Power Plant Engineering Notes

Unit 1

1. STEAM POWER PLANTS

A power plant is assembly of systems or subsystems to generate electricity, i.e., power with economy
and requirements. The power plant itself must be useful economically and environmental friendly to
the society.

A power plant may be defined as a machine or assembly of equipment that generates and delivers
flow of mechanical or electrical energy. The main equipment for the generation of electric power is
generator. When coupling it to a prime mover runs the generator, the electricity is generated. The type
of prime move determines the type of power plants. The major power plants are,

[Link] power plant

[Link] power plant

[Link] turbine power plant

[Link] power plant

[Link] electric power plant

The Steam Power Plant, Diesel Power Plant, Gas Turbine Power Plant and Nuclear Power Plants are
called THERMAL POWER PLANT, because these convert heat into electric energy.

The conversion from fuel / Coal to electricity takes place in three stages :

Stage 1 The first conversion of energy takes place in the boiler. Coal is burnt in the boiler furnace to
produce heat. Carbon in the coal and Oxygen in the air combine to produce Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
and heat.

Stage 2 The second stage is the thermodynamic process:

a) The heat from combustion of the coal boils water in the boiler to produce steam. In modern power
plant, boilers produce steam at a high pressure and temperature.

b) The steam is then piped to a turbine.

c) The high pressure steam impinges and expands across a number of sets of blades in the turbine. d)
The impulse and the thrust created rotate the turbine.

e) The steam is then condensed and pumped back into the boiler to repeat the cycle.

Stage 3 In the third stage, rotation of the turbine rotates the generator rotor to produce electricity
based of Faraday’s Principle on electromagnetic induction.
1.1 STEAM CYCLES (RANKING CYCLE)

The Rankine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle. Like other thermodynamic cycle, the maximum
efficiency of the Ranking cycle is given by calculating the maximum efficiency of the carnot cycle.

Process of the Rankine Cycle

There are four processes in the Rankine cycle, each changing the state of the working fluid. These
states are identified by number in the diagram above.

Process 3-4:
First, the working fluid (water) is enter the pump at state 3 at saturated liquid and it is pumped (ideally
isentropically) from low pressure to high (operating) pressure of boiler by a pump to the state 4.
During this isentropic compression water temperature is slightly increased. Pumping requires a power
input (for example, mechanical or electrical). The conservation of energy relation for pump is given as

Wpump = m (h4 - h3)

Process 4-1:

The high pressure compressed liquid enters a boiler at state 4 where it is heated at constant pressure
by an external heat source to become a saturated vapour at statel’which in turn superheated to state 1
through super heater. Common heat source for power plant systems are coal (or other chemical
energy), natural gas, or nuclear power. The conservation of energy relation for boiler is given as

Qin =m (h1 - h4)

Process 1 –2:

The superheated vapour enter the turbine at state 1 and expands through a turbine to generate power
output. Ideally, this expansion is isentropic. This decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapour
at state 2. The conservation of energy relation for turbine is given as

Wturbine = m (h1 –h2)

Process 2 –3:

The vapour then enters a condenser at state 2. At this state, steam is a saturated liquid-vapour mixture
where it is cooled to become a saturated liquid at state 3. This liquid then re-enters the pump and the
cycle is repeated. The conservation of energy relation for condenser is given as

Qout = m (h2 –h3)

The exposed Rankine cycle can also prevent vapour overheating, which reduces the amount of liquid
condensed after the expansion in the turbine.

Description

Rankine cycles describe the operation of steam heat engines commonly found in power generation
plants. In such vapour power plants, power is generated by alternatively vaporizing ng fluid (in many
cases water, although refrigerants such as ammonia in a Rankine cycle follows a closed loop and is re-
used constantly. Water vapour seen billowing from power plants is evaporating cooling water, not
working fluid. (NB: steam is invisible until it comes in contact with cool, saturated air, at which point
it condenses and forms the white billowy clouds seen leaving cooling towers).
1.2 Essentials of Steam Power Plant Equipment:

A steam power plant must have following equipment :

(a) A furnace to burn the fuel.
(b) Steam generator or boiler containing water. Heat generated in the furnace is utilized to convert
water into steam.
(c) Main power unit such as an engine or turbine to use the heat energy of steam and perform work.
(d) Piping system to convey steam and water.
In addition to the above equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and accessories depending
upon the availability of water, fuel and the service for which the plant is intended.
The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits :
(a) Feed water and steam flow circuit.
(b) Coal and ash circuit.
(c) Air and gas circuit.
(d) Cooling water circuit.
A steam power plant using steam as working substance works basically on Rankine cycle. Steam is
generated in a boiler, expanded in the prime mover and condensed in the condenser and fed into the
boiler again. The different types of systems and components used in steam power plant are as follows
(a) High pressure boiler
(b) Prime mover
(c) Condensers and cooling towers
(d) Coal handling system
(e) Ash and dust handling system
(f) Draught system
(g) Feed water purification plant
(h) Pumping system
(i) Air preheater, economizer, super heater, feed heaters.

1.3 FUEL HANDLING SYSTEMS / COAL HANDLING SYSTEM

Coal delivery equipment is one of the major components of plant cost. The various steps
involved in coal handling are as follows:

1. Coal delivery.
2. Unloading
3. Preparation
4. Transfer
5. Outdoor storage
6. Covered storage
7. Implant handling
8. Weighing and measuring
9. Feeding the coal into furnace

i) Coal delivery

The coal from supply points is delivered by ships or boats to

power stations situated near to sea or river whereas coal is supplied
by rail or trucks to the power stations which are situated away from
sea or river. The transportation of coal by trucks is used if the
railway facilities are not available.

ii) Unloading

The type of equipment to be used for unloading the coal

received at the power station depends on how coal is received at the power station. If coal delivered
by trucks, there is no need of unloading device as the trucks may dump the coal to the outdoor
storage. Coal is easily handled if the lift trucks with scoop are used. In case the coal is brought by
railways wagons, ships or boats, the unloading may be done by car shakes, rotary car dumpers, cranes,
grab buckets and coal accelerators. Rotary car dumpers although costly are quite efficient for
unloading closed wagons.

(iii) Preparation

When the coal delivered is in the form of big lumps and it is not of proper size, the
preparation (sizing) of coal can be achieved by crushers, breakers, sizers, driers and magnetic
separators.

iv)Transfer
After preparation coal is transferred to the dead storage by means of the following systems.
1. Belt conveyors
2. Screw conveyors
3. Bucket elevators
4. Grab bucket elevators
5. Skip hoists
6. Flight conveyor

Belt Conveyor

Figure shows a belt conveyor. It

consists of an endless belt moving
over a pair of end drums (rollers). At
some distance a supporting roller is provided at the centre. The belt is made up of rubber or
canvas. Belt conveyor is suitable for the transfer of coal over long distances. It is used in
medium and large power plants. The initial cost of system is not high and power consumption is
also low. The inclination at which coal can be successfully elevated by belt conveyor is about
20 .Average speed preferred than other types.

2. Screw Conveyor

It consists of an endless helicoid screw fitted to a shaft (figure). The screw while rotating in a
trough transfers the coal from feeding end to the discharge end.
This system is suitable, where coal is to be transferred over shorter distance and space
limitations [Link] initial cost of the consumption is high and there is considerable wear o
screw. Rotation of screw varies between 75-125 r.p.m

3. Bucket elevator
It consists of buckets fixed to a chain (figure). The chain moves over
two wheels. The coal is carried by the bucket from bottom and
discharged at the top.
4. Grab bucket elevator
It lifts and transfers coal on a single rail or track from one point to the other. The coal lifted by grab
buckets is transferred to overhead bunker or storage. This system requires less power for operation
and requires minimum maintenance.
The grab bucket conveyor can be used with crane or tower as shown in figure . Although the initial
cost of this system is high but operating cost is less.

Storage of Coal
It is desirable that sufficient quantity of coal should be [Link] of coal gives
protection against the interruption of coal supplies when there is delay in transportation of coal or
due to strike in coal mines. Also when the prices are low, the coal can be purchased and stored for
future use.
The amount of coal to be stored depends on the availability of space for storage,
transportation facilities, the amount of coal that will whether away and nearness to coal mines of the
power station. Usually coal required for one month operation of power plant is stored in case of
power stations is situated at longer distance from the collieries whereas coal need for about 15 days
is stored in case of power station situated near to collieries. Storage of coal for longer periods is not
advantageous because it blocks the capital and results in deterioration of the quality of coal.

1.4 FUEL FIRING:

Fuel is burnt in a confined space called furnace. In the furnace: Burners are used to burn powdered
(Pulverized) coal and liquid or gaseous fuels ; Grate with stoker require for solid fuels.
How to select proper type and size of furnace..??
It depends upon the following factors:

 Type of fuel to be burnt.

 Type of firing to be used.
 Amount of heat to be recovered.
 Amount of steam to be produced
 Pressure and temperature desired.
 Grate area required.
 Ash fusion temperature.
 Flame length.
 Amount of excess air to be used.

HAND FIRING

 This is a simple method - less capital investment and used for smaller plants. This method of
fuel firing is discontinuous process, and there is a limit to the size of furnace which can be
efficiently fired by this method.
 While burning coal the total area of air openings varies from 30 to 50% of the total grate
area.
 Hand fired grates are made up of cast iron.
  Fig. shows a hand fire grate furnace with a stationary fuel bed.
 The grate divides it into the furnace space in which - the fuel is fired and - an ash pit through
which the necessary air required for combustion is supplied.
 The grate is arranged horizontally and supports a stationary bed of burning fuel.
 The fuel is charged by hand through the fire door.
 In a hand fired furnace the bed is periodically shoveled on to grate, and is heated up by the
burning fuel and hot masonry of the furnace.

MECHANICAL FIRING (STOKERS)

Mechanical stokers are commonly used to feed solid fuels into the furnace in medium and large size
power [Link] various advantages of stoker firing are as follows :

 Large quantities of fuel can be fed into the furnace. Thus greater combustion capacity is
achieved
 Poorer grades of fuel can be burnt easily.
 Stoker save labour of handling ash and are self-cleaning.
 By using stokers better furnace conditions can be maintained by feeding coal at a uniform
rate.
 Stokers save coal and increase the efficiency of coal firing.

The main disadvantages of stokers are

 Their more costs of operation and repairing resulting from high furnace temperatures.

The working of various types of stokers is based on the following two principles:

1. Overfeed Principle
2. Under feed Principle

Overfeed supply of coal:

In case of overfeed stoker, coal is fed on to the grate above the point of air admission as shown in Fig.

The mechanics of combustion in overfeed stoker is

described below :
(1) The pressurized air coming from F.D. fan enters under
the bottom of the grate. The air passing through the grate is
heated by absorbing the heat from the ash and grate itself,
whereas the ash and grate are cooled. The hot air then
passes through a bed of incandescent coke. As the hot air
passes through incandescent coke, the O2 reacts with C to
form C02. Generally, for a fuel bed of 8 cm deep, all the
O2 in the air disappears in the incandescent region. The
gases leaving the incandescent region of fuel bed consist of
N2, CO2, CO, H2 and H2O.

(2) The raw coal is continuously supplied on the surface of the bed. Here it loses its volatile matter by
distillation.

(3) The gases leaving the upper surface of the fuel bed contain combustible volatile matter formed
from the raw fuel, N2, CO2, CO, H2 and H2O. Additional secondary air is supplied at top of the bed
to burn the remaining combustible gases (volatile matter + CO + H2). The secondary air is supplied at
a very high speed to create turbulence which is required for complete combustion of unburned gases.

(4) The burned gases entering boiler contain N2, CO2, 02 and H20 and some CO if the burning is
incomplete.

Under-feed supply of coal: In this type of stokers, the fuel and air move in the same direction.

The mechanism of combustion in under-feed stoker is described below :

(1) Air after passing through the holes in the grate as shown in Fig. meets the raw coal. The heat for
distillation comes by conduction from the mass of incandescent fuel bed which exists above the raw
coal. The air mixes with the formed volatile matter and passes through the ignition zone and then
enters into the region of incandescent coke.

(2) The reactions which take place in the incandescent zone of underfeed stoker are very much similar
as in the feed incandescent zone of overfeed stoker.

(3) The gases coming out of raw fuel bed pass through a region of incandescent ash on surface of the
fuel and finally discharged to the furnace with the constituents like over-feed stoker

(4) The supply of secondary air is required in this case as the gases coming out of fuel bed also
contain combustible matter.

.
Travelling Stoker:
The travelling stoker may be chain grate type or bar grate type. These two differ only in the details of
grate construction.

 The grate surface of a chain grate stoker is made of a series of cast iron links connected by
pins to form an endless chain.
 The grate surface of a bar grate stoker is made of a series of cast iron sections mounted on
carrier bars. The carrier bar rides on two endless type drive chains.
The air required for combustion is supplied through the air inlets situated below the grate. The
secondary air is supplied through the openings provided in the furnace wall above the grate as shown
in figure.

These grates are suitable only when fuel burns before it reaches the rear end of the furnace. The rate
of burning with this stoker is 200 to 300 kg per m² per hour when forced draught is used.

Spreader Type or Sprinkler Stoker:

This is a overfeed type stoker. The coal burns on this stoker remains partly in suspension and partly
on the grate.

The spreader stoker installation consists of variable feeding device, a mechanism for throwing the
coal uniformly on the grate and with suitable openings for admitting the air. Air supplied by F.D. fan
enters the furnace through the openings provided in the grate. A portion of this air is used to burn the
fuel on the bed and remaining air is used to burn volatile matter in suspension. Secondary supply of
air creates high turbulence and complete the combustion of volatile matter and suspended particles.

UNDERFEED STOKERS

 In underfeed stokers, the fuel is fed

from underneath the fire and moves
gradually upwards. The primary air
is supplied just below the level at
which combustion takes place.
 The fuel releases the volatile matter
as it passes through the initial fuel
bed from bottom. The released
volatile matter mixes with fresh air
and enters into the combustion
zone.
 Therefore, the entire combustion
process is highly efficient and gives
high rates of heat release.
 The underfeed stokers fall into two
main groups, the single retort and multiple retort stokers

 The fuel is placed in large hopper on the front of the furnace, and then it is further fed by
reciprocating ram or screw conveyor into the bottom of the horizontal trough.
 The air is supplied through the tuyeres provided along the uppe edge of the grate.
 The ash and clinkers are collected on the ash plate provided with dumping arrangement.
 The coal feeding capacity of a single retort stoker varies from 100 to 2000 kg per hour.
  The multi retort stoker consists of alternate retorts for pushing coal and tuyere boxes for
supplying air.
 The coal falling from the hopper is push by reciprocating ram during the inward stroke.
 The ash is collected at the another end as shown in figure.
 The amount of coal and air pressure in main wind box is varied to meet the variable load
demand.
 The number of retorts may vary from 2 to 20 with capacity from 300 to 2000 kg per hr per
retort.

PULVERIZED COAL FIRING

In pulverized fuel firing system, the coal is powdered and then charged into the combustion chamber
with the help of hot air current. The main purpose of pulverizing coal is to increase the surface area of
exposure to the combustion process, which results in faster and efficient combustion. In burning the
pulverized coal, the secondary air required for the complete combustion of fuel is supplied separately
to the combustion chamber. The resulting turbulence in the combustion chamber helps for uniform
mixing of fuel and air. The air required to carry the pulverized coal and dry it before entering the
combustion chamber is termed the Priming Air, and the air supplied separately for complete
combustion is termed the Secondary Air. Pulverized coal firing systems are universally adopted far
large scale power plants.

The choice of pulverized fuel firing system depends upon the size of the boiler unit, type of coal
available, cost of coal, type of load (i.e., fluctuating or constant), the load factor and availability of
trained personnel. Generally such systems are not economical for small capacity thermal power plants

Advantages of using pulverised coal

1) A wide variety of low grade fuels (coal) can be used and burnt easily.
2) Greater surface area is exposed for combustion and hence combustion is faster and efficient.
3) The system is free from clinker and slagging troubles.
4) Combustion control is easy, and hence the system gives fast response to load changes.
5) Preheated secondary air (up to 350°C) can be used, resulting in rapid flame propagation and faster
heat supply to the boiler.
6) The pulverizing system can be maintained or repaired without affecting the combustion process.
7) It has a very high rate of heat release.
8) Banking losses (un burnt fuel with ash) are lower, as compared to stoker firing.
9) The boilers can be started from cold very rapidly.
10) Usually combustion will be smokeless.

Disadvantages of Pulverised system

1) The capital investment of the system is high as it requires additional equipments (for pulverizing,
and handling).
2) Its operation and maintenance costs are very high.
3) It produces fly-ash/fine dust and needs costly fly-ash removal equipments like electrostatic
precipitators.
4) The chances of explosion are high as coal burns like a gas.
5) The storage of powdered coal requires special attention as it has possibilities of fire hazards.
6) Skilled workers are required for safe-operation and maintenance.
7) Air pollution takes place by the emission of fine particles of grit and dirt.
8) The removal of liquid slag formed from low fusion temperature ash requires special handling
equipments.

Pulverised Fuel Burning System

There are two common methods of pulverized fuel burning systems
1. Unit system
2. Central or Bin system

1. Unit System
In this system, each burner and a pulveriser constitute a unit. It consists of a raw coal bunker, a feeder,
pulverizing mill, separator, and the burner. In operation, the raw coal is supplied to the bunker, where
it is crushed to the required sizes, the crushed coal is then fed to the pulverizing mill through the
feeder at the required rate, depending upon the combustion requirements. Hot gases are passed
through the feeder to dry the coal. The dried coal is pulverised in the mill and it is carried to the
burner. An induced draft fan is used at the pulverizer to carry the powdered coal to the burner. A
separator is provided to separate the grains of bigger size from the powder and returned to the
pulveriser for further crushing.

Central or Bin System

Fig. shows schematic arrangement and the principle of operation of a central, or bin system for
burning pulverised coal. The crushed raw coal is dried using hot air or flue gases and fed to the
pulveriser. The pulverised coal from the pulverizing mill is passed to the cyclone separator where
over-sized particles are separated and fed back to the mill.
The pulverised coal is then transferred from the separator to the central bunker (bin) through a
conveyer system. The pressurized air from the forced draft fan, supplies the stored coal to the burner.
This air not only carries the fuel, but also acts as the primary air for the combustion of the fuel.
Secondary air is supplied to the burner separately to assist in the complete combustion.

1.5 BOILERS

Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by combustion of fuel is transferred
to water, which vaporizes and gets converted into steam at the desired temperature and pressure.

Classification of boilers

The steam boilers are classified according to the following conditions

1. According to the relative position of water and hot gases

a. Fire tube boiler [Cochran Boiler]

b. Water tube boiler [ Babcock –Wilcox Boiler]

2. According to the axis of shell

a. Vertical boiler [Cochran Boiler]

b. Horizontal boiler [Lancashire Boiler]

3. According to the position of boiler

a. Internally fired boiler [ all fire tube boilers] [Cochran Boilers]

b. Externally fired boiler [ all water tube boilers] [Babcock and Wilcox Boilers]

4. According to the pressure developed

a. Low pressure boiler [Pressure less than 80 bar]

b. High pressure boiler [Pressure greater than 80 bar]

5. According to the method of water circulation

a. Natural circulation [all low pressure boilers] [ Cochran Boiler]

b. Forced circulation [all high pressure boilers] [ LaMont Boiler]

6. According to the use of the boiler

a. Stationary boiler [Cochran Boiler]

b. Mobile boiler [Locomotive Boiler]

7. According to the number of drums

a. Single Drum

b. Multi Drum

8. According to the nature of draught

a. Natural Draught

b. Forced Draught
1.6 WATER TUBE BOILERS: BABCOCK AND WILCOX BOILER

It is a water tube boiler used in steam power plants. In this, water is circulated inside the tubes and hot
gases flow over the tubes.

Description:

The Babcock and Wilcox boiler consists of

1. Steam and water drum (Boiler shell)

2. Water tubes

3. Uptake –header and down –comer

4. Grate

5. Furnace

6. Baffles

7. Superheater

8. Mud box

9. Inspection doors

10. Damper

1. Steam and Water drum (Boiler Shell)

One half of the drum which is horizontal is filled up with water and steam remains on the other half. It
is about 8 metres in length and 2 metres in diameter.

2. Water tubes

Water tubes are placed between the drum and the furnace in an inclined position (at an angle of 100 to
150) to promote water circulation. These tubes are connected to the uptake –header and the down –
comer as shown.

3. Uptake –Header and Down –comer (or Down take –Header)

The drum is connected at one end

to the uptake –header by short
tubes and at the other end to the
down –comer by long tubes.

Figure: Babcock and Wilcox

boiler

4. Grate:

Coal is fed to the grate through the

fire door.

5. Furnace:

Furnace is kept below the uptake –

header.

6. Baffles:

The fire –brick baffles, two in

number, are provided to deflect the
hot flue gases.

7. Superheater:

The boiler is fitted with a superheater tube which is placed just under the drum and above the water
tubes.

8. Mud box:

Mud box is provided at the bottom end of the down –comer. The mud or sediments in the water are
collected in the mud box and it is blown –off time by means of a blow –off cock

9. Inspection doors:

10. Inspection doors are provided for cleaning and inspection of the boiler.

Working principle:

Coal is fed to grate through the fire door and is burnt.

Flow of flue gases:

The hot flue gases rise up ward and pass across the left –side portion of the water tubes. The baffles
deflect the flue gases and hence the flue gases travel in a zig –zag manner (i.e., the hot gases are
deflected by the baffles to move in the upward direction, then downward and again in the upward
direction) over the water tubes and along the superheater. The flue gases finally escape to the
atmosphere through the chimney.

A continuous circulation of water from the drum to the water tubes and water tubes to the drum is thus
maintained. The circulation of water is maintained by convective currents and is known as ‚natural
circulation‛.

Superheating:

Steam is taken from the steam space of the drum through a tube to the superheater. Steam is
superheated in the superheater, as it receives additional heat.

A damper is fitted as shown regulate the flue gas outlet and hence the draught.

The boiler is fitted with necessary mountings. Pressure gauge and water level indicator are mounted
on the boiler at its left end. Steam safety valve and stop valve are mounted on the top of the drum.
Blow –off cock is provided for the periodical removal of mud and sediments collected in the mud
box.

1.7 Cochran Boiler

Cochran Boiler is a multi-tubular vertical fire tube boiler having a number of horizontal fire tubes. It
is the modification of a simple vertical boiler where the heating surface has been increased by means
of a number of fire tubes. The efficiency of this boiler is much better than the simple vertical boiler.

Parts of Cochran Boiler:

A Cochran Boiler is consisted of following parts:

1. Shell
2. Grate
3. Combustion Chamber
4. Fire tubes
5. Fire hole
6. Firebox (Furnace)
7. Chimney
8. Man Hole
9. Flue pipe
 10. Fire Brick Lining
11. Feed Check Valve
12. Blow Off Valve
13. Ash Pit
14. Smoke Box Door
15. Anti Priming Pipe
16. Crown
17. Pressure Gauge
18. Safety Valve
19. Water Level Indicator
20. Water Level Gauge
21. Fusible Plug
22. Stop Valve

Working Principle of Cochran Boiler:

The Cochran boiler works as same as other fire tube boiler.

First, The coal is placed at the grate through the fire hole.

Then the air is entering into the combustion chamber through the atmosphere and fuel
is sparked through fire hole.

Then flue gases start flowing into the hemispherical dome-shaped combustion chamber. This flue
gases further moves into the fire pipes.

Heat is exchanged from flue gases to the water into the fire tubes.

The steam produce collected into the upper side of the shell and taken out by when the required
pressure generated.

The flue gases now send to the chimney through a firebox where it leaves into the atmosphere.

Now, this process repeats and runs continuously. The steam generates used into the small industrial
processed.
Applications of Cochran Boiler:

The application of Cochran boiler are:

 Variety of process applications industries.

 Chemical processing divisions.
 Pulp and Paper manufacturing plants.
 Refining units.

Besides, they are frequently employed in power generation plants where large quantities of steam
(ranging up to 500 kg/s) having high pressures i.e. approximately 16 megapascals (160 bar) and high
temperatures reaching up to 550 °C are generally required.

Features of Cochran boiler:

These are some features of Cochran Boiler:

 In the Cochran boiler, any type of fuel can be used.

 It is best suitable for small capacity requirements.
 It gives about 70% thermal efficiency with coal firing and about 75% thermal efficiency with
oil firing.
 The ratio of the grate area to the heating surface area varies from 10: 1 to 25:1.

Advantages of Cochran Boiler:

The advantages of Cochran Boiler are following:

 Low floor area required.

 Low initialization cost.
 It is easy to operate.
 Transport from one place to another is very easy.
 It has a higher volume to area ratio.

Disadvantages of Cochran Boiler:

There are some disadvantages of Cochran Boiler and those are:

 Low steam generation rate.

 Limited pressure handles capacity.
 It is difficult to inspect and maintain.

1.8 HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The heated or vaporized fluid exits
the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications.

In all modern power plants, high pressure boilers (> 100 bar) are universally used as they offer the
following advantages. In order to obtain efficient operation and high capacity, forced circulation of
water through boiler tubes is found helpful.

1. The efficiency and the capacity of the plant can be increased as reduced quantity of steam is
required for the same power generation if high pressure steam is used.

2. The forced circulation of water through boiler tubes provides freedom in the arrangement of
furnace and water walls, in addition to the reduction in the heat exchange area.

3. The tendency of scale formation is reduced due to high velocity of water.

4. The danger of overheating is reduced as all the parts are uniformly heated.
5. The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces the possibility of
gas and air leakages.

Superheater operation is similar to that of the coils on an air conditioning unit, although for a different
purpose. The steam piping is directed through the flue gas path in the boiler furnace. The temperature
in this area is typically between 1,300–1,600 degrees Celsius. While the temperature of the steam in
the superheater rises, the pressure of the steam does not. Almost all the steam superheater systems are
designed to remove droplets entrained in the steam to prevent damage to the turbine blading and
associated piping.

LA-MONT BOILER

It is a forced circulation- water tube boiler which was first introduced in 1925 by LaMont.

The feed water from hot well is supplied to a storage and separating drum (boiler) through the
economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feed water passing through the economizer

The feed water from hot well is supplied to a storage and separating drum (boiler) through the
economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feed water passing through the economizer. A
pump circulates the water at a rate 8 to 10 times the mass of steam evaporated. This water is
circulated through the evaporator tubes and the part of the vapour is separated in the separator drum.
The large quantity of water circulated (10 times that of evaporation) prevents the tubes from being
overheated.

The centrifugal pump delivers the water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 bar above the drum
pressure. The distribution headers distribute the water through the nozzle into the evaporator. The
steam separated in the boiler is further passed through the super-heater.

To secure a uniform flow of feed water through each of the parallel boiler circuits a choke is fitted
entrance to each circuit. These boilers have been built to generate 45 to 50 tons of superheated steam
at a pressure of 120 bar and temperature of 500°C.
Important Components

1. Steam separating drum – The feed water from the hot well is stored in the drum. The steam is
separated from water in the drum and the steam is usually collected at the top of the drum.

2. Circulating pump – Water from the steam separating drum is drawn by a circulating pump and
it circulates water through the evaporator tubes. Pump circulates water at a rate of 8-10 times the mass
of steam evaporated. Forced circulation is necessary to prevent the overheating of tubes.

3. Distribution header – The distribution header distributes the water through the nozzle into the
evaporator.

4. Radiant evaporator – Water from the drum first enters the radiant evaporator through the pump
and header. The water is heated by the radiation heat from the combustion chamber. In radiant
evaporator, the hot flue gases do not pass over the water tubes.

5. Convective evaporator – The mixture of water and steam coming out from the radiant
evaporator enters the convective evaporator tubes. The hot flue gases passing over the evaporator
tubes transfer a large portion of heat to the water by convection. Thus, water becomes steam and the
steam enters to the steam separating drum.

6. Superheater – The steam from the steam separating drum enters the superheater tubes where it
is superheated by the hot flue gases passing over them. The superheated steam then enters the steam
turbine to develop power.

7. Economiser – The waste hot flue gases pass through the economiser where feed water is pre-
heated. By pre-heating the feed water, the amount of fuel required to convert water into steam is
reduced.

8. Air pre-heater – The hot flue gases then passes through the air pre-heater where the air required
for combustion is pre-heated.

Benson Boiler (Supercritical Boiler)

Benson Boiler (Supercritical Boiler)

The main difficulty experienced in the La Mont boiler is the formation and attachment of bubbles on
the inner surfaces of the heating tubes.

1.9 BENSON BOILER (SUPERCRITICAL BOILER)

The main difficulty experienced in the La Mont boiler is the formation and attachment of bubbles on
the inner surfaces of the heating tubes. The attached bubbles reduce the heat flow and steam
generation as it offers higher thermal resistance compared to water film. Benson of siemens- West
Germany in 1922 argued that if the boiler pressure was raised to critical pressure (225 atm.), the steam
and water would have the same density and therefore the danger of bubble formation can be
completely removed.

Important Components

1. Economiser – The feed water from the well passes through the economiser where it is pre-heated
by the pre-heat of exhaust hot flue gases.

2. Radiant evaporator – The feed water after circulation through the economiser flows through the
radiant evaporator tubes. Water is heated up by the radiation heat from the combustion chamber.
Here, part of the water is converted to steam directly.

3. Convective evaporator – The mixture of water and steam coming out from the radiant evaporator
enters the convective evaporator tubes. The hot flue gases passing over the evaporator tubes transfer a
large portion of heat to the water by convection. Thus, water becomes steam in the convective
evaporator.

4. Superheater – The steam from the convective evaporator enters the superheater tubes where it is
superheated by the hot flue gases passing over them. The superheated steam then enters the steam
turbine to develop power.

5. Air pre-heater – The hot flue gases then passes through the air pre-heater where the air required for
combustion is pre-heated.

1.10 ONCE THROUGH BOILERS

The once through boiler works on the principle of critical point of water. In Rankine cycle, as the
pressure increases the saturation temperature equivalent to that pressure also increases. At the
pressure of 22.06 MPa and 373.946oC, the water gets directly converted in to steam. Thus, as we go
on increasing the pressure, the amount of latent heat required reduces and at critical point, there is no
latent heat required as the water directly evaporates into steam. The once through boilers work on the
pressure above the critical point pressure of water and thus are also called as “supercritical boilers”.

Figure above shows the Rankine Cycle on temperature-entropy diagram for supercritical
boilers.

The basic processes that take place in once through boilers are
1-2: Condensate Extraction Pump (CEP) work.

2-2s: Regeneration

2s-3: Boiler superheating

3-4: High Pressure Turbine (HPT) expansion

4-5: Reheating

5-6: Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IPT) and Low Pressure Turbine (LPT) expansion

6-1: Condenser heat rejection.

The once through boilers do not have any boiler drum as there will be no formation of water+ steam
mixture available for separation. Instead of the drum, these boilers employ separating vessels. The
feed water fed to the boiler is preheated using regeneration to raise the feed water temperature and
harness the heat of the extraction steam. This high pressure water (pressure and temperature above
critical point) then enters the boiler where it directly gets converted into superheated steam. This
superheated steam is then expanded in the high pressure turbine. After the expansion of the steam in
HPT, the steam is fed back to the boiler for reheating to achieve the desired quality of steam.

The reheated steam is then expanded over the IPT and LPT and the steam then get converted to
condensate. This cycle is repeated.

There are some advantages of once through boilers which are listed below,

1. The heat transfer rates are considerably large compared to sub-critical boilers.
2. The pressure level is more stable due to less heat capacity of the generator and therefore gives
better response.
3. High thermal efficiency of power stations can be achieved.
4. The problems of erosion and corrosion are minimized in once through boilers as two phased
mixtures do not exist.
5. The turbo generators connected to super-critical boilers can generate peak loads by changing
the pressure of operation.
6. Easy to operate, simple and adaptable to load fluctuations.

1.11 ECONOMIZER:

Function:

An economizer pre –heats (raise the temperature) the feed water by the exhaust flue gases. This pre –
heated water is supplied to the boiler from the economizer.
Location:

An economizer is placed in the path of the flue gases in between the boiler and the air pre – heater or
chimney.

Construction:

An economizer used in modern high pressure boilers is shown by a line sketch. It consists of a series
of vertical tubes. These tubes are hydraulically pressed into the top and bottom headers. The bottom
header is connected to feed pump. Top header is connected to the water space of the boiler. It is
provided with a safety valve which opens when water pressure exceeds a certain limit. To keep the
surface of the tubes clean from soot and ash deposits, scrapers are provided in the tubes. These
scrapers are slowly moved up and down to clean the surfaces of the tubes. The action of adjacent pairs
of scraper is in opposite direction. i.e., when one scraper moves up, the other moves down.

Economizers may be parallel or counter-flow types. When the gas flow and water flow are in the
same direction, it is called parallel flow economizer. In counter-flow, the gas flow and water flow are
in opposite direction.

Working

The feed water is pumped to the bottom header and this water is carried to the top header through a
number of vertical tubes. Hot flue gases are allowed to pass over the external surface of the tubes. The
feed water which flows upward in the tubes is thus heated by the flue gases. This pre-heated water is
supplied to the boiler.

Advantages

1. Feed water to the boiler is supplied at high temperature. Hence heat required in the boiler is less.
Thus fuel consumption is less.

2. Thermal efficiency of the plant is increased.

3. Life of boiler is increased.

4. Loss of heat in flue gases is reduced.

5. Steaming capacity is increased.

1.12 AIR PRE-HEATER

Function

Air pre-heater pre-heats (increases the temperature) the air supply to the furnace with the help of hot
the gases.

Location

It is installed between the economizer and the chimney

Construction

A tubular type air pre-heater is shown in figure. It consists of a large number of tubes. Flue gases pass
through the tube. Air flows over the tubes. Baffles are provided to pass the air number of times over
the tubes. A soot hopper is provided at the bottom to collect the soot.

Working

Hot flue gases pass through the tubes of air pre-heater after leaving the boiler or economizer.
Atmospheric air is allowed to pass over these tubes. Air and flue gases flow in opposite directions.
Baffles are provided in the air pre-heater and the air passes number of times over the tubes. Heat is
absorbed by the air from the flue gases. This pre-heater air is supplied to the furnace to air
combustion.

Advantages

1. Boiler efficiency is increased.

2. Evaporative rate is increased.

3. Combustion is accelerated with less soot, smoke and ash.

4. Low grade and inferior quality fuels can be used.

1.13 SUPER HEATER

Function

It superheats the steam generated by the boiler and increases the temperature steam above saturation
temperature at constant pressure.

Location
Superheaters are placed in the path of flue gases to recover some of their heat. In bigger installations,
the superheaters are placed in an independently fired furnace. Such superheaters are called separately
fired or portable superheaters.

Construction

There are many types of superheaters. A combination type of radiant and convective superheater is
shown in figure. Both these superheaters are arranged in series in the path of flue gases. Radiant
superheater receives heat from the burning fuel by radiation process. Convective superheater is placed
adjacent to the furnace wall in the path of flue gases. It receives heat by convection.

Working

Steam stop valve is opened. The steam (wet or dry) from the evaporator drum is passed through the
superheater tubes. First the steam is passed through the radiant superheater and then to the convective
superheater. The steam is heated when it passes through these superheaters and converted into
superheated steam. This superheated steam is supplied to the turbine through a valve.

Applications

This type of superheaters are used in modern high pressure boilers.

Advantages of superheated steam (super heaters)

1. Work output is increased for the same quantity of steam.

Loss due to condensation of steam in the steam engine and is the steam mains is minimized.

3. Capacity of the plant is increased.

4. Thermal efficiency is increased since the temperature of superheated steam is high.

1.14 EVAPORATORS
1.15 ASH HANDLING SYSTEM:

Boilers burning pulverized coal (PC) have bottom furnaces. The large ash particles are collected
under the furnace in a water-filled ash hopper, Fly ash is collected in dust collectors with either an
electrostatic precipitator or a baghouse. A PC boiler generates approximately 80% fly ash and 20%
bottom ash. Ash must be collected and transported from various points of the plants as shown in
figure. Pyrites, which are the rejects from the pulverizers, are disposed of with the bottom ash system.
Three major factors should be considered for ash disposal systems.

1. Plant site

2. Fuel source

3. Environmental regulation

Needs for water and land are important considerations for many ash handling systems. Ash quantities
to be disposed of depend on the king of fuel source. Ash storage and disposal sites are guided by
environmental regulations.

1 Ash Handling Equipment:

Mechanical means are required for the disposal of ash. The handling equipment should perform the
following functions: 1. Capital investment, operating and maintenance charges of the equipment
should be low. 2. It should be able to handle large quantities of ash. 3. Clinkers, shoot, dust etc. create
[Link] equipment should be able to handle them smoothly.4. The equipment used should
remove the ash from the furnace, load it to the conveying system to deliver the ash to dumping site or
storage and finally it should have means to dispose of the stored ash. 5. The equipment should be
corrosion and wear resistant.

Hydraulic System

In this system, ash from the furnace grate falls into a system of water possessing high velocity and is
carried to the sumps. It is generally used in large power plants. Hydraulic system is of two types,
namely, low pressure hydraulic system used for intermittent ash disposal figure. Figure shows
hydraulic system.

Water-Jetting System

Water jetting of ash is shown in figure. In this method a low pressure jet of water coming out of
quenching nozzle is used to cool the ash. The ash falls into trough and is then removed.

Pneumatic System

In this system ash from the boiler furnace outlet falls into a crusher where a lager ash particles are
crushed to small sizes. The ash is then carried by a high velocity air or steam to the point of delivery.
Air leaving the ash separator is passed through filter to remove dust etc. So that the exhauster handles
clean air which will protect the blades of the exhauster.
Mechanical system

Figure shows a mechanical ash handling system.

In this system ash cooled by water seal falls on the belt conveyor and is carried out continuously to
the bunker.

1.16 DRAUGHT

Draught is defined as the difference between absolute gas pressure at any point in a gas flow passage
and the ambient (same elevation) atmospheric pressure. . Draught is achieved by small pressure
difference which causes the flow of air or gas to take place. It is measured in milimetre (mm) or
water.

The purpose of draught is as follows:

i) To supply required amount of air to the furnace for the combustion of fuel

The amount of fuel that can be burnt per square root of grate area depends upon the quantity of air
circulated through fuel bed.

To remove the gaseous products of combustion.

Classification of DRAUGHT

Artificial Draught

If the draught is produced by steam jet or fan it is known as artificial draught

Steam jet Draught:

It employs steam to produce the draught

Mechanical draught

It employs fan or blowers to produce the draught.

Induced draught

The flue is drawn (sucked) through the system by a fan or steam jet

Forced draught

The air is forced into system by a blower or steam jet.

Natural Draught:

Natural draught system employs a tall chimney as shown in figure. The chimney is a vertical tubular
masonry structure or reinforced concrete. It is constructed for enclosing a column of exhaust gases to
produce the draught. It discharges the gases high enough to prevent air pollution. The draught is
produced by this tall chimney due to temperature difference of hot gases in the chimney and cold
external air outside the chimney.

Artificial Draught
It has been seen that the draught produced by chimney is affected by the atmospheric conditions. It
has no flexibility, poor efficiency and tall chimney is required. In most of the modern power plants,
the draught used must be independence of atmospheric condition, and it must have greater flexibility
(control) to take the fluctuating loads on the plant.

Today’srgelasteam power plants requiring 20 thousand tons of steam per hour would be impossible to
run without the aid of draft fans. A chimney of an reasonable height would be incapable of developing
enough draft to remove the tremendous volume of air and gases (400 × 10 3 m3 to 800 × 103 m3 per
minutes). The further advantage of fans is to reduce the height of the chimney needed.

The draught required in actual power plant is sufficiently high (300 mm of water) and to meet high
draught requirements, some other system must be used, known as artificial draught. The artificial
draught is produced by a fan and it is known as fan (mechanical) draught. Mechanical draught is
preferred for central power stations.

Forced Draught

In a forced draught system, a blower is installed near the base of the boiler and air is forced to pass
through the furnace, flues, economizer, air-preheater and to the stack.

This draught system is known as positive draught system or forced draught system because the
pressure and air is forced to flow through the system.

The arrangement of the system is shown in figure. A stack or chimney is also in this system as shown
in figure but its function is to discharge gases high in the atmosphere to prevent the contamination. It
is not much significant for producing draught therefore height of the chimney may not be very much

Induced Draught:

In this system, the blower is located near the base of the chimney instead of near the grate. The air is
sucked in the system by reducing the pressure through the system below atmosphere. The induced
draught fan sucks the burned gases from the furnace and the pressure inside the furnace is reduced
below atmosphere and induces the atmospheric air to flow through the furnace. The action of the
induced draught is similar to the action of the chimney. The draught produced is independent of the
temperature of the hot gases therefore the gases may be discharged as cold as possible after
recovering as much heat as possible in air-preheater and economizer.
Balanced Draught:

It is always preferable to use a combination of forced draught and induced draught instead of forced
or induced draught alone. If the forced draught is used alone, then the furnace cannot be opened either
for firing or inspection because the high pressure air inside the furnace will try to blow out suddenly
and there is every chance of blowing out the fire completely and furnace stops.

If the induced draught is used alone, then also furnace cannot be opened either for firing or inspection
because the cold air will try to rush into the furnace as the pressure inside the furnace is below
atmospheric pressure. This reduces the effective draught and dilutes the combustion.

1.17 FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION

Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) is a combustion technology used to burn solid fuels. A bed of solid
particles is said to be fluidized when the pressurized fluid (liquid or gas) is passed through the
medium and causes the solid particles to behave like a fluid under certain conditions. Fluidization
causes the transformation of the state of solid particles from static to dynamic.

Fluidized Bed Combustion is the ignition of a solid fuel under conditions mentioned above. At
Thermodyne, We design and manufacture Boilers with Bubbling Fluidized Bed Combustion (BFBC)
and Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFBC). Bubbling FBC is used for Fuels with lower
heating values such as Rice Husk.

Under such sort, the main factors leading to fluidization are as follows:

Solid Fuel Particle Size

Air Fuel Mixture

Fluidized Bed Combustion takes place when the forced draught fan supplies air to the Furnace of the
Boiler. In the furnace, sand is (used for Bubbling phenomenon) placed on the Bed and is heated
before fluidization, the air enters the bed from the nozzles fitted on the Furnace Bed. And above the
nozzles; the sand opposes the upward motion of the air. But at sufficient velocities, when the pressure
applied by the air becomes equal to the weight of the sand, fluidization of the sand occurs. Now the
fuel supplied by fuel conveyor is fed to the preheated bubbling sand and gets combusted away. This
phenomenon also ensures complete combustion of the Fuel. The heat released during combustion
heats up the surrounding boiler tubes and generates steam. The major advantages of Bubbling
Fluidized Bed Combustion are the enhanced thermal efficiency, easy ash removal.

Another type is the Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion; it is applied to fuels with higher heating
values such as Petcoke. In this, the unburned fuel is fed again to the furnace with the help of a Forced
Draft fan and ducts, ensuring enhanced combustion and higher heating and provides excellent fuel
flexibility. Also, the fluidizing velocity of Air in CFBC is comparatively higher than that of BFBC.
One of the major drawbacks is the power consumption. The motors installed in the Forced Draught
Fan consume more power than the one installed in the same capacity Boiler’s ( wood/coal fired)
Forced Draft Fan, because of elevated levels of draught requirement to create fluidization.
1.18 DUST COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL

In coal fed furnaces the products of combustion contain particles of solid matter floating in
suspension. This may be smoke or dust. The production of smoke indicates that combustion
conditions are faulty and amount of smoke produced can be reduced by improving the furnace
design. Smoke is produced due to the incomplete combustion of fuels, smoke particles are less than
10μ in size. The disposal of smoke to the atmosphere is not desirable due to the following
reasons: 1)A smoky atmosphere is less healthful than smoke free air. 2)Smoke is produced due to
incomplete combustion of coal. This will create a big economic loss due to loss of heating value
of coal.3)In a smoky atmosphere lower standards of cleanliness are prevalent. Buildings,
clothings, furniture, etc., becomes dirty due to smoke. Smoke corrodes the metals ' darkens the
paints.

Types of Dust collectors Dust collectors can be classified into two broad categories: 1. Mechanical
Dust Collectors. 2. Electrical Dust Collectors.

Mechanical dust collectors - they are subdivided into Dry type and wet type In wet type collectors,
also known as scrubbers, water sprays are used to wash dust from the flue gases.

(A) Dry type mechanical dust collectors Gravitational Separators: - The basic principles of
these mechanical dust collectors are shown in fig (a.) by increasing the cross-sectional area of
duct through which dust laden gases are passing, the velocity of gases is reduced and causes heavier
dust particles to fall down. Changing the direction of flow (Fig. (b)) of flue gases causes the
heavier particles to settle out. Sometime baffles are provided as shown in Fig (c) to separate the
heavier particles.

(B) Wet type mechanical dust collectors (scrubber)

It is similar to a mechanical ash collector but has a flowing water film on its inner
wails. Due to this film, collected ash is removed more rapidly from the apparatus to the bin
and there is less possibility for secondary capture of collected dust particles by the gas flow. The
degree of ash collection in scrubbers varies from 0.82 to 0.90. The dust laden gas enters
through the inlet pipe.

Electrostatic Premeditators (ESP)

It has two sets of electrodes, insulated from each other, that maintain an electrostatic field
between them at high voltage The flue gases are made to pass between these two set of
electrodes. The electric 'field ionizes the dust particles that pass through it attracting them to the
electrode of opposite charge. The other electrode is maintained at a negative potential of 30,000 to
60,000 volts. The dust particles are removed from the collecting electrode by rapping the
electrode periodically. The electrostatic precipitator is costly but has low maintenance cost and is
frequently employed with pulverized coal fired power stations for its effectiveness on very fine ash
particles and is superior to that of any other type.