not near a significant harmonic and that projected voltage
distortion is low, the application will probably operate successfully.
Unfortunately, not all practical cases can be represented with such a simple circuit. In fact,
adding just one more bus with a capacitor to the simple circuit in Fig. 5.19 makes the problem a
real challenge to even the most skilled analysts. However, a computer can perform the chore in
milliseconds.
To use the computer tools commonly available, the analyst must describe the circuit
configuration, loads, and the sources to the program.
Data that must be collected include
■ Line and transformer impedances
■ Transformer connections
■ Capacitor values and locations (critical)
■ Harmonic spectra for nonlinear loads
■ Power source voltages
These values are entered into the program, which automatically adjusts impedances for
frequency and computes the harmonic flow throughout the system.

Capabilities for harmonics analysis programs: Acceptable computer software for harmonics
analysis of power systems should have the following characteristics:

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1. It should be capable of handling large networks of at least several hundred nodes.

2. It should be capable of handling multiphase models of arbitrary structure. Not all circuits,
particularly those on utility distribution feeders, are amenable to accurate solution by balanced,
positive sequence models.

3. It should also be capable of modeling systems with positive sequence models. When there can
be no zero-sequence harmonics, there’s no need to build a full three-phase model.

4. It should be able to perform a frequency scan at small intervals of frequency (e.g., 10 Hz) to
develop the system frequency-response characteristics necessary to identify resonances.

5. It should be able to perform simultaneous solution of numerous harmonic sources to estimate

the actual current and voltage distortion.

6. It should have built-in models of common harmonic sources.

7. It should allow both current source and voltage source models of harmonic sources.

8. It should be able to automatically adjust phase angles of the sources based on the fundamental
frequency phase angles.

9. It should be able to model any transformer connection.

10. It should be able to display the results in a meaningful and user-friendly manner.

5.10 Interharmonics caused by induction furnaces. ***

• The key symptom of this problem was that residential customers in a widespread area
complained about their clocks running faster at about the same time each weekday. Other
timekeeping instruments also behaved erratically.
• The clocks that experienced the problem count time by detecting zero crossings in the voltage
waveform. The time between two adjacent zero crossings is a half cycle of the power system
fundamental frequency.
• Since the frequency error of the power system is negligible over long time periods, these clocks
are very accurate. Fast-clock phenomena occur when there are more zero crossings than expected
within a half cycle due to high-frequency distortion in the voltage waveform. The high-frequency
signal appears as a sawtooth or sinusoid superimposed on the fundamental frequency signal.
• Figure 5.20 shows a typical voltage waveform measured on customer premises. It is clear that
there will be instances where there are multiple zero crossings within a half cycle.

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Figure 5.20 Voltage waveform causing fast-clock problems due to high-frequency distortion
and its harmonic spectrum.

• Figure 5.20b shows that the high-frequency distortion occurs at the 29th (1740 Hz) and the 35th
(2100 Hz) harmonics. Further investigation revealed that these frequencies were produced by
induction furnaces located at a steel-grinding facility. The distortion affected residential
customers several miles away. Both the grinding facility and residential customers were supplied
from the same 46-kV distribution system, shown in the one-line diagram of the facility in Fig.
5.21.
• The operating frequency of the two induction furnaces varies between 800 to 1000 Hz
depending on the amount and type of material being melted. Assuming the operating frequency
at a particular operation stage is 950 Hz, the resulting line current computed using Eq. (5.34)
would contain the following pairs of currents: (1840 Hz, 1960 Hz), (3740 Hz, 3860 Hz), etc.
These currents are interharmonic currents since they are not integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency.

Figure 5.21. Steel-grinding facility one-line diagram showing source, metering, and loads.

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• The first pair are the strongest interharmonic components and are more prominent in the
voltage. Since the furnace operating frequency varies between 800 and 1000 Hz, the first pair of
the resulting interharmonic current varies between 1540 (25.67th harmonic) and 2060 Hz (or
34.33th harmonic). This varying harmonic distortion makes the application of passive shunt
filters impossible.
• The PCC for this facility was at the high-voltage side of the 46/12.47- kV transformer. Figure
5.22 shows the voltage waveform at the PCC where the high-frequency distortion is clearly
visible on top of the fundamental frequency waveform.

Figure 5.22 Voltage waveform at the PCC for steel-grinding facility (46 kV).

• To understand why the distortion appeared throughout the 46-kV system, a frequency scan of
the system looking from the PCC was per-formed. The resulting impedance characteristic is
shown in Fig. 6.31.

Figure 6.31 Impedance scan at the PCC (46 kV).

• The scan indicated that the dominant resonance frequency was approximately at the 34th
harmonic. When the frequency components produced by a nonlinear load line up with the system
natural frequency, the distortion will be magnified. This is exactly what happened in this
problem. The interharmonic frequencies produced by the induction furnaces varied between 25th
and 34th harmonics, the upper end of this range coinciding with the system natural frequency.
Thus, it was not surprising to find voltage distortion over a wide area.

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