SPECIAL

no. 162
REPORT
Indian Military Platform Modernisation:
Uncertainties, Challenges, and Progress
Kartik Bommakanti, Ed.

SEPTEMBER 2021
© 2021 Observer Research Foundation. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, copied, archived, retained or transmitted through
print, speech or electronic media without prior written approval from ORF.
Introduction
Each chapter in this special report draws attention
to three central elements in the modernisation of

A
India’s military platforms: uncertainties, challenges,
ssessing the changes in India’s and opportunities.
military capabilities is not without its
challenges, especially with regards The first section focuses on the Indian Army. In
to the three armed services securing the first chapter, Maj Gen. B.S. Dhanoa discusses the
their required needs in a timely manner. This difficult strategic environment confronting India
report analyses the key platform acquisitions for which the country requires Armoured Fighting
made by the Army, Navy, and Air Force between Vehicles (AFVs). Dhanoa notes that night-fighting
2011 and 2021, and explores the trends for the capabilities of the AFVs were the focus in the decade
forthcoming decade beginning 2021. between 2011-2021. The forthcoming decade should
witness, according to Dhanoa, improvements to the
India faces a challenging strategic existing AFVs covering Software Defined Radios
environment that encompasses a wide swathe (SDRs), anti-drone protection suites, and improved
of geography, from the Western Pacific to the stealth and navigation systems.
Indian Ocean Region (IOR). Although not yet
minatory, China’s People’s Liberation Army Navy Javin Aryan and Pulkit Mohan, in the second
(PLAN) is expanding and could soon pose real chapter, survey the current procurement and upgrade
threats to India. On its land frontiers, India has status of infantry weapons for the Indian Army (IA).
been locked in a stand-off with China since May The authors draw attention to the painfully desultory
2020, and a “hot” Line of Control (LoC) with process and inefficiencies plaguing the acquisition of
Pakistan notwithstanding the current ceasefire. infantry weapons for the Indian armed forces and
The balance of air power is also fragile and the problems afflicting the services to secure infantry
becoming increasingly adverse for India, given weapons for meeting their operational challenges.
the two-front military challenge from Pakistan During the decade 2011-2021, the most significant
and China. Overall, the capabilities of the Indian acquisition was the SIG716 assault weapon and
military have not kept pace with the heightening additional limited acquisitions for the Indian Special
threats confronting the country. forces. The decade of 2021-2031 will see the INSAS
assault weapon being replaced with the newer
AK-203. Sniper rifles will also undergo upgrades.

Attribution: Kartik Bommakanti (Ed.), “Indian Military Platform Modernisation: Uncertainties,

Challenges, and Progress,” ORF Special Report No. 162, September 2021, Observer Research Foundation.

2
However, uncertainty looms over additional
acquisitions during the next decade, such as
the CAR 816 carbine, Joint Venture Protective (IOR), its current carrier strength is unlikely to pose
Carbine (JVPC), and the ASMI sub-machine gun. a significant threat to the IN. The period between
2021-2031 is likely to witness commissioning of the
Amrita Jash rounds off the first section with Indigenous Aircraft Carrier (IAC-I) in 2022, which
an exploration of the current status of India’s is built with predominantly indigenous technology
artillery systems. These systems cover towed at the Cochin Dockyard Limited. However, the
artillery, Ultra-Light Weight Howitzers (ULH), acquisition of the second Indigenous Aircraft
Multibarrel Rocket Launcher (MBRLs), and Carrier-2 (IAC-2) will remain uncertain during the
land-based cruise and ballistic missiles. Jash coming decade. The IN has experienced progress
shows that in the period 2011-2021, India with indigenous carrier technology during the last
acquired a mix of indigenous and foreign artillery few years and likely to make more gains during the
systems. In addition, during this period there next ten.
was greater investment in mediumisation and
ammunition for artillery platforms. A catalyst Sudarshan Shrikhande, in his overview of the
for the acquisition of ULH777, Vajra K9 and the IN’s surface fleet covering frigates, destroyers
Dhanush towed artillery has been the increasing and corvettes, notes that despite budgetary
tensions with China along the disputed frontier. shortfalls between 2011-2021, the IN has done
In the forthcoming decade, Jash ponders, new well preparing for the future. In the past decade,
systems will be inducted such as the Autonomous India commissioned three Kolkata Class Destroyers,
Towed Howitzer Ordnance System (ATHOS), two Shivalik Class Frigates, three Teg Class
155 MM and 52-calibre mounted gun system, Frigates, and three Kamorta Class Corvettes.
and Pinaka Mk-II MBRLs. The indigenisation of ship design has gained maturity
and will become more pronounced in the coming
The second section follows with three analytical two decades. To be sure, self-reliance in Indian ship-
pieces on India’s naval platforms. Chapter building is still costly given the low volumes; however,
4, written by Manoj Joshi and Mahi Khanna, continued dependence on imports will be an equally
discusses the role of aircraft carriers in the Indian poor decision. Nevertheless, writes Shrikhande,
Navy (IN). In the period 2011-2021, Joshi and a concerted effort has to be made to bring costs
Khanna observe, India inducted the carrier down over time. In the forthcoming decade
INS Vikramaditya, built by Russia, in 2014 and between 2021 and 2031, Project 15B indigenously
decommissioned the INS Viraat in 2017. Despite developed Stealth guided-missile destroyers will be
the PLAN’s forays into the Indian Ocean Region commissioned, and Project 18 Stealth guided-missile

3
 The third and final section of this report trains
the spotlight on the Indian Air Force (IAF). In
Chapter 7, Kalianda Appaya Muthana observes that
destroyers are planned for construction by the IN. the force structure of the Indian Air Force (IAF) has
Additionally, the Russian-origin upgraded changed little over the period 2011-2021, where
Talwar/Teg class (Project 1135.6) will see the IAF fighter fleet underwent mostly upgrades to
induction. Finally, 16 India-built corvettes called its existing fighter fleet. The single most important
the Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Craft acquisition made by the service was the Rafale multi-
(ASWSWC) are likely to be commissioned, with role fighters, 20 of which have been delivered out of
the first delivery of corvette expected in 2022. a total 36. For the IAF, the most consequential and
serious capability limitation for its fighter fleet is in
In Chapter 6, Abhijit Singh surveys the the area of stealth; the other is lack of a long-range
current state of India’s submarines and what the bomber to counter China. Importantly, Muthana
Navy can acquire in the coming decade. In the concludes, the IAF is unlikely to see changes in its
period between 2011 and 2021, notes Singh, the force structure between 2021 and 2031.
IN’s principal deficit was in the area of attack
submarines, where the shortfall is ten less than In Chapter 8, Angad Singh surveys the IAF’s
the required strength for India’s sub-surface fleet. and the IN’s airborne Intelligence, Surveillance and
Making matters worse during the last decade Reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities. The IAF controls
under Project 75, the French-origin but Indian- the majority of India’s ISR capabilities. Since the
built Scorpene Class submarines have experienced watershed Kargil war of 1999, the IAF has ensured
significant delivery delays. Consequently, the IN is that all tactical aircraft in its inventory have Electronic
unable to decommission its kilo class submarines. Intelligence (ELINT) capabilities. The most crucial
On the nuclear submarine front, the IN fared change in the IAF’s ISR structure, Singh observes,
better with the Indian government approving has been the induction of Remotely Piloted Aircraft
its request for changing its development plan for (RPAs) or UAVs between 2011 and 2021, when India
six conventional submarines with nuclear ones. acquired UAVs ranging from the Israel Aircraft
In the 2021-2031 period, the IN plans to induct Industries (IAI) Searcher II to the P8I Poseidon
six Project-75 I conventional submarines, and a maritime reconnaissance aircraft. Notwithstanding
second ballistic missile submarine for deterrence improvements in the IAF’s and IN’s ISR capabilities,
against China. Research and Development the changes are at best modest. In the decade of 2021-
(R&D) is also underway for the possible testing of 2031, India is likely to shift to short-term solutions and
Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) lease UAVs such as the MQ9-B Sea Guardian drones
with a range of 5000 km and 6000 km. to service its ISR requirements. Singh concludes that
there are too many uncertainties hampering the
progress of India’s ISR capabilities.

4
 This section on the Air Force closes with
Manmohan Bahadur’s chapter analysing changes
in the IAF’s transport and helicopter fleets. From
2011 to 2021, both sets of aircraft underwent
significant improvements. India made new
acquisitions, ranging from C-130J Hercules to platforms. While India’s dependence on defence
CH-47F (I) Chinook multi-mission helicopters. imports will continue for the next decade, the level
Several Russian-origin transport aircraft such as and pace of indigenisation of military platforms
IL-76 and IL-78 mid-air refuelling aircraft also and weapons systems will require close attention
underwent upgrades during the decade. The and investment. Despite the prospective induction
next decade could see the IAF inducting multi- of the LCA MK-1A, the IAF fighter fleet will likely
role tanker support aircraft A-330, at least as part be limited to prolonged, glacial change over the
of a lease arrangement and light multi-mission next decade. Notwithstanding budgetary shortfalls,
choppers such as the Ka 226-T. The greatest the IN’s surface fleet will gain the most, while the
challenge facing the IAF in the coming decade woes plaguing the conventional leg of the IN’s sub-
will be the establishment of a “secure network” surface fleet will endure. The expansion of PLAN’s
for joint operations. All of the IAF’s transport naval presence in the IOR will test the IN, but an
and helicopter platforms will need integration as atrophying conventional submarine fleet bodes ill
part of a net-centric drive. and will compound the IN’s challenges.

Overall, platform modernisation across the All three service branches of the Indian military,
three-armed services is not a single-shot event, short of an extreme crisis, are unlikely to undergo
but rather a dynamic process. Despite a two-front dramatic transformation over the coming ten years.
external threat, which should be a ballast for more Although not an easy task, the Indian government
rapid platform acquisition and upgrades, all three in the subsequent decade will need to bridge the
forces will face sub-optimal outcomes over the next gap between the projected requirements for new
decade to service their projected requirements. platforms and weapons systems of the Indian armed
The Indian state faces both continental as well forces, and the allocation of budgetary resources.
as a serious emerging maritime threats from the
PLAN in the IOR. The IA, for the foreseeable
future, is likely to meet with hurdles in the form
of limited resources necessary to modernise its

5
 I
Army: Incremental
Modernisation with
Limited Resources
Main Battle Tanks
Birender Dhanoa

Introduction armour generals in India to field a suitable light

T
tank in the Himalayas to counter China’s numerical
he demand for Armoured Fighting strength in AFVs.
Vehicles (AFV) in the Indian
In April 2021, the Indian Army (IA) raised a
Subcontinent is a perennial one. In
Request For Information (RFI) for approximately
its edition of 01 July 2021, Dawn
350 light tanks of up to 25 tonnes—air-transportable
reported Pakistan’s induction of an initial batch
and preferably amphibious, with a modern gun
of the latest Chinese manufactured VT-4 Main
capable of firing shells and a missile to defeat AFVs,
Battle Tanks (MBT). China, too, is now in the
and with a crew of two or three personnel.2 In June
mix, having positioned the People’s Liberation
2021, the IA raised another RFI for a Future-Ready
Army (PLA) in Eastern Ladakh with combined
Combat Vehicle (FRCV), seeking a “state of the art
arms battalions of medium and light tanks, such
technology enabled” MBT (a specific figure of 1,770
as the Type-99 and Type-96 MBTs and the Type-
tanks was mentioned), to be inducted by 2030.3
15, respectively.1 Indeed, the confrontation with
China has reinvigorated a latent desire among

6
The Operational Need
Indian Army MBTs:

T Present and Future

he adversarial nature of India’s
geostrategic relations with Pakistan
and China is well-known. Past
experiences and current inventories
Current Holdings

T
of AFVs in the Pakistan Army and the PLAa,4
he backbone of the armour fleet in the IA
highlight the need for India to maintain strong
is the T-90S (the HVF Avadi assembled
mechanised forces (a mix of tanks and infantry
version is the Bhishma); approximately
combat vehicles), irrespective of the ongoing
1,200 tanks are in service, with another
wider debate in militaries about the future of the
500 in the pipeline (see Table 1).5 The other major
tank as a predominant fighting platform. While
holding is of the older T-72M1s, with the DRDO/
expeditionary forces such as the US Marines
HVF version being the combat improved Ajeya
and the British Army are considering shedding
(CI-Ajeya).6 The bulk of these tanks vary in vintage,
their main battle tanks completely in the coming
from over 40 years to about 20 years, and have
years, Indian armour units cannot afford such
been partially upgraded, or are planned to be, to
a drastic move, since the use of mechanised
keep them in service over the next decade until a
spearheads (from either the West or the North)
replacement is inducted. Finally, there are the Arjun
in conventional conflict is a stated doctrine of
Mk 1 and Mk 1A tanks; 124 Mk 1s are already in
both Pakistan and China. Thus, the IA must
service, and the IA has recently inked a contract with
continue to be well-equipped with capable AFVs,
the OFB for 118 Mk 1As, to be inducted over the
whether for deterring or defeating threats. The
next five to seven years in a staggered manner.7 Table
challenge lies in maintaining an upgraded and
1 provides a basic guide to the holding of frontline
technologically capable platform that has the
tanks in the IA.
wherewithal to tackle multi-dimensional threats
from smart weapons systems—already fielded or
in the pipeline—to specifically defeat or negate
the relative superiority that the tank has enjoyed
on the battlefield for nearly a century.

a Franz Stephan Gady, an IISS Research Fellow, places the current inventory in the Pakistan Army as 2,400 tanks and with the PLA as 6,240
2nd and 3rd generation tanks..

7
Table 1:
Frontline Tank Holdings (2011–21)
Tank
Total
(Country of Main Characteristics Remarks
Nos.
Origin)
Wt: 58.5 tonnes (68 tons 1A)
Arjun Mk Armament: 120 mm rifled gun, IFCS with TI sight &
124, Mk1A to be inducted in a
1. 1 and 1A Engine: 1,400 hp diesel
118& phased manner by 2025–27.
(India) Protection: Composite (Kanchan) Armour,
Explosive Reactive Armour (ERA) for Mk 1A only
%
SK is the command
Wt: 46.5 tonnes variant.
Armament: 125 mm smoothbore gun, FCS with TI
T-90S/SK%
2. 1,700* Sight *Including 464 tanks under
(Russia)
Engine: 1000 hp turbo diesel delivery contract with
Protection: Kontakt-5 ERA
HVF, Avadi.
Wt: 41.5 tonnes $
These are approximate
Armament: 125 mm smoothbore gun, TISAS/
T-72 figures collated from
3. 2,400$ TIFCS (600/1000 tks respectively)
(Russia) different sources for
Engine: 780 hp diesel
T-72M1 and CI-Ajeya.
Protection: ERA (on CI- Ajeyas)

Upgrades and Improvements (2011–21)

T
he focus of changes to the IA
tank fleet in the past decade has
been on improving its night- Table 2 lists the most important upgrades to
fighting capabilities—in response tank systems that have been implemented or were
to challenges from the West, upgrades in the planned over the last decade (2011–21) to ensure
tank fleet of the Pakistan Army, and their India’s MBTs remain an effective deterrent force.
induction of better anti-tank missiles. These These are only a broad indication of the changes
factors have largely dictated the direction of that have been dictated mostly by operating
the improvements that the IA has undertaken experience, but some are due to new threats,
since 2011. mainly with respect to Pakistan.

8
Table 2:
Key Tank System Upgrades (2021–31)*
Protection
Night Fighting Auxiliary Systems/Other
Tank Power Pack (Passive Remarks
Capability Improvements
and Active)
a. Improved &
$1,600 tanks
a. TISAS/TIFCS& Communications
Upgrade
ERA Mk 1
T-72 to 1,000 hp
b. Commander’s for CI-Ajeya b. Integrated fire detection
planned
TI (CTI) sight$ and suppression system
(IFDSS)^ ^Under progress
*ECU and APU were
Improvements to Environmental Control Unit
deemed essential,
T-90 None TI camera and None (ECU) and Auxiliary Power
but plans did not
display panel Unit (APU)*
materialise.
15 major and 58 minor upgrades to the Arjun Mk 1 have been offered by the DRDO on the Arjun Mk
Arjun
1A, which is to be inducted in the coming period.

*Note: Table 2 includes details culled from unlisted sources.

Future Threats and Options and all-out war using conventional platforms cannot

A
be ruled out. Defence planners are then tasked with
debate is currently ongoing within striking a balance between these two views, based
strategic circles regarding the on which they must convince finance mandarins to
nature and character of warfare in fund the procurement of fighting platforms. The
the coming decades. Proponents of IA’s RFI for the FRCV is reflective of this dilemma.
technology and futuristic systems believe that the
days of total war, involving large-scale ground Table 3 lists the possible upgrades planned or
forces led by armour columns, will give way to a suggested until 2030, to keep the current fleet
combination of cyber and AI-based autonomous relevant in the next decade. The table also lists the
weapons in the air, sea and land, using precision desired capabilities and features, some of which have
targeting and adaptive-learning techniques. On been extracted from the RFIs of the IA, for fighting
the other hand, the conservative view is that platforms that are likely to be inducted into service
while the means to wage wars may change, the by 2030.
visceral nature of conflict is such that escalation

9
Table 3:
Prospective Developments (2021–31)
Digitisation and
Tank Mobility Firepower Protection Remarks
Communications
a. Software
defined radio These upgrades
a. 1000 hp power (SDR) should be done
Better depth
pack on approximately
of penetration ERA Mk I
T-72 60 percent of the
(DoP) main gun Panels b. Anti-drone
tank fleet, with a
b. APU ammunition protection suite^
life expectancy of
15–20 years.
c. IFF
a. Better DoP main
gun ammunition
a. SDR
b. Next Gen Missile a. ERA Mk II
a. 1200-1500 hp Panels b. Anti-drone Tanks in the
power pack protection suite^ pipeline should
T-90 c. ECU preferably get
b. Active these upgrades
b. APU Protection Suite c. IFF fitted in factory.
d. Third Gen TI (APS)
Sight

e. CTI

a. Multipurpose a. SDR
platform

Gun 125 mm b. Battlefield

b. +-50 tons Management
smooth bore
c. 1500 hp (or System integrated These capabilities
Future more) b. Penetrate at least Active
800 mm for KE Protection with FCS have been taken
Tank
ammunition from the FRCV
(Crew 3
d. Power: c. Stealth and RFI, available
or 2) Suite
Signature online.8
c. Digital FCS
wt ratio Management
Technology
d. ECU
not less than 25:1
d. Hybrid
e. APU Navigation System

Note: ^The requirement has been included by the author.

Source: Author’s own, using various sources.

10
Conclusion

T
he requirement to maintain a
modern fleet of MBTs for the IA will
persist for the foreseeable future. A pragmatic approach for the IA will be to upgrade
While academic debates over the the existing fleet of MBTs to technologically capable
future of warfare are an industry in themselves, and achievable levels in the coming decade, while
and a means to project new technology as a the quest for the FRCV continues. Furthermore, the
panacea for key challenges in any conflict, ground acquisition of light tanks remains a chimera; for now,
practitioners must contend with more mundane the upgraded BMP-2 platforms, combined with the
realities of the present. tanks already inducted in mountainous areas, are
sufficient against the extant PLA threat in a joint
warfighting environment.

Defence planners must consider

both cyber and AI-based war,
as well as all-out war—based
on which they must obtain
funding for fighting platforms.

11
Infantry Weapons
Javin Aryan and Pulkit Mohan

Introduction

T
he Indian Armed Forces use a range
of weapon systems depending on
the situation they are tasked with
countering. These include: assault Modernisation from
rifles, the mainstay firearm of the Infantry; light, 2011 to 2021

I
medium, and heavy machine guns, whose high
rates of fire provide more muscle to the troops; ndian military’s quest for modernisation has
pistols, carbines, and sub-machine guns, which been long and frustratingly slow, indicating
are more potent in close-quarter battles (CQB); the presence of complex challenges as well
and sniper rifles, which provide an element of as inefficiencies in the system. As of October
surprise and enhance the Infantry’s precision- 2020, the Army required approximately 9.5 lakh
strike capability. Within these categories, the assault rifles, 4.6 lakh CQB carbines, over 57,000
Army can choose from a range of options from light machine guns (LMGs), and around 5,000
various manufacturers. Factors that play a role in sniper rifles, for its over 12-lakh-strong force with
deciding the choice of weapon system procured more than 380 Infantry and 63 Rashtriya Rifles
include calibre, cost, range and endurance; the battalions.1,2
key attribute, however, is reliability. As the Indian
Army aims for modernisation, it must adopt a
new generation of systems that will not only be
dependable in challenging environments and
situations, but also give its troops an edge over
their adversaries.

12
 In 2019, the AK-203 was selected as an upgrade3
and the deal is reportedly in its final stage, pending
Despite these massive gaps, the Indian approval from the Ministry of Defence (MoD) and
Army’s Infantry has not seen any substantial Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS). However,
modernisation in the last decade. Its standard the delay in the acquisition of the AK-203 pushed
issue assault rifles are the INSAS (Indian Small the government to acquire advanced SIG716 assault
Arms Systems), adopted in the 1990s and known rifles from the United States (US) under the Fast-
for their lack of reliability; and the indigenously Track Procurement (FTP) procedure, especially in
produced Trichy Assault Rifle and Ghatak, light of the tense situation along the Line of Control
variants of the famous AK-47. Of these, even the (LoC) at the time, China’s aggression in Ladakh, and
more favourable AK-47 variants have long become the realisation that Beijing poses an active threat to
outdated, and the Infantry urgently needs a new India’s sovereignty and territorial integrity. The
generation of assault rifles to transform it into a SIG716 has been the most substantial upgrade in the
lean and more efficient fighting force. Indian armed forces between 2011 and 2021 (see
Table 1). The rest have been piecemeal acquisitions,
mostly for the special forces (SF) and frontline troops
to deal with specific situations.

As the Indian Army

aims for modernisation,
it must adopt a new
generation of systems
that will be dependable
in challenging
environments.

13
Table 1:
Infantry Weapons Acquired by the Indian Military
in 2011–21

Date of
Weapons System Manufacturer Units Total Cost Notes
Acquisition
TAR-21 assault rifle
5,500 For Indian SF (Air Force:
January (5.56 mm) Israel Weapon
Garud; Army: Para SF;
20114 Galil sniper rifle Industries (Israel)
220 Navy: MARCOS).
(7.62 mm)
INR 43
MP9-N submachine Brügger & Thomet crore For the Ghatak platoons of
April 20125 1,568
gun (9x19 mm) (Switzerland) (US$5.75 Infantry battalions.
million)
Scorpio TGT bolt- Deployed with troops along
Victrix Armaments
action sniper rifle the LoC in Kashmir, to
(Italy)
February (.338 calibre) counter sustained sniping
~30
20196 M95 anti-material by the Pakistani Army.
Barrett Firearms Replaced the ageing Russian
bolt-action rifle (.50
Co. (US) Dragunov sniper rifle.7
calibre)

Divided amongst the tri-

services (Army: 66,000;
INR 700
Navy: 2,000; Air Force:
February SIG716 assault rifle crore
Sig Sauer (US) 72,400 4,000).9 Within the Army,
20198 (7.62 x 51 mm) (US$93.56
rifles deployed with troops
million)
along the LoC and the
LAC.10 Acquired under FTP.

INR 880 Divided amongst the tri-

Negev NG7 light
March Israel Weapon crore services, replacing the
machine gun (7.62 x 16,479
202011 Industries (Israel) (US$118 INSAS LMG. Acquired
51 mm)
million) under FTP.
SCAR (L) assault
FN America (US) 1,400
rifle (5.56 x 45 mm)
SCAR (H) battle rifle
FN America (US) 1,050
(7.62 x 51 mm) For Indian SF, Acquired
July 202012 M107A1 sniper rifle Barrett Firearms through US’ Foreign
100 Military Sales
(.50 calibre) Co. (US)
Browning heavy
machine gun (.50 US 110
calibre)
Acquired under FTP.
INR 780 Will equip at least two
September SIG716 assault rifle crore companies in all of Army’s
Sig Sauer (US) 72,000
202013 (7.62 x 51 mm) (US$04.25 400+ battalions (with
million) approximately 200 soldiers
in each battalion).14

14
Acquisitions Expected
in 2021–31

T
he Indian government plans to
use atmanirbharta (self-reliance) in
defence manufacturing and the procurement of one of these systems will affect the
‘Make in India’ initiative to guide acquisition of Caracal’s CAR816 carbine, which was
future acquisitions. Once the AK-203 deal is shortlisted in 2018, but the deal is yet to be finalised.
signed, the Indian Army’s requirement for new However, if the deal for indigenous systems gets
assault rifles will be met; that leaves requirements delayed, CAR816s may be procured in limited
for carbines, LMGs, and sniper rifles. quantities as a stopgap.

In carbines, India has two indigenous options: For snipers, officers prefer the Dragunov sniper
the Joint Venture Protective Carbine (JVPC), a rifle, which has been the Indian Army’s main
collaborative effort between the Defence Research sniper rifle since the 1990s, instead of moving to an
and Development Organisation (DRDO) and the entirely new system.16 Nonetheless, more advanced
Ordnance Factory Board (OFB); and Asmi, a 9 sniper rifles may continue to be acquired in limited
mm submachine gun designed and produced by quantities for specialised units and tasks.
Lt. Colonel Prasad Bansod of the Army’s Mhow-
based Infantry School and the DRDO.15 The

15
Table 2:
Expected Acquisitions and Upgrades of Infantry
Weapons, 2021–31
Expected Date of
Weapons System Manufacturer Notes
Acquisition
To replace INSAS as the main rifle for the Army.
Indo-Russian Deal ready to be signed pending approval
AK-203 assault
Private from the MoD and CCS, with 671,427 units to
rifle (7.62 x 39 2021
Limited (India be manufactured in India after the transfer of
mm)
and Russia) technology from Russia. Each unit to cost INR
70,000.
Army’s main sniper rifle since the 1990s; the
SSS Defence upgrades:
system is long due for an upgrade. While the
Trials are underway with
SSS Defence government has included the upgrade programme
Upgrade of various Infantry units
(India) or in its first “positive indigenisation list” and the
Dragunov sniper of the Indian military
Kalashnikov ban went into effect in December 2020, the rifle’s
rifle and paramilitary forces.
(Russia) manufacturer, Russia’s Kalashnikov, has stated that
Kalashnikov upgrades:
it reserves the sole right to modify the rifles and
Trials to start soon.
has come out with its own upgrade package.17,18
An order worth US$110 million for 93,895 units
CAR816 carbine No deal has yet been
Caracal (UAE) under FTP has been in limbo since the system was
(5.56 x 45 mm) signed.
shortlisted in October 2018.

Joint Venture The system became the first indigenously

Protective DRDO and No orders have yet been
designed and produced weapon to pass the
Carbine (JVPC) OFB (India) placed.
(5.56 x 30 mm)19 Indian Army’s field trials in December 2020s.

The weapon is intended for use as a second-line

personal weapon for tank and aircraft crews,
Asmi radio and radar operators, and in close combat
No orders have yet been
submachine gun India situations such as counterterrorist operations,
placed.
(9 mm)20 room interventions, and in confined spaces of
warships and merchant vessels. The unit cost is
likely to be under INR 50,000.

Conclusion posturing in Ladakh and the regional instability

T
likely to arise out of a volatile Afghanistan adding
he Indian Army’s Infantry is the to the urgency. It is time for the Indian government
first to be deployed and the last to accord top priority to acquiring modern weapons
one out of the battlefield. Thus, the and upgrading existing ones, and ensure the
modernisation of its weapons is a execution of these processes in a time-bound and
pressing requirement, with China’s aggressive efficient manner.

16
The Indian Artillery
Amrita Jash

Introduction stalled for two decades. The breakthrough came

with the 1999 Field Artillery Rationalisation Plan

A
(FARP), which aimed at 1,580 towed gun systems,
s a critical operational arm of the
814 mounted gun systems (MGS), 100 self-propelled
Indian Army (IA), the Artillery
(SP) howitzers, and 145 M777 155mm/39 calibre
Corps (AC) has evolved into a
lightweight howitzers3—through direct imports,
dynamic combat arm.1 Comprising
licensed manufacturing and indigenous systems.
ballistic missiles, multi-barrel rocket launchers,
The push towards the FARP came from the need for
high mobility guns, precision-guided mortar
India to import 50,000 rounds of 155 mm artillery
munitions, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
ammunition from South Africa, during the Kargil
and other systems, the AC is tasked with carrying
War.4 Despite this, the artillery modernisation plan
out surveillance, intelligence, engagement of
did not pick up pace until 2011, when the Indian
targets, and post-strike damage assessment
Army issued a Request for Proposal (RFP) for a
(PSDA). Based on intelligence and surveillance,
hundred 155mm/52-calibre SP guns,5 to bridge the
the weaponry is used to destroy, neutralise, and
three-decade gap in India’s artillery capabilities
suppress the enemy through the synergised
since the induction of Bofors FH77B02.
application of all fire assets at selected points
of decision—to physically and psychologically
In modernising the Indian artillery, key aspects
degrade the enemy’s cohesion, and ultimately
have included the mediumisation of artillery;
break their will to fight.2 Over time, the use of
balancing between indigenisation and foreign
artillery has diversified from major conventional
procurement; proper ammunition development
operations involving large formations, and it is
(towed, precision, bunker building, and fuel in
now a significant component of Integrated Battle
explosives and air bursts); and ensuring artillery
Groups (IBGs).
reach. This is evident from the profile of the weapons
and weapon systems that have been added to the
In the Kargil War, the Bofors guns (inducted in
Indian artillery since 2011 (see Table 1).
1987) served as a game-changer with their “shoot-
and-scoot technology.” Further acquisitions were

17
Table 1:
Weapons and Weapon Systems in the Artillery
(2011–21)

Category Name of the System Status Production

Dhanush (155 mm/45 calibre) Inducted Indigenous

Towed Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System On Trial (To be inducted by end
Indigenous
Artillery (ATAGS) (155 mm/52 calibre) 2021 or early 2022)

ATHOS On Trial Israel

SOLTAM (155 mm/45 calibre) Inducted Israel

Guns Sharang Gun (155 mm/45 calibre) To be Inducted Indigenous

Mounted Gun (155 mm/52 calibre) Progress not known -

Customised
Indian version
SP Gun
K9 Vajra (155 mm/52 calibre) Inducted of South
System
Korean K9
Thunder
Ultra-
Lightweight
M7777 (155 mm) Inducted United States
Howitzer
(ULH)
Multi BM-21 Grad Inducted Russia
Barrel
Rocket Pinaka (Mark I, Mark II) Inducted Indigenous
Launchers
(MBRL) SMERCH Inducted Russia
India and
BrahMos Inducted
Russia

Missiles Agni I, II, III, IV, V Inducted Indigenous

Prithvi I, II, III Inducted Indigenous

Surveillance
and Target Searcher Mk1 and Mk 2 Inducted Israel
Acquisition
(SATA) Heron-Medium Altitude Long
Inducted Israel
Artillery Endurance (MALE) UAV

Source: Author’s own, using various sources.

18
Artillery Modernisation
transgressions in Ladakh (497, compared to 284
in 2018); in the first four months of 2020 alone,

Post-2011 there were 170.6 Moreover, the Galwan Valley clash

of June 2020, which led to casualties at the border

O
for the first time in 45 years, has further intensified
f the procurement targets under the
the looming threat of a military confrontation with
FARP, the AC has already acquired
China, making the artillery a necessity in the age of
100 K9 Vajras and 145 M777-ULH.
information warfare.
This new inventory highlights
three key aspects: first, an end to the long gap in
At the same time, the frequent exchange of
India’s artillery acquisition since Bofors, with the
small arms and artillery fire between India and
induction of the K9 Vajra, Dhanush and M777-
Pakistan along the Line of Control (LoC) has been a
ULH. Second, a shift towards greater precision
longstanding security issue. Besides, the “all-weather
by adopting 155 mm as the standard calibre for
friendship” between China and Pakistan has created
all guns, with the 155 mm towed replacing the
a “two-front threat” scenario for India, resulting in
122 mm and 105 mm. Third, a shift towards
a heightened threat perception. In this regard, the
indigenisation under Atmanirbhar Bharat,
land component attached to the territorial disputes
with the inclusion of weapons systems such as
with both China and Pakistan makes artillery crucial.
Dhanush and ATAGs, reducing the dependence
Therefore, the acquisition of towed, self-propelled
on imports.
guns, and howitzers for the plains and the mountains
is essential to ensuring India’s capabilities to deter
What triggered the long overdue modernisation
and defeat current and future threats. For instance,
of the Artillery?
against the Eastern Ladakh stand-off, India deployed
The primary driving factor was India’s security three K9 Vajra guns for trials in a high-altitude
concerns over the intensifying territorial disputes mountainous area.7 Based on the performance,
with Pakistan and China—neighbours that are orders for two to three additional regiments of the
both nuclear-armed. In particular, the increasing self-propelled howitzers will be placed.8
episodes of border stand-offs with China—
To be sure, there are also new dangers to contend
Daulat Beg Oldi and Chumar (2013), Demchok
with, such as the use of drones in modern warfare.
(2014), Doklam (2017), and Eastern Ladakh
Considering the training and cost issues, wisdom lies
(2020)—as well as Chinese transgressions into the
in building capabilities by adopting a balanced mix
Indian side of the Line of Actual Control (LAC)
of towed and SP guns. The ULHs are pivotal along
fuelled the new modern artillery inductions. In
the high-altitude areas, while the MBRLs are crucial
2019, there was a 75-percent surge in Chinese
for the preponderance of firepower in quick time
over a large area, to provide a “shock effect.”

19
Table 2:
Developments (2021–31)

Procurement/Upgrade
Name of the System Category/ Type Origin Specifications
Status
According to several RFP
155 mm/52 issued over the years, the
calibre IA plans to induct 1,580
Autonomous Towed
towed guns, for which
Howitzer Ordnance Towed Artillery Gun Israel
Israel’s Elbit Systems is
System (ATHOS) Range: > 40 the preferred supplier.
km The deal for the same is
yet to be signed.
On 1 April 2021, IA
issued a Request for
155 mm and 52 calibre Mounted Gun 155 mm/52 Information (RFI) to
-
MGS System (MGS) calibre procure an unspecified
number of 155 mm/52
calibre MGS.
On several occasions in
May 2018, December
2019, November 2020,
and June 2021, DRDO
Pinaka Mk-II Guided MBRL India 122 mm calibre
has successfully tested
the enhanced version of
the Pinaka-guided rocket
system.

Source: Author’s own, using various sources.

Conclusion firepower using precision-guided systems that

include loitering munitions, radars, and unmanned

R
combat aerial vehicles (UAVs) as well as drones,
apid technological advancement
missiles and rockets. Thus, in the modernisation
and an increasing shift towards
of the IA’s artillery, the pivotal capabilities are
information warfare capabilities
ammunition and precision. While developments in
require the modern Indian artillery
the range of ammunition have already increased
to be technology-intensive. The artillery for the
the artillery’s reach, surveillance remains restricted,
21st century will be dominated by non-linearity,
which limits precision. The Indian Army must
speed, homogenisation, continuity, connectivity,
prioritise to address these capability gaps in its
synchronisation, perception management, and
artillery modernisation drive.
deception.9 The future will involve directing

20
 II
Navy: Promise of
Indigenisation, but
Portents of Stagnation
Aircraft Carriers
Manoj Joshi and Mahi Khanna

Introduction
the Navy’s needs and estimated that they needed
two independent fleets based on either flank of the

I
country, and that the fleets should each comprise an
ndia has considerable experience in aircraft carrier and an escort group.1 Indeed, given
operating aircraft carriers, having the need for periodic maintenance, the ideal number
acquired the INS Vikrant (R-11), a of carriers would be three.
former Royal Navy vessel, in 1957
and commissioning it into service in March Although the Vikrant was decommissioned in
1961. The carrier, 210 metres in length, used 1997, the Navy had considered its replacement.
aircraft with catapult-assisted take-off which INS Viraat was another former British ship. It was
was later modified to a ski-jump that could use inducted into the Indian Navy in May 1987 with Sea
Sea Harrier fighters and Sea King helicopters Harriers and the Sea Kings helicopters. Following
for anti-submarine protection. The ship was the decommissioning of ex-Soviet aircraft carrier
formally decommissioned in January 1997. Admiral Gorshkov in 1996, India negotiated for its
acquisition for many years. In 2004, the Indian Navy
The Indian Navy has always included finally purchased it for $2.35 billion and renamed it
aircraft carriers in the planning of its fleet mix. INS Vikramaditya.
A Naval Plan Paper 11/1963 in 1963 reviewed

21
 In 2018, INS Vikramaditya was further upgraded
with the addition of a marine hydraulic system built
Officially inducted into service in June 2014, by Russia’s Rostec subsidiary, Technodinamika.
its transition into Indian hands required large- They were used for refuelling and pressurising the
scale refurbishment and upgrades. An array of hydraulic systems of the 30 MiG 29K fighter jets and
additional modifications entailed great costs at six Kamov helicopters that constituted the air wing
almost every level. The former missile cruiser’s of the carrier. The most recent maintenance and
weaponry and front decks were substituted upgrades were made to INS Vikramaditya in 2020.
for aircraft elevators and a ski-jump capable
of undertaking STOBAR (Short Take-Off but
Vikrant Reborn

T
Arrested Recovery) operations.
he idea of an indigenously built
Even after its induction, INS Vikramaditya
carrier was first mooted in the Naval
was subject to more modifications and upgrades
Development Plan of 1979-84.2 The
at three different points. In 2015, it was refitted
concept of the ship changed over time:
with Barak 8 long-range surface-to-air missiles
it began as a Sea Control Ship, was later modified to
(LRSAMs) and a Russian-built AK-630 close-in
an Air Defence Ship, and finally, in 2004, was made
weapon system for operational purposes. The
into a regular carrier renamed as the Indigenous
AK-630 close-in weapon system was taken from
Aircraft Carrier (IAC-1) Vikrant. Around this time,
the decommissioned Godavari-class ship. The
Russia’s offer of a navalised MiG-29K persuaded the
upgrades were deemed necessary as the warship
designers to take up a STOBAR option where the
lacked self-protection systems. Barak 8 SAMs
launch would be through ski jumps, but recovery
were a collaborative effort between the DRDO
by arresting gear. This meant a larger ship with a
and several Israeli entities.
263-metre length (and 200-metre runway), and
so the carrier evolved to a 37,500-tonne design
capable of operating the MiG-29K type of aircraft,
defended by LRSAMs, AK-360 CIWS, Selex RAN
40-L 3D long-range search radar, and an Elta MF-
Star multifunction radar.

22
 in November 2020,4 while the sea trials have been
scheduled to take place towards the end of 2021.5
The work order for the IAC-1 was issued to the Based on the successful basin trials, the Ministry of
Cochin Shipyard Ltd (CSL) in 2004. Steel cutting Defence (MoD) has called for the commissioning
happened in 2005, and the keel-laying, in 2009; of Vikrant by mid-2022. In the period between
the expected year of delivery was 2014. Suffering 2011 and 2021, the navy decommissioned the INS
a series of procurement and cost-related delays, Viraat— purchased from the United Kingdom (UK)
and later in 2020, with the outbreak of the in the late 1980s—in 2017. This leaves the IN’s
COVID-19 pandemic, the Navy failed.3 The basin current carrier strength to a single vessel.
trials for the aircraft carrier were completed only

Table 1:
Aircraft Carrier Acquisitions (2011-21)
Class/ Displacement
Type Boats Origin Commissioning/ Status
Project in tonnes
First commissioned into the
Royal Navy as HMS Hermes
in 1959, was refurbished and
Short Take-off
recommissioned into the
Centaur and Vertical United
INS Viraat 28,700 Indian Navy (IN) on 12 May
class Landing Kingdom
1987. After serving the Indian
(STOVL) carrier
Navy for 30 years, it was
decommissioned on 6 March
2017.
Conceived from a Kiev class
missile cruiser carrier named
Baku, first commissioned into
the Soviet Navy in 1987. Later
rechristened after Admiral
Sergey Gorshkov.
Short Take-Off
Kiev class/ but Arrested Soviet
INS India signed a deal with Russia
Project Recovery Union/ 44,500
Vikramaditya in January 2004 to procure a
11430 (STOBAR) Russia
carrier refurbished carrier for $974
million. Project 11430 was
completed at an escalated
cost of $2.35 billion in 2010.
INS Vikramaditya was
commissioned into the Indian
Navy on 16 November 2013.

Source: Authors’ own, using various sources.

23
The China Challenge
To be sure, China still has a way to go in its fleet of
aircraft carriers. At present it has two carriers—the
Liaoning and the Shandong, which appear largely
for training purposes and neither of which has

H
been deployed in the IOR. The first Chinese carrier
istorically, India’s naval planning
Liaoning entered service in 2012; the second, and
is largely conducted in an abstract
fully home-built one, Shandong, in December 2017.
manner, containing rhetoric about
China’s third carrier Type 003 is under construction
“sea control” or “power projection”
and is expected to enter service in 2024; it has a
but without a clearly defined adversary. Indeed,
capacity of close to 100,000 tonnes in displacement—
Pakistan has a geography that did not require
the size of American vessels of the same kind. There
India to have a significant naval capacity.
are reports of a fourth carrier, which could be similar
However, things changed in the 2010s as China’s
to the Type 003 and will use nuclear power.
People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) began to
make forays into the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) Furthermore, China has commissioned a
ostensibly on anti-piracy missions. Subsequently, 30,000–40,000-tonne Type 075 amphibious assault
PLAN began to more frequently display their ship which will be soon followed by two more of the
strength in the Indian Ocean. Chinese state- same class. These can carry as many as 30 attack
owned firms operate commercial ports in eight helicopters. There are also reports of a follow-
countries of the IOR, but have access to a military on Type 76 class that would be equipped with
facility only in Djibouti. Analysts say this is because electromagnetic catapults and have the capability to
the IOR countries, with the possible exception of launch fixed-wing aircraft.7
Pakistan, do not want to get dragged in as China’s
co-belligerent.6 As David Brewster, research fellow at the National
Security College, Australian National University, has
China’s flexing of naval power has raised alarm pointed out, although China’s capabilities could
in New Delhi. While there are no direct signs yet evolve to include “limited contingency and sea denial
that China aims to set up an IOR fleet complete capabilities, particularly in the northwest Indian
with bases, logistical points, and other elements, Ocean,” it would take many more years of sustained
there is little doubt that Beijing considers the naval growth for China to attain a dominance
IOR a pivotal region, perhaps second only to the comparable to that of the US. In his view, while there
western Pacific. After all, 80 percent of China’s could be occasional visits of Chinese carriers in the
oil imports, and a massive 95 percent of its trade IOR, they will primarily be flag-waving exercises.8
with West and South Asia, Africa, and Europe, Unlike the western Pacific, PLAN would find that
go through these waters. It is also in this region whether it is the Hormuz, or the Maldives and the
where China confronts both the US and India. Straits of Malacca, it would be under the range of
Indian land-based air power.

24
The Future

I
At a press briefing on the eve of Navy Day in
n 2015, as part of the Defence Technology December 2019, the Navy Chief Admiral Karambir
and Trade Initiative (DTTI), India and Singh said that funding gaps had forced the Navy
the US created a Joint Working Group on to rework its Maritime Capability Perspective Plan
Aircraft Carrier Technology Cooperation for the 2012-2027 period: the Navy would now
which had its inaugural meeting in the US. look at a force level of 175 warships at the end of
There were expectations that this could yield the plan period, instead of 200 as envisaged earlier
key technology like the electromagnetic catapult (see Table 2).9 He reiterated the need for a third
system being developed by the US. However, with carrier, but pointed out that the Navy’s annual
little progress taking place in terms of government budget allocation had come down from 18 percent
approval for the project, the Working Group of the annual defence budget in 2012, to 13 percent
might just remain a talking shop. in 2019.

Until at least 2019, the IAC-2, more known Under the UPA-II government, capital
as the INS Vishal, was very much in the mind of expenditure on defence averaged between 30-
the Indian Navy. The ship would be a qualitative 32 percent of the overall defence expenditure.
leap from the IAC-1 in terms of size. It would be Since 2014, it started dipping, reaching a low of 23
a 65,000-tonne carrier, powered by integrated percent in 2018-19. It has risen again slightly to 27
electrical propulsion, and carry a complement of 55 percent in 2021-22. This was indicative of the overall
aircraft, 35 fixed-wing, and 20 helicopters. It would resource crunch facing the country, which has had
do away with ski-jumps and launch through the consequences for services like the Navy and the Air
Catapult Assisted Take-Off but Arrested Recovery Force that require massive capital investment.10
(CATOBAR), or even an electromagnetic catapult.

Table 2:
Capital Budget of the Indian Navy (in Rs crore)

Year Projection by Navy Allocation % Shortfall Actual Expenditure

2014-15 22,903 18,507 19 22,270

2015-16 25,152 19,740 21 19,874
2016-17 22,530 19,596 13 19,997
2017-18 27,717 19,348 30 20,118
2018-19 30,736 20,891 32 21,510
2019-20 40,123 26,156 34 27,447
2020-21 51,769 37,543 27 25,385 up to Dec 20
2021-22 (Budget Estimate) 70,920 33,253 53

Source: Standing Committee on Defence Report No. 20 of March 2021 p. 26 and Report No. 3 of December 2019

25
 Another authoritative view emerged in the Ladakh confrontation occurred, The Hindu
February 2020, when General Bipin Rawat, in quoted “sources” as saying that the immediate
his first interview after taking charge as CDS and need was “a strong Army duly supported by a
Secretary Department of Military Affairs in the capable Air Force.”12 The tasks of the Navy may not
Ministry of Defence, appeared tentative when require “a large number of carriers” and could be
asked about the Indian Navy’s requirement for accomplished by a combination of smaller ships,
a third aircraft carrier.11 A few months later, as submarine, good information.”13

Table 3:
Developments in Aircraft Carrier Programme
(2021-31)
Class/ Displacement
Type Boats Origin Commissioning/ Status
Project in tonnes

Indigenously designed by the Indian Navy’s

Directorate of Naval Design (DND) and
manufactured by the Cochin Shipyard
Limited (CSL) respectively, Air Defense
Ship, later renamed as Indigenous Aircraft
Carrier (IAC), was approved by the Cabinet
IAC- I/ STOBAR Committee on Security (CCS) in October
Vikrant India 40,000
Project 71 carrier 2002. Ministry of Defence (MOD) signed the
contract with CSL in three phases: The first
phase of the contract was signed in May 2007,
the second in December 2014, and the third
and final phase in November 2019. According
to government reports, IAC-I would be
commissioned as INS Vikrant by mid-2022.

Catapult
IAC-II was originally conceived by the IN
Assisted
as a 65,000-tonne aircraft carrier; however,
Take-Off
due to budget constraints, the IN downsized
IAC-II but Arrested Vishal India 50,000- 65000
the proposal to a 50,000-tonne carrier.
Recovery
Awaiting clearance from the MOD, the IAC-
(CATOBAR)
II remains in the proposal stage.
carrier

Source: Author’s own, using various sources.

26
 In December 2020, Admiral Karambir Singh
reiterated the need for a third aircraft carrier at
his Navy Day eve press conference. In the end, the need for three carriers, an unnamed MoD official
however, the question of budget played a hand. posited this alongside the idea of island territories
The cost of a carrier will be steep, at around $ with operational runways and “are ideally suited to
16-17 billion with its aircraft component. There block the three ingress routes (Malacca, Sunda, and
are other issues to consider as well. Already, A2/ Lombok Straits) through which Chinese ships and
AD ballistic missile systems have emerged as aircraft will be coming in.”
threats to aircraft carriers. New technologies of
faster and more agile ships, submarines, and Blocking Malacca Straits adjacent to the Andaman
autonomous aerial and undersea vessels—along and Nicobar Islands is one thing, but it is a stretch
with Artificial Intelligence-enabled concepts like to do the same with the Sunda and Lombok Straits
swarming—could overtake the importance the which are 2,000 and 3,000 km away from the
Navy attaches to a third carrier southernmost runway on the Nicobar Islands, and
that too, if flying over Indonesian territory. The
In mid-2021, the Navy informed the short point the official made, however, was that “a
government that the induction of six nuclear- call will be taken (later) as to at what stage should go
powered submarines would take priority over for the third aircraft carrier.”15
the third aircraft carrier in view of the rapid
expansion of the PLA Navy in the IOR. The The bigger problem may be that in the absence
proposal for their construction is pending with of a National Security Strategy (NSS), no one is sure
the Cabinet Committee on Security.14 In the as to the exact missions of the military beyond the
meantime, in early June 2021, the government defence of India and its island territories. While
approved another long-standing project for six there is no dearth of opinions from senior officials
new-generation conventional submarines. of the military, what is lacking in those statements
is authority. What are the threats that are being
The bottomline for the development of envisaged? What is the priority that the government
additional carriers became evident in a report of assigns to the maritime challenges and, consequently,
the Parliament’s Standing Committee on Defence what kind of resources is it willing to provide to cope
issued in March 2021. Even while acknowledging with these obstacles? Unless these issues are made
clear, it would be simply unconscionable for the
government to invest in an aircraft carrier group.

27
Surface Navy
Sudarshan Shrikhande

Introduction
1. Reduction of fiscal, material, operational and
personnel pressures by decommissioning older

I
ships, including those which might have been
n multi-dimensional force-structures of any marginally useful. In other words, a “notional”
middle- to large-sized navy, every medium fleet is of little help as a national fleet.
has its place in the overall architecture.
This article examines some issues of India’s 2. The push for future-ready ships. Naval
surface fleet (focusing on destroyers, frigates, construction is a long-term process. While its
and corvettes) for the period 2011-2021, and the course can be altered slightly, if a ship-class has to
current decade. be drastically curtailed or abandoned altogether,
it often is due to poor type and technical choices.

2011-2021 (The US Navy’s Littoral Combat Ship could be

one example.)

T
he “silent Service” had a particularly
3. The modernisation of existing ships with better
tough decade over 2011-2021:
weapons, sensors, command and control,
significant pressures on its share
auxiliary machinery and other capabilities.
of the defence budget;1 growing
Planning for this is complex but the IN has
threats from Chinese and Pakistani sea power;
become more methodical about it.
and rising responsibilities within the Indian
Ocean Region (IOR) for constabulary and A word here about ship types may help. Since
humanitarian assistance roles. Yet, the Navy the 1970s, destroyers, frigates and even corvettes,
deserves recognition for what could be called a as a rule, have increased in displacement. The IN’s
“coping-plus” approach to counter the difficulties current destroyers are larger than the old cruisers
of having less resources while trying to be future- and magnitudes better in terms of destructive
ready. This may have been possible owing to as well as “cruising” attributes. Some modern
three interrelated measures: corvettes may displace more than older frigates
and destroyers. However, these classifications do
remain valuable for different mission requirements
across the spectrum of warfare.

28
Table 1:
Surface Ships Commissioned (2010-21)

Class/ Displacement
Type Boats Origin Commissioning/ Status
Project in tonnes
Destroyers

Follow-on to the Project 15 ‘Delhi’

class destroyers, Kolkata class
Guided- INS Kolkata destroyers (INS Kolkata, INS
Kolkata class missile INS Kochi India 7,400-7,500 Kochi, and INS Chennai) were
destroyer INS Chennai commissioned in August 2014,
September 2015, and November
2016, respectively.

Frigates
INS Shivalik, INS Satpura, and INS
Stealth INS Shivalik
Sahyadri were commissioned in
Shivalik class guided- INS Satpura India 6,200
April 2010, August 2011, and July
missile frigate INS Sahyadri
2012, respectively.
INS Teg, INS Tarkash, and INS
Stealth INS Teg
Trikand were commissioned in April
Teg class guided- INS Tarkash Russia 4,000
2012, November 2012 and July
missile frigate INS Trikand
2013, respectively.
Corvettes
Indigenously built by Garden Reach
Stealth Anti- Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE),
INS Kamorta
Submarine INS Kamorta, INS Kadmatt, INS
Kamorta INS Kadmatt
Warfare India 3,500 Kiltan, and INS Kavaratti were
class INS Kiltan
(ASW) commissioned in August 2014,
INS Kavaratti
corvette January 2016, October 2017, and
October 2020, respectively.

Table 2:
Ships Decommissioned Since 20102

Type Names Year

Frigates Dunagiri, Vindhyagiri, Taragiri 2010-13
Frigate Krishna (training frigate; ex- UK) 2012
Frigates Godavari, Ganga 2015/18
Corvettes Veer, Nipat, Nirghat, Nirbhik 2016-18
Destroyers Ranjit, Rajput 2019/21

29
 Modernisation Matters

T
Three important points may be made:
he Indian Navy began its platform
1. A focus on primarily indigenous designs modernisation some decades ago, with
and shipbuilding has yielded results. The the turret (i.e. the one near the bows)
acquired maturity will fructify in the coming of the old Talwar-class frigates, for
20 years. example being removed and replaced with anti-ship
missiles removed from missile boats.5 Eponymous
2. There is greater stress on evolved designs “Mid life updates”(MLU) have technical, operational
with steady improvements on the “keel” and financial angles to balance. They need budget
of the fundamental “DNA”. Incremental outlays for replacement hardware; matching refit
modifications include improved stealth, loading of yards; and finally, maintenance of a
machinery controls, greater indigenous minimum operational force level. Therefore, not all
equipment all around, and weapon and sensor ships of a class can be upgraded. In the last decade
upgrades. This can be seen in the Project 15 nonetheless, several weapon and sensor upgrades
(Delhi, 1997) to the three-ship 15A (Kolkata) were authorised or completed. Notable among these
and the four-ship 15B (Visakhapatnam, 2021 are the following:
onwards) classes spanning three decades.
1. Some ships of the new Talwar and Delhi classes
3. It is difficult to accurately and rigorously were fitted with the indigenous Brahmos anti-
gauge the actual cost of warship-construction ship missiles (ASM) either in vertical or inclined
in India. There is complex and long-term launchers. The benefit of this missile, apart
involvement of design bureau staffs; a from its speed and lethality are the potential
few foreign consultancies; DRDO inputs; for enhancements in range, targeting and even
Defence PSU costs in sensors, weapons, speed. It is also used by the Army and IAF as well
among others (the components and spares of as by the Navy in the next generation of coastal
which may be imported). Build-costs seem to mobile batteries.6 When upgrades are developed
be surprisingly greater than in China.3 Even and tested, it is possible for most missile-capable
in good times, costs have to be competitive ships to have the latest versions of Brahmos.
along the “float-move-fight” framework and
a more “corporate” approach to accounting 2. Sensors (sonars and radars), self-defence systems
may bring billed-costs down. In the same (torpedo countermeasures, anti-missile), main
breath, self-reliance, even with low volumes guns, torpedoes, and fire-control systems were
and sometimes at a higher cost, are better upgraded with far better indigenous or a few
than continued imports; but acceptance of imported upgrades.7 Among other benefits,
higher indigenous costs should not be a logistics and maintenance costs should come down.
permanent burden.4

30
Table 3:
Likely Surface Ship Inductions (2021-2031)

Class/ Displacement
Type Boats Origin Commissioning/ Status
Project in tonnes
Destroyers

IN Ships INS Vishakhapatnam, Mormugao,

Vishakhapatnam, and Imphal were launched in
Stealth
Mormugao, and 2015, 2016, and 2019, respectively.
guided-
Project 15B Imphal. Fourth India 7300 According to media reports, INS
missile
destroyer in Vishakhapatnam is likely to be
destroyer
class is yet to be commissioned into the Indian Navy
named. in 2021-2022.

Stealth According to some media reports,

guided- 06 in class are the Indian Navy is planning to
Project 18 India 10,000-13,000
missile planned manufacture 13,000-tonne stealth-
destroyer guided missile destroyers.

Frigates

In October 2016, India signed an

inter-governmental agreement with
Russia to procure four Krivak/Talwar
class stealth frigates. In October 2018,
India signed a deal with Russia to
Upgraded Stealth
purchase two stealth warships for
Talwar/Teg guided-
04 Russia 4035 $950 million. Later, in November
class (Project missile
2018, India’s Goa Shipyard Limited
1135.6) frigate
(GSL) inked a deal with Russia’s
Rosoboronexport to manufacture two
frigates of the same class in Goa with
technology transfer from Russia for
$500 million.

Corvettes
On 29 April 2019, the Ministry of
Defence (MOD) signed a contract
with Garden Reach Shipbuilders &
Engineers Limited (GRSE) to procure
Anti- eight ASWSWCs for INR 6,311.32
Submarine Anti- crores. According to the contract,
Warfare Submarine 16 in class have the first ship is to be delivered in
India 750
Shallow Warfare been ordered October 2022 and, subsequently, two
Water Craft corvette ships will be handed over every year.
(ASWSWC) On 30 April 2019, MOD awarded a
related contract to Cochin Shipyard
Limited (CSL) to procure eight more
ASWSWCs for the exact amount and
a similar delivery schedule.

31
The Next Decade,
2021-31
Conclusion

R
eports suggest that Visakhapatnam
(Project 15B) shall be delivered

T
in 2021 and three more soon
thereafter. There are other media
8 he Indian Navy is coping with serious
reports of a so-called six-ship Project 18 (New budget constraints, rising two-front
Generation) destroyers greater than 10-12,000 threats, difficulties in prioritisation,
tonnage on the scale of the Chinese Type challenges in both shipbuilding
055-class.9 Four more modified Talwar/Teg class efficiencies, and an over-dependence on imports
frigates would be inducted in the next few years; especially in the “fight and move” factors of the
two from Russia and another two built in Goa. surface fleet. Viewed through a narrow lens,
The keel of the first was laid on 18 June 2021. It the cliché of “cautious optimism” seems fitting.
is difficult to ascertain the reasons for this step However, when seen through the prism of China’s
instead of constructing four more Type 17s , and fleet expansion and the dragon’s “jaws, claws and
then building the superior, possibly seven-ships lashing tail,” the IN’s budgets need bolstering and
of Type 17A.10 force-planning could benefit with sharper thinking
for future-readiness.13 If anything, the silent Service
Likewise, there appear to be plans to build needs to make some noise about how shrinking
six New Generation Missile corvettes11 (probably budgets would impact on building the navy India
by CSL, Kochi) and 16 shallow-water ASW needs for future-readiness.
corvettes—eight in GRSE, Kolkata and eight by
CSL, Kochi.12 These ASW corvettes may be an
over-investment since ships have limited ASW
effectiveness compared to ASW helicopters,
aircraft and unmanned underwater vehicles that
might be better for future needs.

32
Submarines
Abhijit Singh

Introduction

I
ndia is expanding efforts to modernise
its submarine fleet, amidst concerns over
China’s growing naval presence in the strategic partnership model—under which the
Indian Ocean. In June 2021, the defence new submarines are proposed to be constructed—
ministry approved a deal for the construction of underwent numerous alterations, as officials sought
six conventional submarines under Project-75 (I) to fine-tune the terms of engagement with foreign
at an estimated cost of INR 43,000 crores.1 To firms.2 The recent go-ahead by the defence ministry
be processed under the strategic partnership may well be the stimulus the project so direly needs.

Developments (2011-21)
model, the project is slated to become the largest
under ‘Make in India’, potentially creating

O
the foundation of an industrial ecosystem for
submarine construction in the country. ver the past decade, the navy’s key
operational deficit has been the lack
Conceived as a follow-on project to the of attack submarines. With a mere 14
Scorpene class diesel-electric submarines conventional subs and one nuclear
programme underway at Mazagon Dock Ltd, attack submarine (SSN), the INS Chakra (an Akula-
the P-75(I) is aimed at indigenously constructing II class on lease from Russia), the navy’s submarine
submarines with modern weapons and sensors, arm, has been under considerable strain. Not only
and an air-independent propulsion system are current force levels at least 10 short of the ideal
(AIP). The proposal, however, lay dormant figure of 24, Kilo-class (Sindhughosh) subs—the
untilFebruary 2019, when the government workhorses of the submarine fleet—are fast nearing
approved an ‘Acceptance of Necessity’. The the end of their service life.3 Observers say the
decommissioning of the INS Sindhudhvaj later this
year will begin the process of retiring all the boats in
the class by the end of the decade.4

33
Table 1:
India’s Current Submarine Assets
Displacement
Class Type Boats Origin Commissioning / Status
in Tonnes
Nuclear Submarines
Under a 10-year lease from
Chakra SSN INS Chakra Russia 8,140
Russia; to be completed in 2021.
Arihant SSBN INS Arihant 6,000
Conventional Submarines
Shishumar
INS Shishumar and Shankush are
Shishumar SSK Shankush Germany
1,850 undergoing a mid-life upgrade to
class (Type 209S) Shalki India
be completed in 2021.
Shankul
Kalveri, Khanderi and Karanj
Kalveri
France were commissioned in December
Kalveri class SSK Khanderi 1,870
India 2017, September 2019 and March
Karanj
2021, respectively.
Sindughosh
Sindhydhvaj Sindhukesari, Sindhuraj,
Soviet
Sindhughosh Sindhuratha Sindhuratna, Sindhughosh are
Union 3,000
class Sindhukesari undergoing a major refit and life
Russia
Sinduvijay certification programme.
Sindhuratna

Source: Author’s own, from various open sources.

Ruefully, Project-75, the replacement

programme for the Kilo class, has been moving
slowly. Signed in 2005, the contract for six With the Scopene project struggling to keep
Scorpene class submarines was supposed to have pace, the navy has been under pressure to delay the
been delivered between 2012 and 2016. But INS decommissioning of the Kilos. The latter have so far
Kalveri, the first boat was commissioned only in shouldered the burden of undersea defence, but are
2017, five years later than originally scheduled. fast ageing. The loss of the INS Sindhurakshak to an
By 2020, two more submarines—the INS accident in 2003, and the transfer of the Sindhuvir to
Khanderi and INS Karanj—had been inducted, the Myanmar navy in 2020, has added to the navy’s
all without a full complement of their primary woes. Consequently, many Kilo class subs are being
weapon, the torpedo. A plan to procure 100 Black given life-extension refits to maintain capability at
Shark Torpedoes from WASS fell through, after least until replacements arrive.6
its parent firm, Finmeccanica, was blacklisted by
the Defence Ministry in the wake of the Augusta
Westland VVIP chopper scam.5

34
 It is relevant that the Akula class SSN Chakra, on
The dip in submarine force levels has a decade long lease from Russia has recently been
also prompted the navy and Mazagon Dock returned.10 India has already signed a deal for the
Shipbuilders’ Ltd (MDL) to expedite delivery lease of another such submarine, which is expected
of the Kalveri class. INS Vagir, the fifth boat to be delivered in 2025, New Delhi is also considering
in the class was launched in November 2020. leasing one more Akula class SSN, though discussions
Four months later, in March 2021, the navy are reportedly still in a preliminary stage.11
commissioned the third boat in the class, the INS
Karanj.7 With the Vela and Vagir undergoing sea Future Developments
(2021-31)
trials, and Vagsheer planned to be launched next
year, naval planners are hopeful that impetus

O
will carry forth to the P-75(I) project. Already,
the defence ministry has shortlisted MDL and ver the next decade, the IN will look
private shipbuilder Larsen & Toubro (L&T) to to induct at least 6 submarines in the
construct six new stealth submarines with foreign P-75 (I) class, and 6 SSNs. Australia’s
collaboration.8 recent announcement to acquire
nuclear-powered submarines under a new tripartite
Meanwhile, there is better news on the nuclear arrangement with the U.K. and the U.S. (AUKUS) will
submarine (SSN) front. In May this year, the Indian spur New Delhi to redouble efforts to manufacture
navy approached the government for approval SSNs for the Indian navy.12 The navy will also look to
to make changes in the 30-year submarine induct the INS Arighat—the second ballistic missile
building plan approved in 1999.9 The navy nuclear submarine (SSBN) after the INS Arihant—
intends to replace six conventional attack vessels and the S4, an advanced boat in the class, to create
with nuclear-powered platforms in the context formidable deterrence against China.13 Efforts are on
of changing strategic scenario in Indo-Pacific. In to develop the K5 (5,000 kilometers) and K6 (6,000
the face of growing Chinese deployments in the kilometers) submarine-launched ballistic missiles
Indian Ocean, and efforts by other Indo Pacific for the new class of SSBNs. Researchers have been
powers to build submarine capability, there is near working on the K-8, a larger missile with a range of
consensus among senior officers, both serving 8,000 kilometers.
and retired, that an Indian SSN construction
programme—as lengthy and complex as it is likely
to be—is both essential and inevitable.

35
Table 2:
Planned Inductions Over the Next Decade
Displacement
Class Type Boats Origin Commissioning / Status
in Tonnes
Nuclear Submarines
Arighat Arighat 6,000
Arighat is presently under trails
Arihant class SSBN S4 India S4 and S4*
S4, S4* are under construction
S4* 7,000
03 boats in S-5 Project has been approved with a
S-5 SSBN India 13,500
class budget of INR 10,000 crores
01 boat on lease
In March 2019, India and Russia
from Russia
Akula III class SSN Russia 12,700 signed an agreement for the transfer of
returned in
another Akula III class.
June 2021
Nuclear attack
SSNs 06 boats India
submarines
Vela and Vagir (launched in 2019,
INS Vela, Vagir,
Kalveri class India 1,870 and 2020) are in sea trials. Vagsheer is
Vagsheer
under construction.
On 4 June 2021, India’s Defence
Acquisition Council (DAC) approved
06 in class are a deal for the construction of six
Project 75 I SSK India
planned conventional submarines under
Project-75I at an estimated cost of INR
43,000 crores.

Source: Author’s own, from various open sources.

For now, the focus is on the Kalveri class and

the P-75(I) submarines. It remains to be seen to fructify. If India manages to abide by stated
how promptly and efficiently plans are going deadlines, the country’s submarine modernisation
programme stands a good chance of success.

36
III
Air Force: Improved
Capabilities; Major
Transformation a
Distant Dream

Fighter Fleet
K.A. Muthana

Structure of the IAF a step would challenge the very nature of air
power—the more important characteristics being

T
concentration of force, flexibility, and reach. Thus,
he force structure of the Indian Air
assuming that the structure of the IAF will remain
Force (IAF) has not changed in the
the same, this chapter discusses the possibilities
last decade and is likely to stay the
for development in the next decade, with respect
same in the coming one. Even with
to upgrades, new procurements, and indigenous
the expected formation of theatre commands, it
development programmes.
will be imprudent to divide the fighter aircraft
force between theatre commands since such

37
Existing Platforms

A
5. The DARIN II Jaguar fleet will be sustained, and
n overview of the existing fighter the upgrade of specified aircraft to the DARIN
fleet of the IAF, its growth III standard is ongoing.4
trajectory over the last decade,
and the plans for the next decade 6. The last of the presently contracted Hawk
are highlighted below: aircraft have been manufactured. While
they are primarily used for advanced pilot
1. The last major overhaul of the MiG-21 Bison training, upgrades to mission systems and the
aircraft has been completed at Hindustan enhancement of the weapon suite are possible.
Aeronautics Limited (HAL), Nasik. This fleet
is expected to wind down within the current 7. The FOC was accorded to Tejas aircraft, and
decade. deliveries are underway. Tejas Mk 1A aircraft5
deliveries should commence in 2024 and are
2. The upgrade of the Mig-29 fleet will planned for completion by the end of the decade.6
continue, including that of the 21 aircraft,
which may also be procured.1 In addition India’s existing and contracted fighter platforms
to replacements, procurement is likely to remain insufficient to sustain concurrent and full-
increase the MiG-29 squadron strength by fledged air campaigns against Pakistan and China—
one. the country’s two key adversaries—across the stretch
of contested frontiers, international boundaries,
3. The last of the presently contracted Su- and peninsular/island frontiers. Moreover, in the
30MKI aircraft have been manufactured at present ecosystem, where the conversion of Tejas
HAL Nasik.2 The replacement of lost aircraft from Initial Operational Clearance (IOC) to FOC
will roll out in a few years; meanwhile, ad took six years, no further indigenous programmes
hoc upgrades to the fleet/parts of the fleet are likely to succeed in equipping the fighter fleet
will continue. A comprehensive avionics suite by 2031. Additional procurements or robust military
and weapon suite upgrade is long overdue partnerships/alliances may be essential to plug
and is likely to be undertaken. The Design operational gaps. In the first half of the next decade,
& Development (D&D) of the upgrade may the LCA Mk II may serve to fill the numbers gap.
be conducted in Russia, followed by a fleet Key events in the last decade are summarised at
upgrade in India. Table 1 below.

4. The Final Operational Clearance (FOC)

Mirage-2000 upgrade has been accorded,
and fleet modification is underway.3

38
Table 1:
Developments from 2011 to 2020
Fighter No. of
Type Origin Specifications Procurement/Upgrade Status
Aircraft Squadrons
Multirole Single engine End-life upgrade completed.
Soviet
fighter/ Single seater HAL delivered the last MiG-21
MiG-21 Bison Union/ 4
ground attack Max. speed: to undergo a major overhaul in
Russia
aircraft Mach 2.1 November 2020.
Twin engine MiG-29s are undergoing an
Soviet
Air superiority Single seater avionics and weapon upgrade
MiG-29 Union/ 3
fighter aircraft Max. speed: under a 2009 modernisation
Russia
Mach 2.3 programme.
Multirole Twin engine 56 Jaguars are undergoing a
fighter/ Britain– Single seater navigational-attack system upgrade
Jaguar 6
ground attack France Max. speed: from DARIN I to DARIN III
aircraft Mach 1.3 standard.
Single engine Mirage-2000 fleet is undergoing
Air-defence
Single seater its third overhaul and avionics,
Mirage-2000 and multirole France 3
Max. speed: navigational, and weapon upgrade
combat fighter
Mach 2.3 under a 2011 project.
In January 2021, HAL Nasik,
completed the delivery of
222 Su-30 MKIs. A fleet of 40
Twin engine
Multirole air- Sukhoi fighter jets is undergoing
Twin seater
Su-30 MKI superiority Russia 12 modification to carry air-launched
Max. speed:
fighter aircraft Brahmos supersonic cruise missile,
Mach 2.3
and a Brahmos-armed Su-30 MK
I squadron (222) was raised at
Thanjavur in January 2021.
(i) On 31 March 2006, the
Indian Air Force (IAF) signed an
agreement with HAL to procure
16 IOC fighters and four IOC
Single engine trainers. (ii) Another agreement
Multirole
LCA Tejas Single seater was signed between the IAF and
lightweight India 2
Mk 1 Max. speed: HAL on 23 December 2010, to
fighter
Mach 1.6 procure 16 FOC standard fighters
and 4 FOC trainers. To date, the
IAF has received 16 IOC standard
and one FOC standard fighter
aircraft.
In September 2016, India signed
Twin engine 28
an inter-governmental agreement
single seaters
Omni-role with France to purchase 36
and 8 twin
Rafale Twinjet fighter France 2 aircraft at INR 58,000 crores. As
seaters
aircraft of May 2021, India has received
Max. speed:
20 of them. Complete delivery is
Mach 1.8
expected by 2022.

Source: Author’s own, using various open sources.

39
Air Campaigns of the
21st Century

W
hile the IAF is a highly proficient
and well-trained force, it is
lagging behind China, its

Current Capability Gaps

principal adversary, in its ability
to harness the war-fighting capabilities enabled by

A
the exponential growth in the levels of technology.
glaring capability gap in the IAF fighter
Sensors and shooters of the three services largely
fleet is the lack of stealth aircraft. While
operating in silos are suboptimal, to say the least.
debate is still ongoing across air forces
A robust combat cloud (a self-contained data and
on the cost–benefit analysis of stealth, it
voice network for combat purposes) must be
is clear that attempting the penetration of modern
created, wherein all sensors and shooters, both
air defence systems, especially that of India’s
on the surface and above, should be included in
northern adversary, with non-stealth aircraft is a
the “internet of military things.” The MoD has
hazardous endeavour. Stealth aircraft are necessary
added Software Defined Radios (SDR) to the
for weakening enemy air defences, which then paves
negative list of defence imports, indicating that
the way for non-stealth aircraft to penetrate further.
India has the indigenous technological capability.
The IAF has rightly made the Advanced Medium
The challenge now will be to make available Combat Aircraft (AMCA) programme its top
the resources and efforts required to package the priority. If early signs are any reflection of future
technology as necessary, as well as network all trends, the ideation and processes involved in the
sensor–shooters on and above the surface. At the D&D of the AMCA may not yield the best results
same time, all future sensor–shooters, including and could mirror the problems, such as delays, that
fighter aircraft, must be enabled or designed ab had affected the Tejas programme. Given the pace
initio, to operate in the cloud. It is important to at which technology is advancing, such issues can be
view weapon systems as organic components of catastrophic on most parameters.
aircraft and enable them as well to operate in the
combat cloud. Several Western air forces have
already deployed such technology.

40
 At present, India’s aircraft manufacturing facilities
are far from being Industry 4.0 compliant. With
significant future-generation technologies and
An ideal path for the AMCA programme innovation, the AMCA could also have an optionally
would have been to run a Research and manned variant, configured either as a weapons
Development (R&D), competition between carrier or as a sensor platform—to operate unmanned
the government/public sector and the Indian wingmen with different capabilities or to operate as
private sector with a foreign partner, similar to an airborne command-and-control post. The ability
what the Innovation for Defence Excellence to employ hypersonic weapons and directed energy
(IDEX) organisation does for small-ticket weapons can also be built into the concept.
items. However, the Defence Acquisition
Procedure, 2020 does not provide for such R&D The second capability gap is the lack of stealthy
competitions in fighter aircraft programmes. long-range bombers and the deterrence value
An alternative to this is to bring in a competent it could offer. The efficacy of surface-to-surface
partner with a financial stake in the programme. missiles with conventional warheads is limited,
The partnership can be aimed at inducting and their use can be prohibitively expensive. In
technology, including Model-Based Systems contrast, long-range stealth bombers offer multiple
Engineering (MBSE), to optimise D&D, advantages—in terms of weight of attack, greater
manufacturing, and sustainment methods; accuracy, and reusability—at a fraction of the cost.
adopting agile software development techniques For India to reach what can be called the “centre
to facilitate ease of hardware and software of gravity targets” in mainland China, it must first
upgrades; and bringing in open mission system cross the massive Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR).
architecture to enable application software While most such targets are 1,500–2,500 km away,
upgrades even on the fly. MBSE is a key element none of India’s present aircraft offers an adequate
of Industry 4.0, and has been acknowledged by radius of action. Even Air-Launched Cruise Missiles
Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi. (ALCM) need to have a range of more than 1,000
km, and such weapons can only be carried by the
bomber class of aircraft. India does not yet have
the capability to conduct meaningful conventional
strategic air campaigns against China, and offensive
counter-air operations are restricted to airfields in
Tibet, along with their resident platforms, storage
areas, and infrastructure available at these airfields.

41
 While the IAF is a
highly proficient and
well-trained force,
it is lagging behind
China, its principal
adversary.

Therefore, the IAF must upgrade the Hawk

aircraft with suitable mission systems and permitted
The third gap is related to Counter Surface anti-personnel weapons. Production lines must
Force Operations (CSFO). In the event of an be reopened, and some squadrons inducted
active conflict with China, the IAF would be specifically for this purpose. Merely redeploying
in a position to contribute significantly to the training aircraft when required for this role will not
maritime air operations campaign. However, serve the purpose. Intense training and constant
intense battles are likely to unfold along the practice are essential for them to operate, in close
northern borders, which are located almost coordination with land forces, in such inhospitable
completely in mountainous terrain. Moreover, terrain. Use of existing multi-role fighters for this
China is likely to be sensitive to attrition in role would either be sub-optimal or an overkill.
human resources due to its current demographic Contracted and possible future inductions into the
profile. The agile Hawk is one aircraft that is IAF are summarised in Table 2.
ideally suited for counter-surface force (air-
land) operations, especially in such terrain.

42
Table 2:
Developments from 2021 to 2031
Fighter No. of
Type Origin Specifications Procurement/Upgrade Status
Aircraft Squadrons
On 2 July 2020, the Defence Acquisition
Twin engine
Soviet Council (DAC) approved the proposal for
Air superiority Single seater
MiG-29 Union/ 4* the procurement of 21 MiG-29s and the
fighter aircraft Max. speed:
Russia upgradation of the existing 59 MiG-29s at an
Mach 2.3
estimated cost of INR 7,418 crore.
Twin engine
Multirole air- In July 2020, the DAC approved the
Twin seater
Su-30 MKI superiority Russia 12 procurement of 12 Su-30 MKIs from HAL at
Max. speed:
fighter aircraft an estimated cost of INR 10,730 crore.
Mach 2.3
On 3 February 2021, the Indian government
Multirole Single engine
LCA Tejas signed a contract with HAL to procure 73
lightweight India Single seater 4*
Mk-1A LCA Tejas Mk-1A fighters and 10 LCA Mk-1
fighter Supersonic
trainer aircraft for INR 46,898 crore.
Multirole Medium 75 percent
On 6 April 2018, the Ministry of Defence
Fighter multirole single seater
6* (MoD) issued a Request for Information
Aircraft combat 25 percent
(RFI) to acquire 110 fighter aircraft.
(MMRCA 2.0) aircraft twin seater
On 4 February 2021, HAL received a
Hindustan Tandem-seater Request for Proposal (RFP) from the IAF
Turbo Basic trainer aircraft for 70 HTT-40 basic trainer aircraft with a
India
Trainer-40 aircraft Max. speed: provision for 38 more. MoD sources indicate
(HTT-40) Mach 0.36 that the follow-on 38 aircraft could be
weaponised as light-attack aircraft.

Table 3:
Projects Underway
Fighter No. of
Type Origin Specifications Procurement/Upgrade Status
Aircraft Squadrons
Multirole According to the ambitious plan of HAL, the Tejas
Single engine
LCA Tejas medium- Mk-2 prototype is likely to roll out in 2022. The
India Single-seater
Mk-2 weight first flight is expected in 2023 and production is to
aircraft
fighter start in 2025.
Advanced
Twin engine The Aeronautical Developmental Agency (ADA)
Medium
DRDO-HAL Single seater is designing and developing the AMCA. The
Combat India
AMCA supercruise prototype of the aircraft is likely to be ready by
Aircraft
stealth aircraft 2026, and production to start in 2029-2030.
(AMCA)
Ground Single engine
The IAF and HAL are upgrading mission systems
attack Tandem-seater
Hawk Mk- and adding weapons to the existing Hawks. In
advanced Britain aircraft
132 January 2021, in a first, Hawk successfully fired
jet trainer Max. speed:
Smart Anti-Airfield Weapons (SAAW).
(AJT) Mach 0.84–0.85
Single Engine Hindustan Times reported on 17 September
Multi-role
Single Seat 21 that IAF would acquire 24 second-hand
Mirage-2000 combat France 4*
Max Speed Mirage-2000 fighters from France at a cost of 27
aircraft
M2.3 million Euros.

Source: Various open sources.

Note: *indicates prospective squadron strength after the complete acquisition of the procurement currently underway.

43
Airborne Intelligence,
Surveillance, and
Reconnaissance
Angad Singh

Introduction

T
he Indian military has the fourth-
largest fleet of aircraft in the world,
with approximately 2,100 air assets Airborne ISR and command and control (C2)
between the Indian Air Force (IAF), are not new concepts in the subcontinent. Photo
Indian Navy (IN), and Indian Army (IA).a The IAF reconnaissance and signals intelligence (SIGINT),
is the largest of these and has the bulk of India’s under which the sub-categories of communications
airborne surveillance capability.1 This chapter and electronics (COMINT and ELINT) fall, have
uses the umbrella phrase Airborne Intelligence, been around in various forms since Independence.
Surveillance and Reconnaissance (Airborne ISR) Over the years, they have evolved and expanded to
to refer to dedicated airborne sensor capabilities, account for evolving threats and technology, with
with the caveat that certain platforms bring varying degrees of success and efficacy. Following the
expanded capabilities to bear, including airborne 1999 Kargil Conflict and 2001–02 military standoff
command, control, communications, computing, with Pakistan, India’s Airborne ISR capabilities began
targeting, or some combination of these. While to receive increased attention. Virtually all tactical
several surveillance aircraft bearing military aircraft currently in use are capable of some degree
markings are operated by civilian intelligence of ELINT, using onboard or podded receivers, and
agencies such as the Aviation Research Centre most are equipped with specialised reconnaissance
(ARC) of the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), pods for visual, infra-red or radar imaging.
these organisations and their structures are
beyond the scope of military modernisation, and
do not factor in this chapter.

a The IN does operate its own specialised maritime platforms, and the IA maintains a sizeable fleet of drones.

44
Present-day ISR

T
he induction of remotely piloted aircraft
(RPAs) and Airborne Early Warning Naval ISR includes specialised maritime
and Control (AEW&C) aircraft in the reconnaissance and anti-submarine warfare
early 2000s marked the biggest change (ASW) aircraft and helicopters, which can also be
in airborne ISR in the modern era. deployed over land. Since the Alizé in 1965, Naval
aircraft have been utilised to conduct surveillance
There is considerable overlap between the during crises situations and hostilities. During
RPA capabilities deployed by the three services. the Kargil conflict, for instance, the “Information
The initial procurement of the Israeli-built IAI Warfare” (IW) Dornier 228 aircraft of the IN were
Searcher-I tactical RPAs for the IA was contracted tasked with locating Pakistani radars along the
in the late 1990s, and these entered service in 2000. land border.3 More recently, the Boeing P-8I—the
A combined tri-service approach followed in 2002, IN’s newest patrol aircraft inducted in 2013—was
with additional Searcher-IIs and new medium- deployed during the 2017 Doklam crisis4 and
altitude, long-endurance (MALE) IAI Herons being the 2020 Ladakh standoff.5 In addition to being
inducted from 2002 onward.2 equipped with a versatile ISR fleet, the IN has
AEW&C capabilities in the subcontinent, the first
Following the retirement of the IAF’s MiG-25RB
service to induct such a system.
in 2006 and photo-reconnaissance Canberra PR.57s
in 2007, Israeli RPAs have formed the backbone In 2003, the IN inducted Russian Kamov Ka-
of India’s airborne ISR capability—a formidable 31 helicopters to protect the fleet from enemy air
upgrade. These aircraft conduct visual, infra-red action and control its own carrier-based fighters.6
and radar surveillance, as well as COMINT and The IAF’s more capable Israeli-Russia A-50/
ELINT missions, for durations over 16 hours. In the Phalcon Airborne Early Warning and Control
case of the larger Heron, all surveillance payloads System (AWACS) were contracted in early 2004,7
listed can be fitted for simultaneous operation, albeit and deliveries of the three aircraft took place
at the cost of endurance, which drops to around 12 between 2009 and 2011.8 These aircraft combine
hours. Raw sensor data can be downlinked via a the airframe and engines (PS-90) of a modernised
line-of-sight (LOS) datalink in real time or stored Russian Il-76 airlifter with an Israeli IAI EL/W-
for later analysis by dedicated personnel on the 2090 “Phalcon” active electronically scanned array
ground. These RPAs have also received upgrades (AESA) radar, providing 360-degree awareness.
over the years, reducing operator workload through
autonomous take-off and landing, as well as satellite
communication (SATCOM), which frees them from
line-of-sight restrictions.

45
Table 1:
Acquisitions (2011–21)
Country of
Name Role Quantity Description
Origin
IAI First contracted in the late 1990s, with several
Searcher ISR RPA Israel >110 (unspecified) additional orders since. Operated by all
I/II three services.
First inducted in 2002, with several (unspecified)
IAI Heron ISR RPA Israel >90
additional orders since. Operated by all three services.
IAI-Beriev
AEW&C,
A-50EI Israel/Russia 3 Contracted in 2004, delivered between 2009 and 2011.
SIGINT
(Phalcon)
Netra
AEW&C, Two in service since 2017, one retained by DRDO for
EMB-145 India/Brazil 3
SIGINT further development.
AEW&C
Kamov
AEW&C Russia 14 Naval AEW helicopter. Delivered between 2004 and 2012.
Ka-31
Boeing 10 aircraft delivered between 2013 and 2021; two more
MPA USA 10
P-8I on order.
Boeing
SIGINT USA/India 2 Equipped with the DRDO SIGINT suite.
737
HAL-
Upgraded with new avionics and improved Elta radar
Dornier MPA India 12
and Elbit ESM; 12 on order.
228

GA-ASI
ISR RPA USA 2 On lease by the IN.
MQ-9B

IAI Heron-
ISR RPA Israel 4 On lease by the IA.
TP

Source: Author’s own, using various sources.

46
 On the indigenous front, capacities appear

Expansion and modest, and the progress has been slow. The DRDO-

Modernisation
Embraer “Netra” AEW&C, heralded as a domestic
success story, was approved by the government in

D
2004 for delivery in 2011. The project delivered its
espite plans calling for increased and first aircraft six years late,14 with reduced capabilities
more robust C2 and ISR capabilities and a host of procedural irregularities flagged
across the three services, particularly by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)
in the IAF and the IN, the past of India.15 A DRDO-developed SIGINT system
decade has not seen a significant force accretion, was fielded by the IAF, but only two Boeing 737
and only modest improvements to capability. As VIP aircraft were modified.16 Subsequent SIGINT
noted above, the IN began inducting Boeing inductions,17 or plans to acquire additional aircraft,18
P-8Is in 2013, but the first batch of eight replaced have all centred on foreign aircraft with foreign
the outgoing eight Soviet-era Tupolev Tu-142 in sensor suites, suggesting a lack of confidence in the
the same role. The second batch of four aircraft, capability or the delivery of domestic equivalents.
currently under delivery,9 will serve alongside By late 2020 things came to a head, with additional
the IN’s older Il-38s but will eventually have to Phalcon AWACS in limbo, the indigenous AEW&C
take over from those aircraft as well. The New too limited to merit further procurement, and
Sikorsky MH-60R helicopters, to replace the Sea the ambitious DRDO programme to develop a
Kings Mk.42Bs that were inducted in 1988, were domestic AWACS-equivalent on the Airbus A330
delivered only in July 2021.10 Moreover, plans to deemed expensive and risky. As a compromise,
induct more Phalcon AWACS for the IAF have the government sanctioned a hybrid AEW Project,
been repeatedly mooted, including relatively which proposed to reuse the bulk of the Netra’s
recently in 201611 and 2020,12 but these have yet systems, including the 240-degree AESA radar,
to be executed, ostensibly due to their high costs. but integrated with surplus Air India A320-family
Similarly, plans to upgrade and arm the existing airliners19––reducing development time and solving
fleet of Heron UAVs are periodically floated and the Embraer platform’s main shortcomings of
discarded.13 limited range and endurance. However, while the
initial plans were for six of the larger A321 airliner
to be the host aircraft, Air India declined to part
with this profitable variant; in July 2021, the first
A319 was delivered to the DRDO in Bengaluru,
indicating that this variant has been selected for the
AEW Project.

47
 The modernisation of Indian drones has been
equally tortuous. Despite multiple prototypes
of varying configurations flown over the past
decade, India has yet to field a single credible in India by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
RPA fit for military service. The Rustom-2 (also for the Dornier 228 light transport and HTT-40
known as TAPAS-BH) is the principal MALE ISR trainer.22 Despite the general design, layout and
drone programme currently in development. propulsion characteristics of the MALE RPAs being
Reported specifications have varied over the globally well established, the DRDO has inexplicably
years, but the Rustom-2 is expected to offer an opted to pursue all-new configurations and ignore
endurance of 24 hours at 30,000 feet. However, an indigenously built engine that is a proven RPA
the programme has been dogged by delays powerplant. To further complicate the issue, China’s
and, as of October 2020, only demonstrated Wangfeng Aviation acquired Austro Engine GmbH,
an endurance of eight hours at 16,000 feet.20 along with its parent company Diamond Aircraft, in
Perhaps most baffling is the DRDO’s choice of 2018,23 which makes India’s indigenous MALE RPA
propulsion for the indigenous RPA—a pair of reliant on a Chinese-owned powerplant, at least in
piston engines. The early prototypes used two the near term.
Rotax 914 engines, producing 115 hp each, and
Consequently, the Indian military has turned to
more recent ones use a pair of Austro AE330
easier short-term solutions. With the new Defence
diesel engines, producing 180 hp.21 It is worth
Acquisition Procedure, 2020 allowing military
noting that the Israeli IAI Heron already in
hardware to be leased instead of procured outright,24
service with the Indian armed forces manages
the IN has moved quickly to augment its capabilities
similar endurance and altitude figures with a
with a pair of MQ-9B SeaGuardian drones.25 The IA
single Rotax 914 engine. The larger and more
followed suit, with four turboprop-powered Heron-
capable US-made General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper,
TPs leased from Israel.26
one of the most prolific and versatile operational
drones in existence, uses a Honeywell TPE-331
turboprop engine, the same engine as produced

48
Table 2:
Planned Acquisitions (2021–31)
Country of
Name Role Quantity Description
Origin

GA-ASI
ISR RPA USA 30 Under consideration for procurement for several years.
MQ-9B

DRDO The Rustom-2 will likely be procured in large numbers if

ISR RPA India TBD
Rustom-2 development concludes successfully.
IAI-Beriev The MOD periodically approves and re-approves
AEW&C,
A-50EI Israel/Russia 2 procurement of additional A-50s, but no contract has
SIGINT
(Phalcon) been signed.
DRDO-
Airbus AEW&C, Development has started as of mid-2021, but the planned
India/Europe 6
A319 SIGINT service entry date is unknown.
AEW&C
Two aircraft are to be delivered from under an existing
Boeing
MPA USA 8 contract, and procurement of another six has been
P-8I
cleared by the MOD.
HAL-
Upgraded with new avionics and improved Elta radar
Dornier MPA India 12
and Elbit ESM; 12 on order.
228
Boeing
SIGINT USA/India 2 Equipped with the DRDO SIGINT suite.
737
HAL-
Upgraded with new avionics and improved Elta radar
Dornier MPA India 12
and Elbit ESM; 12 on order.
228

GA-ASI
ISR RPA USA 2 On lease by the IN.
MQ-9B

IAI Heron-
ISR RPA Israel 4 On lease by the IA.
TP

Source: Author’s own, using various sources.

49
The Future is
Autonomous

E
ven as India struggles to consolidate
its manned and remotely crewed
Airborne ISR capabilities, the future of specifications to work towards. The DRDO has a
will see autonomous platforms take much older programme for an autonomous strike
over both ISR and combat operations, blurring aircraft called “Ghatak,” which began in the late
the distinctions that separate the chapters of 2000s,28 but as of November 2020, only a sub-scale
this report. Individual independent drones, prototype has flown.29 Despite the IAF being the
autonomous swarms, and Manned-Unmanned first service to work towards adopting autonomous
Teaming (MUM-T) are being seriously pursued swarms, the novel public competition launched in
across the world. India, too, has initiated 201830 has yet to result in a winner or a production
development projects in each of these areas. contract.31
However, they are largely tentative steps with
uncertain goals, timelines or outcomes. In With the challenges currently facing India,
February 2021, state-owned HAL unveiled particularly along its land borders, attention and
an ambitious, albeit un-funded, Combat Air resources will likely and understandably be poured
Teaming System (CATS), envisioning a range of into solving immediate requirements for persistent
autonomous air vehicles and effectors operating and accurate surveillance. It is vital to not lose sight
in conjunction with, or at the direction of, crewed of the future while addressing short-term goals.
combat aircraft of the Indian military.27 However, Going forward, India must work towards ensuring
there is no formal IAF requirement or any set awareness of the adversary’s intent to prevent
situations such as the ongoing Ladakh standoff with
China, as the next lapse in surveillance could just
prove far costlier.

50
Transport Aircraft and
Rotary Wing Fleet
Manmohan Bahadur

Introduction

T
he modernisation of an aircraft
fleet can be categorised under three
heads: first, the accretion of earlier Airborne ISR and command and control (C2)
models, which augments numbers are not new concepts in the subcontinent. Photo
with ‘fresh’ airframes; second, the upgrade of reconnaissance and signals intelligence (SIGINT),
an existing inventory with modifications to its under which the sub-categories of communications
avionics and/or hardware, which augments and electronics (COMINT and ELINT) fall, have
its performance characteristics; and third, the been around in various forms since Independence.
acquisition of a newer, more modern type of an Over the years, they have evolved and expanded to
aviation asset. During the period 2011–21, there account for evolving threats and technology, with
was a significant accretion of modern assets in varying degrees of success and efficacy. Following the
both the transport aircraft and helicopter fleets 1999 Kargil Conflict and 2001–02 military standoff
of the Indian Air Force (IAF). This chapter with Pakistan, India’s Airborne ISR capabilities began
examines the previous decade’s upgrades and to receive increased attention. Virtually all tactical
acquisitions, and explores the requirements of aircraft currently in use are capable of some degree
the coming decade. of ELINT, using onboard or podded receivers, and
most are equipped with specialised reconnaissance
pods for visual, infra-red or radar imaging.

51
Table 1:
Developments from 2011 to 2020
No. of
Aircraft Type Origin Specifications Procurement/Upgrade Status
Squadrons
Transport Aircraft
Short/
Twin engine The plan proposed by Hindustan
medium-
Payload capacity: Aeronautics Limited (HAL) to upgrade
range United
HS-748 Avro 6 tonnes 04 the Avro fleet was not accepted by the
utility Kingdom
Cruise speed: 451 IAF, and it is instead replacing the Avro
transport
km/hr fleet with Casa C-295.
aircraft
The Defence Acquisition Council (DAC)
Four engines
approved the avionics and engine
Heavy- Soviet Payload capacity:
upgradation of IL-76 and IL-78,
IL-76 transport Union/ 40 tonnes 1.5
respectively, in October 2015. However,
aircraft Russia Cruise speed: 850
the project is yet to be accorded financial
km/hr
sanction.
Twin engine The An-32 fleet is undergoing technical
Medium- Soviet Payload capacity: life extension, avionics upgrade, and
An-32 transport Union/ 6.7 tonnes 07 overhaul under a US$400 million
aircraft Ukraine Cruise speed: 530 contract, signed with a Ukrainian state
km/hr enterprise in June 2009.
Twin engine
Light- Payload capacity: In February 2015, the IAF signed a
Do-228 transport Germany 2 tonnes 2.5 contract with HAL to purchase 14
aircraft Cruise speed: 428 additional Dornier aircraft.
km/hr
Four engines India signed a contract with the US
Payload capacity: under the Foreign Military Sales (FMS)
C-130J Heavy- United 21.18 tonnes programme to purchase six C-130J
Super transport States of Cruise speed: 675 02 aircraft in February 2008. On 20
Hercules aircraft America km/ hr December 2013, India signed a US$1.01
billion deal with the US to procure six
additional C-130J Super Hercules.
Four engines
Payload capacity: In June 2011, India procured 10 C-17
Heavy- United 70 tonnes Globemaster aircraft from the US
C-17 Cruise speed: 906 01
transport States of under the FMS programme for US$4.1
Globemaster km/hr
aircraft America billion. The IAF purchased an additional
Globemaster in December 2017.

Flight Refuellers
Four engines
Flight- Soviet Fuel capacity: 110 The DAC approved the engine upgrade
IL-78 MKI refueller Union/ tonnes 01 of IL-78 in October 2015. Financial
aircraft Russia Cruise speed: 750 sanction yet to be accorded.
km/hr

52
 No. of
Aircraft Type Origin Specifications Procurement/Upgrade Status
Squadrons
AWACS/AEW&C Aircraft
Airborne
Twin engine
Early
Payload capacity: In July 2008, India signed a US$208
Warning
Embraer-145 Brazil 5.786 tonnes 01 million deal to purchase three
and Control
Cruise speed: 963 AEW&C Embraer aircraft.
(AEW&C)
km/hr
aircraft
Rotary Wing Aircraft
In January 2017, 15 years after the
Twin Engine IAF first suggested the upgrade
Soviet Payload capacity: of the Mi-17 fleet, the Ministry of
Medium-lift
Mi-17 Union/ 4 tonnes 06 Defence (MoD) signed a contract
helicopter
Russia Cruise speed: 225 with Elbit Systems of Israel to
km/hr upgrade 90 Mi 17 helicopters (56
Mi-17 and 34 Mi-171V).
The IAF ordered 59 Mi-17V5s in
Twin engine
December 2012, augmenting its
Soviet Payload capacity:
Medium-lift existing fleet of 80 Mi-17V5s, first
Mi-17V5 Union/ 4 tonnes 06
helicopter ordered in 2008. The final batch of
Russia Cruise speed: 225
Mi-17V5 was received in February
km/hr
2016.
Twin engine
Soviet Payload capacity: The small IAF fleet of three Mi-26s
Heavy-lift
Mi-26 Union/ 20 tonnes 01* is slated for an extensive overhaul
helicopter
Russia Cruise speed: 255 in Russia.
km/hr
The MoD inked a deal with Boeing
Twin engine
in September 2015 to purchase 15
Multirole Payload capacity:
Chinook CH- Chinook helicopters at the cost of
heavy-lift USA 11 tonnes 01
53F(I) US$1.1 billion. The IAF received
helicopter Cruise speed: 291
the last five of the Chinooks in
km/hr
March 2020.
In September 2015, the MoD
Twin engine
signed a deal with Boeing
Multirole Twin-seat tandem
AH-64E to procure 22 Apache attack
combat USA cockpit 01
Apache helicopters at the cost of US$1.6
helicopter Cruise speed: 260
billion. Boeing delivered the last
km/hr
Apache helicopters in July 2020.
Multirole
Twin engine
Advanced Payload capacity:
IAF inducted the first batch of ALH
ALH Dhruv Light India 1.5 tonnes 02
Dhruv MK III in February 2012.
Helicopter Cruise speed: 245
(ALH) km/hr
Single engine After the initial induction of 10
Payload capacity: re-engined Cheetah helicopters
Light-utility
Cheetal France 0.1 tonnes 01 (Cheetal), IAF issued a Request for
helicopter
Cruise speed: 192 Proposal (RFP) for 12 additional
Km/hr Cheetal helicopters.

53
 C-130J Super Hercules
The contract for the latest J model of the legendary

Transport Aircraft C-130 was signed in 20081 as a government to

government agreement under the US government’s

B
Foreign Military Sales (FMS) programme. Six
y the start of the second decade of
aircraft were contracted to equip the newly formed
the 21st century, the IAF was largely
No. 77 Squadron, which was christened the “Veiled
dependent on its old fleet of around17
Vipers,” reflecting the role envisaged for it—to strike
IL-76s and 95 odd short-haul An-32s;
surreptitiously, with speed. The C-130J came with
in the light-transport category, there was the
dark night and all-weather operations capability,
six-decade-old HS-748 Avro and the relatively
enabled by electro-optic and thermal imaging
new Do-228 aircraft. These assets offered no
equipment and the latest generation Night Vision
specialist role capability, except for logistics
Goggles for pilots. However, the US did not supply
support through equipment and personnel
high-quality Digital Terrain Elevation Data for low-
movement. To be sure, the IL-76 and An-32
level navigation, since India had not signed the
were tasked with paradrop tasks, but missions
foundational Communication and Information on
such as special operations and real short-field
Security Memorandum of Agreement (CISMOA);
and hot and high operations (with acceptable
this restricted the C-130J from flying at ultralow
operational load) were beyond their capability.
levels as the navigation equipment used commercial
However, considering the fast-changing security
unclassified data. The encrypted data was supplied
environment, India was in dire need of such
once India signed the Communication Compatibility
capabilities, which prompted the IAF planners
and Security Agreement (COMCASA) in September
to focus on the acquisition of special ops C-130J
2018—the India specific-version of CISMOA.2 No.
Super Hercules and C-17 Globemaster very
77 Sqn formed at the Air Force Station Hindan and
heavy transport aircraft (VHETAC).
a contract3 for another six C-130J aircraft resulted
in additional special-ops capability for the North
Eastern sector, as the second squadron was formed
at Panagarh. The C-130Js provide state-of-the-art
special-ops capability, allowing the Indian Army and
the IAF to conduct such missions efficiently.

54
 An-32
The An-32 was inducted into the IAF service in
C-17 Globemaster the early 1980s and went in for an upgrade under
a contract signed in 2009. The contract7 aimed for
In 2011, the Government of India entered into 105 aircraft to be re-equipped—therefore the name
a contract4 with the US government for 10 C 17 An 32RE—with an avionics upgrade, changes in the
Globemasters, which would augment the heavy cockpit for increased crew comfort through noise
airlift capability of the IAF. The Il-76 aircraft and vibration abatement measures, and increased
had aged, resulting in sub-par performance, reliability and maintainability. The programme ran
especially when operating from high altitude into a contractual dispute,8 resulting in delayed
airfields such as Leh and Thoise. With superb upgradation; as per reports, the dispute is still
short-field landing abilitya,5 and exceptional ongoing—a delay of almost eight years and counting.9
radar and night vision capabilities, the C-17 has Currently, there is no clarity on this matter as most
revolutionised air logistics in India. During the of the information is classified.
summer months, when the temperatures reach
around 30 degrees Celsius at Leh (10,500 feet IL-76, Avro and Do-228
above sea level), a C-17 can take off with 30
tonnes of load as against the negligible load that There have been no programmes for any upgrade
the IL-76 can carry. India had planned to buy of these platforms considering their limited residual
three additional C-17s, but could only procure life and the lack of any growth potential. The Do-
one more due to delayed decision-making.6 The 228 was used extensively for short-haul missions
IAF now has 11 C-17s, which allow India a truly and the IL-76 for strategic logistics operations. The
global reach, as evident in the country’s outreach Avro was meant to be phased out during the decade
to far-flung nations for Humanitarian Assistance under consideration and replaced with the Casa C
and Disaster Relief (HADR) and COVID-19 295W,10 but it did not happen for almost a decade
associated missions. due to administrative dithering and, later, lack of
financial support. However, the project was finally
cleared by the Cabinet Committee on Security in
September 2021,11 implying that the project can
now start with contract signing and subsequent
deliveries as per schedule in the next decade. This is
a big step forward as it is the first time that a private
Indian industry would be manufacturing a transport
aircraft, albeit with foreign collaboration.

a During flight trials held in India in 2010, the C-17 landed at the 4620 ft long Gaggal airfield in Himachal Pradesh.

55
Flight Refuellers
The IAF procured six IL-78 Flight Refuelling
Aircraft (FRA) in 2003, which have since been
operating with the same basic configuration.
Rotary Wing Aircraft

T
A project to upgrade it by replacing the fuel-
inefficient D-30 aeroengines with the better PS- he Rotary Wing (RW) fleet underwent
90 powerplants was accepted by the government substantial modernisation during
in 2018.12 However, there has been little progress 2011–21.
on it, despite such an upgrade being an urgent
requirement. Plans for acquiring six additional Mi-17 Variants
A-330 Multirole Tanker Transport (MRTT) have
The Mi-17 and Mi-171V fleets provided the major
fallen through twice due to the costs involved; a
part of heli-lift capability of the IAF for a long time.
third attempt commenced in 2018.13 There have
However, as they aged, some airframes of the two
been media reports about the IAF considering
types were replaced with the Mi-17V5. The V5 also
the leasing of flight refuellers under a new
replaced the legendary Mi-8, which had outlived
option that has been incorporated in the Defence
its useful life by many years. The Mi-17V5 has
Acquisition Procedure (DAC), 2021. However, no
uprated engines; an air-conditioned glass cockpit;
firm proposals seem to have been moved to the
and modern nav-aids such as digital map display,
government, making the reports no more than
VOR, and DME; the helicopter comes with NVG-
media conjecture.14
compatible lighting and Gen3 NVGs of Russian
AWACS and AEW Aircraft origin. As part of the role equipment, in addition to
the standard air-to-ground rockets, cargo sling and
The IAF has only a few of these vital combat winching equipment, bambi-bucket fire-fighting
enablers, with three IL-76 based Phalcon capability was acquired. The induction of the V5s
AWACS aircraft entering the inventory in 2009 added true night-ops capability to the RW fleet and
and two Embraer-145-based AEW aircraft it will continue to be the mainstay of the medium-lift
inducted in 2017.15 The IAF has been pressing segment in the coming decade.
the government for more, since they have added
substantially to India’s air defence capability.

56
 Apache Attack Helicopters
The acquisition of 22 H-64E Apache attack
Chinook and Mi-26 Heavy-Lift helicopters has been a quantum accretion in the
Helicopters potency of the IAF’s strike firepower against enemy
armoured vehicles. With its mast-mounted milli-
The contract for the acquisition of 15 Chinook metric wave radar, Hellfire air-to-ground missiles,
CH-53F(I) heavy-lift helicopters was signed in 70 mm rockets coupled with exceptional night-
September 2015,16 and all machines were inducted op capability, and network-centric operations
by March 2020.17 The Chinook, with its ramp- compatibility, the Apache has truly improved the
loading facility, was to replace the legendary IAF’s battlefield dominance capability.
Mi-26 that was on its way out; however, due to
the unique payload that the Mi-26 can carry ALH Dhruv
(20 tonnes in fuselage or underslung), a review
was perhaps done, and the three aircraft on the The IAF has inducted20 the ALH Dhruv21 Mk III
inventory were slated for an overhaul in Russia as and Mk IV versions,c,22 which bring with them mid-
per the media in 2019.b,18 The helicopters are still level tactical heli-lift and armed-strike capability. This
in India due to issues about the contract.19 (relatively) low-cost option will be useful in battle
areas where the threat is comparatively benign.
The Chinook, while not in the same weight
class as the Mi-26, has brought in the capability
to induct certain categories of heavy equipment
Chetak/Cheetah
in the narrow valleys of the North East, which the
Mi-26 cannot navigate. With its high reliability, The old Chetak/Cheetah fleet soldiers on.
easy maintenance, exceptional manoeuvrability, However, the availability of the Cheetal—an
and good night-op capability, the addition of the improvement on the Cheetah, with a more powerful
Chinook has added substantially to the heavy and modern Turbomeca TM333 TB engine that
heli-lift capability of the IAF. Additionally, since powers the Dhruv—is a welcome addition for
one Chinook can be carried in the cargo hold of ultrahigh-altitude ops on the Siachen Glacier and
a C-17, the IAF can launch HADR operations the hills of Sikkim.
at great distances, including internationally, in
quick time.

b Anecdotal data points to the reason for the change of decision to the unique heli-lifting of outsized loads, including bulldozers and fuel
bowsers, done during the earthquake relief in Uttarakhand in 2015 – a task that the Chinooks cannot undertake.
c It is possible that the induction of the Mk IV has been without the Helina (Dhruvastra) anti-tank guided missile, since its proving trials
happened only on 19 February 2021.

57
Table 2:
Developments from 2021 to 2031
No. of
Aircraft Type Origin Specifications Procurement/Upgrade Status
Squadrons
Transport Aircraft
Twin engine
Multirole
Payload capacity:
Casa medium- Procurement of 56 Casa C-295 from Airbus
Europe 9.25 tonnes
C-295 transport was approved in September 2021
Cruise speed: 482
aircraft
km/hr
Twin engine
Medium- Soviet The upgrade of the remaining fleet of An-
Payload capacity:
An-32 transport Union/ 07 32 is likely to be completed by 2025 at the
6.7 tonnesCruise
aircraft Ukraine Base Repair Depot (BRD) no. 1, Kanpur.
speed: 530 km/hr
Twin engine The numbers of Flight Inspection aircraft
Light- Payload capacity: 2 would be 14 228 Dornier as part of the 41
Do-228 transport Germany tonnes 2.5 Squadron which has been operating this
aircraft Cruise speed: 428 type of light transport aircraft for many
km/hr years.23
Flight Refuellers
Multirole Twin engine In June 2018, the IAF issued a Request for
Tanker Payload capacity: Information (RFI) to procure six FRAs. To
A-330 Transport Europe 43 tonnes overcome the immediate shortage, the IAF
(MRTT) Fuel capacity: 111 is planning to lease three A-330 multirole
aircraft tonnes tanker aircraft.
AWACS/AEW&C
Airborne
Early
Warning On 17 December 2020, the DAC granted
AEW&C and an Acceptance of Necessity (AON) for the
Control procurement of six AEW&C Mk-2 aircraft.
(AEW&C)
aircraft
Rotary Wing Aircraft
Twin engine
Medium- Soviet Payload capacity: 4 Since 2019, Mi-17V5s are undergoing
Mi-17V5 lift Union/ tonnes 06 their first major overhaul at 3rd BRD,
helicopter Russia Cruise speed: 225 Chandigarh.
km/hr
Single engine
The Centre for Military Airworthiness and
Payload capacity:
Light- Certification (CEMILAC) accorded Initial
0.5 tonnes with
HAL utility Operational Clearance (IOC) to the IAF
India fuel for range of
LUH helicopter variant of LUH on 7 February 2020. HAL
350 km
(LUH) has an in-principle order of 61 LUH from
Cruise speed: 235
the IAF.
km/hr
In 2015, India signed an inter-
governmental agreement with Russia to
Twin engine
Light procure 200 Ka-220T utility helicopters
Payload capacity: 1
multi- (IAF is slated to get 65 helicopters). Once
Ka 226-T Russia tonne
mission the impasse over the indigenous content
Cruise speed: 220
helicopter is resolved, the first helicopter will be
km/hr
delivered within 36 months from the
signing of the contract.

Note: *Three Mi-26 choppers are with the IAF Squadron No. 126 HU (Featherweights), which also houses Chinook helicopters.

58
The Next Decade

O
ver the last decade, the transport
and helicopter fleet of the IAF
has already undergone substantial Furthermore, realistic training for war is vital, and
modernisation in terms of new simulators for all fleets (in adequate numbers) must
assets. The challenge now is to identify how the be acquired. The IAF should graduate to synthetic
fleets can be further modernised from 2021 to and virtual-reality devices. Night vision, too, should
2031. be a mandatory qualitative requirement in all future
acquisitions.
The next decade is expected to be focused on
joint operations in a secure network. Thus, it will At present, India has a sufficient basic fleet of
be crucial to ensure the inclusion of transport transport aircraft and helicopters. While future
and helicopter assets in the “net centricity drive” acquisitions are important for both fleets, these will
of the IAF. This involves equipping the fleets with be expensive, and the IAF will have to take into
software-defined radios and software architecture account the COVID-19-induced financial crunch
to integrate these fleets in the Integrated Air in their plans. Many modernisation plans in the
Command and Control System (IACCS) of the next decade may have to be limited to upgrades for
IAF to utilise the full capabilities of the Apache, key requirements, with an emphasis on the better
Chinook, C-17, and C-130J. Information utilisation of available assets and the tailoring of
dominance will be key to future combat; hence, war plans.
Intelligence Surveillance and Reconnaissance
(ISR) must be prioritised. This involves not only
additional AWACS/AEW&C aircraft and UAVs
but also interlinked space assets, since space will
be a key domain in any future conflict.

59
Endnotes
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8. “REQUEST FOR INFORMATION (RFI) FUTURE
READY COMBAT VEHICLE (FRCV) FOR INDIAN

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15. Sandeep Unnithan, “The Indian Army’s ‘General 4. Gurmeet Kanwal, “There Is a ‘Critical Hollowness’
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61
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force. articleshow/73054876.cms?from=mdr

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About the Authors
Javin Aryan is a Research Assistant with the Strategic Studies Programme of the Observer Research Foundation (ORF),
New Delhi.

Air Marshal Manmohan Bahadur is a retired officer of the Indian Air Force (IAF).

Kartik Bommakanti is a Fellow with the Strategic Studies Programme of the Observer Research Foundation (ORF),
New Delhi.

Major General Birender Dhanoa is a retired officer of the Indian Army (IA).

Dr. Amrita Jash is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Geopolitics and International Relations, Manipal Acad-
emy of Higher Education (MAHE).

Dr. Manoj Joshi is a Distinguished Fellow at the Observer Research Foundation (ORF), New Delhi.

Mahi Khanna worked as a Research Intern at ORF. She is currently pursuing her Master’s in International Security,
Intelligence, and Asian Studies at Sciences Po, Paris.

Pulkit Mohan is an Associate Fellow with the Centre for Security, Strategy and Technology (CSST) at the Observer
Research Foundation (ORF), New Delhi.

Air Commodore Kalianda Appaya Muthana is a retired officer of the Indian Air Force (IAF).

Rear Admiral Sudarshan Shrikhande is a retired officer of the Indian Navy (IN).

Abhijit Singh is a retired officer of the Indian Navy (IN) and Senior Fellow at the Observer Research Foundation (ORF),
New Delhi.

Angad Singh is Project Coordinator with the Strategic Studies Programme of the Observer Research Foundation (ORF),
New Delhi.

Cover image: Getty Images / Himanshu Sanehi-EyeEm

Back cover image: Getty Images/Andriy Onufriyenko.

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